Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

Anacondas are solitary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-move-into-towns-to-avoid-predators-only-to-be-killed-by-humans/">predators</a>. They spend much of their time alone, submerged in the murky waters of rivers and swamps in South America, where they hunt for prey such as fish, birds, mammals, and even caimans.



Recent research from <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Queensland</a> has unearthed a surprising truth: anacondas are more diverse than meets the eye.



The green anaconda reigned supreme as the sole king (or queen) of its color class. But hidden within this seemingly unified group lurked a previously unknown species: the northern green anaconda.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invitation-to-explore-anacondas">Invitation to explore anacondas</h2>



"Our team received a rare invitation from the Waorani people to explore the region and collect samples from a population of anacondas, rumoured to be the largest in existence," explained Professor Bryan Fry.&nbsp;



"The indigenous hunters took us into the jungle on a 10-day expedition to search for these snakes, which they consider sacred. We paddled canoes down the river system and were lucky enough to find several anacondas lurking in the shallows, lying in wait for prey.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-differences">Genetic differences</h2>



The research team then explored the genetic differences between various types of green and yellow anacondas. The goal was to understand how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dipsadine-snakes-have-skulls-that-evolve-to-fit-their-needs/">snakes</a> are related to each other and how diverse they are genetically.



Previously, yellow anacondas were classified into three separate species based on physical appearance and where they live. However, this study suggests these might not be truly distinct groups based on their genes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-green-anaconda-nbsp">New green anaconda&nbsp;</h2>



While studying the green anaconda's genes, the scientists found two distinct groups within what was previously thought to be one species. These groups live in different parts of South America, with one group in the north and the other in the south. Interestingly, both types were found in French Guiana, suggesting it might be an area where they meet.



Even though they look almost identical, the genetic differences between the green anaconda groups are much larger than those seen in different types of yellow anacondas. Based on their genes, location, and level of difference, the researchers have classified the northern group as a new species - the northern green anaconda.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-types-of-scales"> Many types of scales</h2>



The northern green anaconda is covered in many different types of scales, each with its own location and function. On its underside, from the neck to the tail, it has 247-249 ventral scales. Underneath its tail are 67-68 subcaudal scales, which help identify the specific characteristics of this snake species. Around the middle of its body, it has 65 dorsal scales. These contribute to the overall structure of the snake.



The snake's back is patterned with 80-90 blotches, which help it camouflage itself in its environment. Additionally, 10-20 of these blotches touch or overlap with each other. On its upper lip, the snake has 14-15 supralabial scales, which might be involved in sensing its surroundings. The lower lip has 16-20 infralabial scales, also likely playing a role in its senses.



Below each eye, there are 2-3 infraocular scales, contributing to the unique shape of its face. Around each eye, there are 8-9 scales, showing the detailed pattern of scales in this area. Finally, near its nostrils, the snake has 4-5 loreal scales and 1-2 supraocular scales, further detailing its facial scale pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-anaconda-taxonomy">Rethinking anaconda taxonomy</h2>



The experts also examined the classification of three groups of yellow anacondas: Eunectes notaeus, Eunectes deschauenseei, and Eunectes beniensis. They looked at the snakes' genes and found that the groups aren't as distinct as previously thought.&nbsp;



While E. deschauenseei and E. beniensis have some unique features, their genes are very similar to E. notaeus. This suggests they might not be separate species but rather variations of the same species.



The study proposes that all three groups should be combined into one species, E. notaeus. This challenges the current classification based on location and physical appearance. However, the researchers acknowledge the need for further studies using more genetic data and examining snakes from a wider range of locations.



One possibility is that E. beniensis and E. deschauenseei are simply E. notaeus that live in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-forests-are-losing-their-ability-to-recover/">forests</a> and have adapted to that environment, explaining their darker color and resemblance to another snake species. Until more research is done, the study suggests grouping these snakes together under E. notaeus and carefully considering future classification based on additional evidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications</h2>



The findings have crucial implications for conservation strategies. Recognizing the northern green anaconda as a distinct species highlights the need for targeted conservation efforts to protect it.&nbsp;Similarly, the potential reclassification of yellow anacondas requires a reassessment of conservation priorities and strategies for these snakes.



The findings emphasize the importance of habitat protection, not only for the anacondas themselves but also for the broader <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammal-defaunation-is-wiping-out-valuable-ecosystem-services/">ecosystem services</a> these top predators provide, such as controlling prey populations.



Their vulnerability to habitat degradation, conflict with humans, and impacts on their prey base necessitates urgent conservation measures to mitigate these threats.



Ultimately, the study serves as a wake-up call. It highlights the importance of ongoing research to understand the true diversity of our planet's creatures. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research">Future research</h2>



Professor Fry has announced that his next research project will tackle the pressing issue of heavy metal contamination in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/">Amazon rainforest</a>.&nbsp;



"These rare anacondas, and the other species that share this remote ecosystem, face significant challenges. It's not only these gigantic snakes that are facing environmental threats, but almost all living things in the region," said Professor Fry.



"The discovery of a new species of anaconda is exciting, but it is critical to highlight the urgent need to further research these threatened species and ecosystems. Of particular urgency is research into how petrochemicals from oil spills are affecting the fertility and reproductive biology of these rare snakes and other keystone species in the Amazon."



The findings are published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/d16020127" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Diversity</a>.



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Giant green anaconda is a new species in the remote Amazon

Anacondas are solitary predators. They spend much of their time...

Anoles have been dubbed as the "scuba-diving” champions of the lizard world, due to a unique ability to remain submerged for an impressive duration of more than 16 minutes. This fascinating behavior showcases the complex interplay between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-lizard-climate-change/">lizards</a>' adaptive behaviors and the physiological costs associated with their aquatic escapades.&nbsp;



The research was conducted by <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> Professor Lindsey Swierk and doctoral candidate Alexandra M. Martin, along with Christopher K. Boccia of <a href="https://www.queensu.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queens University</a> in Canada.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evading-predators-nbsp">Evading predators&nbsp;</h2>



In earlier work, the researchers found that anoles craft an air bubble over their nostrils to breathe underwater, primarily as a means to escape <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/">predators</a>.&nbsp;



According to Marin, while anole’s first line of defense is to run away on land, they will often dive underwater to evade predators’ - or researchers’ - pursuit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diving-lizards-nbsp">Diving lizards&nbsp;</h2>



The study's findings indicate a notable difference in dive duration between male and female anoles, with males surfacing approximately 20 fewer seconds than females.&nbsp;



"This may not sound like very much, but biologically, 20 seconds could easily be the difference between life and death," Martin said. "A hungry bird may decide that searching for an extra 20 seconds simply isn't worth the energy it might cost and would rather search for better luck downstream."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drawbacks-of-diving">Drawbacks of diving</h2>



However, the act of diving is not without its drawbacks. The researchers observed that diving could lead to a substantial drop in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-self-regulated-their-body-temperature/">body temperature</a>, by up to 6°C.&nbsp;



Given that anoles are ectotherms, dependent on external sources for thermoregulation, prolonged exposure to cold water can adversely affect various physiological functions, including those critical for predator evasion.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-optimization-problem-nbsp">Optimization problem&nbsp;</h2>



"Semi-aquatic anoles seem to have evolved a sex-specific tradeoff between finding safety underwater and retaining body heat on land. This represents what behavioral ecologists call an 'optimization problem,' where animals have to balance the costs and benefits of performing particular behaviors," Swierk explained.



Despite the absence of sex differences in oxygen consumption, the study suggests that dive time disparities are influenced by factors other than respiratory efficiency. 



Martin shed light on the reproductive strategies of Anolis aquaticus, noting the divergent priorities between males and females - while females invest more energy in producing offspring, males spend more time on courtship and mating activities - which could explain their differing behaviors when faced with the threat of predation.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intriguing-research-nbsp">Intriguing research&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers are intrigued by the anoles' ability to maintain a "dry suit" of air underwater, possibly aiding in heat retention. Swierk expressed enthusiasm for further exploration of these diving lizards.



"The ways that animals can adapt to environmental pressures are astounding and have continued to inspire humans to push the boundaries of bio-inspired design. We are curious and excited to explore these ideas in the future," she concluded.



This study - published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00265-024-03448-5">Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology</a> - not only contributes to our understanding of anoles' unique adaptations but also highlights the importance of considering both behavioral needs and physiological costs in the study of animal ecology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-anoles">More about anoles</h2>



Anoles are a diverse and fascinating group of lizards found mainly in the Americas, with a significant number of species present in the Caribbean islands.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-nbsp">Appearance&nbsp;</h3>



These reptiles are known for their vibrant colors and the ability to change their skin color, although this ability varies among species and is not as pronounced as in true <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scottish-fossil-sheds-light-on-early-lizard-anatomy/">chameleons</a>.&nbsp;



Anoles are particularly noted for their dewlaps, which are colorful throat fans that can be extended and used for communication purposes such as territorial displays or attracting mates.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitats">Habitats</h3>



Anoles have adapted to a wide range of habitats, from rainforests to deserts, demonstrating a remarkable versatility. Their diet mainly consists of insects and other small prey, which they hunt using their keen vision. Some larger species might also feed on smaller lizards and other vertebrates.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-biology-nbsp">Evolutionary biology&nbsp;</h3>



One of the most interesting aspects of anoles is their role as a model organism in studies of evolutionary biology, especially in the context of adaptive radiation and speciation.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/darwins-finches-reveal-how-one-species-becomes-many/">Adaptive radiation</a> refers to the process through which organisms diversify rapidly into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, creates new challenges, or opens new environmental niches. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caribbean-anoles">Caribbean anoles </h3>



Caribbean anoles have been particularly well-studied in this regard, with different species evolving distinct morphological and behavioral traits adapted to specific microenvironments within the islands, such as ground, trunk, or canopy dwelling.



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Anoles are the scuba-diving champions of the lizard world

Anoles have been dubbed as the "scuba-diving” champions of the...

Cow,Playfully,Cuddling,Another,Young,Cow,Lying,Down,In,A

An intriguing study conducted by researchers at the City University of Hong Kong (CityUHK) has shed light on the intricate social lives of feral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cow-drama-herd-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cattle</a>, offering unprecedented insights into their behaviors and welfare. 



By focusing on free-ranging cattle in Hong Kong, this research delves into how sex and social status influence social grooming -- specifically, the act of one animal licking another, known as allogrooming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-the-social-dynamics-of-cattle">Closer look at the social dynamics of cattle</h2>



Feral cattle, while numbering over a billion in global production, find a unique niche in Hong Kong, with around 900 brown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cow-manure-greatly-improves-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cattle</a> roaming freely. 



Unlike their farm-raised counterparts, these cattle exhibit distinct social behaviors, offering a rare window into their natural interactions. 



Alan McElligott, associated with CityUHK’s Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, underscores the rarity and value of studying these free-ranging groups to understand the evolution of behavior in cattle groups.



“Most research on cattle behaviors is conducted on farms, and so the opportunity to study cattle behavior in free-ranging groups is rare, as there are only a few feral populations worldwide,” explains McElligott.



The study, a collaborative effort led by McElligott and PhD researcher George M. W. Hodgson, alongside other distinguished team members, was conducted in Sai Kung East Country Park, Hong Kong. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-cattle-social-structure">Understanding cattle social structure</h2>



Observations spanned February to May 2022, focusing on a mixed-sex herd and revealing that while all cattle were recipients of allogrooming, not all engaged in performing it. 



A notable find was the preferential grooming among the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmers-want-to-talk-to-their-cows-so-ai-is-helping-them-interpret-moos-and-burps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cattle</a>, with dominant females receiving more attention, highlighting an asymmetrical distribution of grooming based on social hierarchy and sex.



These interactions, particularly the fact that males groomed females more than they did other males, and females groomed both sexes equally, suggest a complex layer of sex-specific behavior not evident in farm settings. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-cattle-social-ranking">Significance of cattle social ranking</h2>



The study also discovered that higher-ranking female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-detect-methane-emission-from-cow-burps/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cattle</a> were not only more frequently groomed but also engaged in mutual grooming among themselves, suggesting their attractiveness as social partners extends beyond mere hierarchical benefits.



Hodgson points out, “This suggests that grooming isn’t directed to higher-ranking animals for exchanging rank-related benefits such as food or protection, as has been found in primates, but rather is used to strengthen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grooming-behavior-exposes-the-complex-social-lives-of-dairy-cows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social bonds</a> and promote affiliation within the group.” 



This indicates a significant departure from the grooming motivations observed in other species, emphasizing social cohesion over hierarchical advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-dynamics-and-grooming-patterns">Gender dynamics and grooming patterns</h2>



The research also highlighted the cattle’s grooming preferences, with the neck and head being the most commonly attended regions. This specificity in grooming areas further underlines the social significance of these behaviors in maintaining herd dynamics.



“Social behaviors such as grooming or dominance are crucial in developing and maintaining herd relationships for farmed and feral cattle,” said Professor Flay. 



"These preferential interactions are important to understand, as they can affect cattle and other ruminants’ health, such as parasite burdens and infectious disease transmission.”



The findings from this study enhance our understanding of sex-specific interactions among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cattle-farming-expansion-could-expose-more-than-a-billion-cows-to-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cattle</a> and provide valuable insights into the dynamics of both competitive and friendly behaviors in ungulate groups. 



Professor McElligott emphasizes the significance of these discoveries for comprehending the essence of positive social relationships and welfare in cattle, especially in environments where they can freely choose their associates.



“These results are essential for understanding patterns of positive social relationships and what good welfare means for cattle, especially when they are free to choose with whom to interact,” Professor McElligott concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-allogrooming-and-its-role-in-cattle-social-etiquette">Allogrooming and its role in cattle social etiquette</h2>



Allogrooming, a behavior observed across many animal species besides <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greener-cattle-seeking-ways-to-inhibit-methane-production-in-cows/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cattle</a>, transcends mere social nicety, embedding itself as a fundamental aspect of animal interaction and community structure. 



At its core, allogrooming involves one animal cleaning or maintaining the appearance of another. This behavior, prevalent among mammals, birds, and even some insect species, serves multiple purposes. 



It not only aids in hygiene maintenance by removing parasites and debris but also plays a crucial role in social bonding and the establishment of social hierarchies within groups.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Social bonds and hierarchies</h3>



Allogrooming acts as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-learn-grooming-mothers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social glue</a>, facilitating interactions and strengthening bonds between group members. 



Cattle and other animals engage in this social behavior to express affection, establish alliances, and even reconcile after conflicts. 



Moreover, it plays a part in the social structuring of groups, often reflecting the hierarchical standings of individuals. Dominant individuals may receive more grooming, which in turn reinforces their status within the group.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Health and hygiene benefits</h3>



Beyond its social implications, allogrooming offers tangible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vervet-monkeys-deal-with-social-norms-and-peer-pressure-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health benefits</a>. It helps in the control of parasites and the cleaning of hard-to-reach areas, contributing to the overall health and well-being of the group. 



In environments where parasites and diseases can quickly spread, allogrooming acts as a natural defense mechanism, enhancing the survival rates of social animals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Indicator of welfare</h3>



In the context of animal welfare, allogrooming serves as a barometer for the physical and psychological well-being of animals, especially in captive or domesticated settings. 



High levels of allogrooming can indicate a well-adjusted, stress-free environment, whereas a lack thereof may signal underlying issues such as stress, anxiety, or social discord.



Allogrooming embodies a complex interplay of social, health, and psychological factors, highlighting its importance in the natural world. 



By fostering social bonds, establishing hierarchies, and promoting health, allogrooming contributes significantly to the dynamics and well-being of animal communities. 



As we continue to uncover the depths of animal behaviors, the study of allogrooming offers invaluable insights into the lives of the creatures with whom we share our planet, reminding us of the complexity and sophistication of animal societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-understanding-of-cattle-society">New understanding of cattle society</h2>



In conclusion, the <a href="https://www.cityu.edu.hk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">City University of Hong Kong</a>'s innovative study illuminates the complex social behaviors of feral cattle, revealing how sex and social status significantly influence grooming practices within these free-ranging groups. 



By meticulously observing and analyzing the interactions among a mixed-sex herd, the researchers provide a rare glimpse into the natural behaviors of feral cattle while challenging previous assumptions about animal social structures. 



This research underscores the importance of social grooming, known as allogrooming, in establishing and maintaining herd dynamics, offering vital insights into animal welfare that could reshape how we manage and conserve cattle populations. 



Ultimately, the study serves as a testament to the intricate social lives of cattle, emphasizing the need for a deeper understanding and appreciation of animal behaviors in the wild.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003347224000046?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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Cattle have intricate social lives that aren't readily apparent

An intriguing study conducted by researchers at the City University...

Imagine a world where humans sported tails, swinging through trees like their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-early-primates-lived-in-pairs-and-were-not-solitary-creatures/">primate</a> relatives. While that might be a fun thought experiment, a new study reveals the reason why we lack these appendages.



Researchers from <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU Langone Health</a> and <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU Grossman School Of Medicine</a> have identified a specific genetic tweak responsible for the loss of this unique feature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-tails">Importance of tails</h2>



Throughout the animal kingdom, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-mystery-of-why-dogs-wag-their-tails/">tails</a> have played a crucial role. They help creatures of all kinds maintain balance as they move across different environments.&nbsp;



Tails also act as a communication tool, allowing animals to send signals to each other during social interactions. In some species, tails are even essential for regulating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/depression-may-be-linked-to-higher-body-temperatures/">body temperature</a> or defending themselves against threats.&nbsp;



However, humans and apes are unique among mammals in that we lack tails. This evolutionary change is believed to be linked to our ancestors' transition to walking on two legs (bipedalism) and their move from forest habitats to more diverse landscapes. 



The new study suggests that a specific change in a gene called TBXT might be responsible for the lack of tails. The change is caused by a small piece of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-in-nutrition-science-dna-barcoding-reveals-dietary-secrets/">DNA</a> called an AluY element that got inserted into the TBXT gene millions of years ago. The DNA doesn't directly alter the gene's code, but it does affect how the gene works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-findings-about-human-tails">Surprising findings about human tails</h2>



To understand the impact of this genetic modification, the researchers engineered mice to carry the same TBXT gene alteration. The results were striking: some mice had shortened tails, while others were born entirely tailless.&nbsp;



These variations provide concrete evidence that the AluY insertion in the TBXT gene directly contributes to tail development and its eventual evolutionary loss in certain primates. The experiment demonstrated the real-world effects of the genetic alteration observed in humans and apes.



“This finding is remarkable because most human introns carry copies of repetitive, jumping DNAs without any effect on gene expression, but this particular AluY insertion did something as obvious as determine tail length,” explained study co-author Jef D. Boeke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-splicing">Alternative splicing</h2>



The scientists explained that the extra DNA affects "alternative splicing," which is a process that allows a single gene to create multiple different proteins.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In this case, the genetic change affects a gene involved in tail development. Through alternative splicing, it now produces a unique protein version, different from the one typically present in tailed animals. This altered protein disrupts the normal course of tail development.&nbsp;



The study highlights the significant impact of even minor changes in our DNA. This alteration, although seemingly small, ultimately contributed to the loss of tails in our evolutionary past.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-drawbacks-of-human-tails">Potential drawbacks of human tails</h2>



The experts also discovered a potential downside to the genetic change. While the exact reasons for tail loss remain under debate, the research suggests a possible link between this evolutionary change and certain health problems.



The mice with altered genes experienced a higher rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-ddt-alters-sperm-putting-children-at-risk/">birth defects</a> related to the closing of the neural tube, which forms the spinal cord and brain. 



This suggests that while losing tails may have provided some benefits, it may have also increased the risk of specific health issues.



“Future experiments will test the theory that, in an ancient evolutionary trade-off, the loss of a tail in humans contributed to the neural tube birth defects, like those involved in spinal bifida, which are seen today in one in a thousand human neonates,” said Itai Yanai from the Institute for Systems Genetics at NYU Langone Health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-exactly-did-humans-lose-their-tails">When exactly did humans lose their tails?</h2>



Scientists pinpoint the disappearance of the external tail in the human lineage to approximately 25 million years ago. 



This period corresponds to the emergence of the first apes, setting the stage for the evolution of bipedalism and other traits distinct to humans and their closest relatives. 



The loss of the tail is not just a matter of physical appearance but signifies a deeper evolutionary strategy, adapting to new environments and ways of moving.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-clues-and-fossil-evidence">Genetic Clues and Fossil Evidence</h3>



The tale of the lost tail is not merely speculative; it is grounded in genetic and fossil evidence. Genetic analyses reveal specific changes in the DNA of humans and apes, which differ from that of tailed primates. 



These genetic differences indicate alterations in the development processes that lead to tail formation. 



Fossil records, albeit sparse, provide crucial insights into the morphology of early human ancestors and their primate cousins, showing a clear absence of the external tail in apes and humans alike.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-a-tailless-existence">Benefits of a Tailless Existence</h3>



The transition to a tailless form had significant implications for early human ancestors. Freed from the constraints of a tail, our ancestors developed enhanced balance and mobility, crucial for bipedalism. 



This adaptation facilitated a more upright posture, allowing for the use of hands in tool-making, foraging, and social communication. 



The evolutionary success of humans and apes without tails underscores the advantages of this trait (or lack thereof) in navigating the terrestrial and arboreal environments they inhabited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-and-future-research">Study implications and future research</h2>



This research sheds light on how evolution affects both our body features and our risk of certain health problems. 



The study demonstrates that evolution is not just about physical changes but also shapes our susceptibility to health issues. 



We must consider evolutionary changes from a wider perspective, thinking about both the benefits they might bring and the potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-diet-quality-in-adolescence-linked-to-lifelong-health-risks/">health risks</a> they might carry.&nbsp;



This new way of thinking opens doors for further research into the genes and evolutionary history of diseases, helping us better understand how our evolutionary past influences our health today. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tail-of-evolutionary-adaptation">A tail of evolutionary adaptation</h2>



In summary, the story of how and when humans lost their tails is a fascinating chapter in the saga of evolution. It illustrates the dynamic nature of evolutionary change, driven by the interplay of genetics, environment, and adaptation. 



The loss of the tail is a testament to the complex journey of human evolution, highlighting how seemingly minor physical changes can have profound impacts on the trajectory of a species. 



As we continue to uncover the mysteries of our past, the tale of the lost tail remains a pivotal piece of the puzzle in understanding what makes us uniquely human.



Next time you spot a monkey's long, graceful tail, ponder this: evolution may have swapped ours for another crucial adaptation, shaping us into the beings we are today.



The study is published in <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07095-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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The story of how and when humans lost their tails

Imagine a world where humans sported tails, swinging through trees...

The horse, a magnificent creature that has been around humans for over five millennia, embodies not just the spirit of companionship but also represents a crucial pillar in the development of human societies.&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nationaldaycalendar.com/national-day/national-horse-protection-day-march-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Celebrated annually</a> on March 1st, National Horse Protection Day seeks to honor these majestic animals by shedding light on the pressing issues they face today, including abuse, exploitation, and neglect. 



This day serves as a heartfelt tribute to our four-legged friends, emphasizing the importance of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-welfare-concerns-more-people-than-climate-change/">welfare</a> and advocating for measures to safeguard them from harm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historical-significance-nbsp-of-horses">Historical significance&nbsp;of horses</h2>



The historical significance of horses in human civilization cannot be overstated. From the battlefields of ancient empires to the vast expanses of the American frontier, horses have been by our side, facilitating transportation, agriculture, and communication.&nbsp;



They've borne the weight of soldiers, plowed our fields, and connected distant lands, embedding themselves deeply into the cultural fabric of societies around the globe. In the United States, the horse is particularly revered, symbolizing the unbridled spirit of freedom that defined the expansion of the West.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-society">Modern society</h2>



Despite the march of progress and the advent of the automobile and other technological innovations, horses continue to hold a special place in the hearts of millions.&nbsp;



Beyond their historical contributions, horses today play a multifaceted role in modern society. They serve as beloved pets, offer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/riding-horses-can-reduce-low-back-pain/">therapeutic support</a> to individuals with disabilities, assist in law enforcement and cattle ranching, and grace the sports world, from racing to dressage. Their versatility and gentle nature make them invaluable companions and partners in a variety of endeavors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiring-collective-action-nbsp">Inspiring collective action&nbsp;</h2>



However, the beauty and loyalty of horses are often marred by the realities of mistreatment and abuse. Recognizing the urgent need to address these challenges, National Horse Protection Day was established in 2005 by Colleen Paige, a renowned pet lifestyle expert and animal behaviorist.&nbsp;



Drawing from her own experiences growing up around these noble creatures, Paige was motivated to create a day dedicated to elevating the consciousness of the public regarding the plight of horses. The aim was to inspire collective action towards the rescue, rehabilitation, and rehoming of horses that have been unwanted, neglected, or otherwise mistreated.



Since its inception in the United States, National Horse Protection Day has garnered international attention, reflecting the global appreciation for these animals and the universal desire to protect them.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-issues">Urgent issues</h2>



The day serves as a poignant reminder of the various threats horses face, from the challenges of providing adequate care and the dangers posed by unscrupulous breeders and dealers, to the controversial issue of horse meat consumption and the ethical dilemmas surrounding horse sports.&nbsp;



Furthermore, it highlights the predicament of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-horses-have-higher-stress-levels-than-domestic-ones/">wild horses</a>, particularly mustangs in the US, whose management and preservation pose complex ethical and environmental questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-horse-protection-day">National Horse Protection Day </h2>



The observance of National Horse Protection Day provides an opportunity for reflection on the profound bond between humans and horses, urging us to act responsibly and compassionately towards these beings that have given so much to humanity. It calls for a reevaluation of our practices and policies, encouraging the adoption of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/congress-takes-a-step-toward-humane-management-of-wild-horses/">humane management</a> strategies for wild populations and advocating for the ethical treatment of horses in all contexts.



In commemorating National Horse Protection Day, we are invited to not only celebrate the horse's indelible impact on our history and culture but also to commit to a future where the dignity and well-being of every horse are upheld.&nbsp;



It is a day to advocate for change, to support organizations dedicated to horse welfare, and to foster a deeper understanding of the needs and rights of horses. Through education, advocacy, and direct action, we can ensure that these magnificent animals receive the love, respect, and protection they so richly deserve.



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National Horse Protection Day: Respecting the needs and rights of horses

The horse, a magnificent creature that has been around humans...

A new study by oceanologists from the U.S. and Scotland throws a curveball in our understanding of North Atlantic right <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-face-increasing-dangers-along-their-migration-routes/">whales</a>. 



The research reveals a surprising connection between the size of these giants and their ability to reproduce. The findings raise concerns about the future of this critically endangered species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relentless-hunting-of-north-atlantic-right-whales">Relentless hunting of North Atlantic right whales</h2>



The name of the species reflects a grim history. These gentle giants were once deemed the "right" whales to hunt due to their slow pace, unfortunate tendency to float when killed, and plentiful blubber.&nbsp;



Relentless hunting pushed North Atlantic right whale populations to the very edge of disappearing by the 1900s. 



Despite international protection since the 1930s, their population struggles to recover, with only a few hundred individuals clinging to survival. The future of the species remains precarious.



The experts discovered that smaller female North Atlantic right whales have fewer babies. This is concerning because this species is already in danger of disappearing.&nbsp;



"The effects of decreasing mean body size on reproductive performance are another concerning indication of the worsening prospects for this species and many others affected by environmental change, requiring a focus of conservation and management interventions on improving conditions that affect reproduction as well as reducing mortality," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-explanations">Possible explanations</h2>



There are a couple of reasons why smaller size may impact the ability of North Atlantic right whales to reproduce. One is that smaller whales might be less healthy overall. 



They might not have the strength or energy needed to carry and raise a baby. Having a calf takes a lot of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/game-changing-invention-converts-both-co2-and-plastic-waste-into-renewable-energy/">energy</a>, and their bodies might struggle to keep up.



Another reason is that smaller animals might not be able to have as many babies as bigger whales. Their reproductive organs might be smaller, or they might have other physical limitations that make getting pregnant or having healthy calves difficult. 



It could also be harder for them to find a mate or for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-moths-use-an-aphrodisiac-during-mating-to-feel-macho/">mating</a> to be successful, making it even tougher for them to have offspring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-north-atlantic-right-whales">Human activities and North Atlantic right whales</h2>



Humans also play a role in the decline of North Atlantic right whales. When whales swim near fishing nets, lines, or traps, they can accidentally get stuck.&nbsp;



The ropes can wrap around their bodies or even get stuck in their mouths, making it hard for them to move and eat. These deep cuts and infections can lead to death if the whales can't get free or aren't helped quickly.



Collisions with ships and boats are another big danger for these whales, especially in areas with heavy traffic. 



The massive size and weight of the vessels can cause serious injuries like broken bones, internal bleeding, and death. Even if the whales aren't killed right away, these injuries can make them sick and eventually lead to death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-north-atlantic-right-whales">Climate change and North Atlantic right whales</h2>



Climate change is making life harder for the creatures in several ways. As the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-atlantic-ocean-may-soon-enter-its-declining-phase/">ocean</a> gets warmer, the balance of life in the water gets thrown off. This means the tiny animals the whales eat are showing up in different places, at different times, and there might not be as many of them.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents-and-north-atlantic-right-whales">Ocean currents and North Atlantic right whales</h3>



Ocean currents are changing too, which also affects where the whales' food goes and makes it harder for them to find enough to eat. 



Because of this, the whales may not be getting the food they need to be healthy. In the worst cases, they might even starve.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-rise-nbsp">Sea level rise&nbsp;</h3>



Climate change is also causing the sea level to rise and making the ocean more acidic, which harms the whales' homes and food sources. Rising water levels could flood the areas where the whales raise their young, and the increased acidity could disrupt the entire food chain, making it even harder for the whales to find food.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-action">Climate action</h3>



Protecting the whales requires tackling climate change on two fronts. First, we need to address the root causes by reducing greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-emissions-from-inland-waters-hugely-underestimated/">emissions</a>. 



Key strategies include switching to renewable energy, using less energy overall, and limiting pollution from industries, vehicles, and land use.&nbsp;



By slowing down global warming, we can lessen the negative effects on ocean ecosystems, such as changes in temperature, acidity, and currents that affect the whales' food supply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-conservation-nbsp">Whale conservation&nbsp;</h2>



To keep these magnificent creatures safe, we must tackle ongoing threats against them.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-fishing-practices">Innovative fishing practices</h3>



This includes implementing breakaway ropes that release entangled whales, exploring alternative fishing methods that minimize entanglement risk, and temporarily restricting fishing activity in areas or during seasons crucial for whales, like calving periods.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responsible-navigation-nbsp">Responsible navigation&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, responsible navigation is essential. By reducing ship speeds in known whale habitats, especially during vulnerable times, and utilizing advanced tracking systems, we can significantly decrease the risk of collisions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-safe-havens-nbsp">Creating safe havens&nbsp;</h3>



Establishing and expanding protected marine areas in critical whale habitats provides them with undisturbed spaces for vital activities like feeding, breeding, and raising young. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications">Broader implications </h2>



Julia Singer, a marine scientist at <a href="https://oceana.org/homepage/home/">Oceana</a>, emphasized the implications of the concerning reproductive trend among North Atlantic right whales.



“This study reinforces the urgent need to reduce human-caused stressors, especially from boat strikes and fishing entanglements, to ensure mothers are healthy and strong enough to calve. For one of the most endangered large whales on the planet, every single North Atlantic right whale calf is vital to avoid extinction," said Singer.



"This year alone, the U.S. East Coast has become a graveyard for North Atlantic right whales after two young whales were struck by boats, another juvenile died from a painful entanglement in fishing gear, and two newborn calves are presumed dead after going missing."&nbsp;



"This study shows the need for stronger protections to reduce the constant risks and stress North Atlantic right whales face every day from navigating a jungle of vertical fishing lines and speeding boats in their migration path."&nbsp;



"President Biden and Secretary of Commerce Gina Raimondo can stop whales washing up on our shores from boat strikes, and give North Atlantic right whales a chance at survival, if they stop delaying and finalize the updated vessel speed rule today.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.240050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.&nbsp;



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Shrinking North Atlantic right whales have fewer offspring

A new study by oceanologists from the U.S. and Scotland...

In North Queensland, invasive Asian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybee-pollination-produces-plant-offspring-vastly-inferior-to-plants-pollinated-by-other-species/">honeybees</a> (Apis cerana) have surprisingly flourished, expanding from a single swarm to over 10,000 colonies across a 10,000 square kilometer area, akin to the size of Greater Sydney.&nbsp;



This enormous growth challenges the conventional evolutionary theory that a significant genetic bottleneck would hinder such expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-adaptability-with-limited-diversity">Unexpected adaptability with limited diversity</h2>



"Our study of this bee population shows that some species can quickly adjust to new environments despite starting with very low genetic diversity relative to their native-range populations," said co-lead author Rosalyn Gloag from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> School of Life and Environmental Sciences 



Gloag's observation highlights the adaptability of species even with minimal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-higher-genetic-variation-are-much-more-adaptable/">genetic variation</a>, contradicting the widespread belief that high genetic diversity is crucial for adapting to new or rapidly changing environments.



This finding underscores the resilience of populations with diminished genetic diversity, offering insights into broader ecological adaptability. "This is even more important as we observe many species dealing with anthropogenic climate change," Gloag said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-queensland-invasion-nbsp">The Queensland invasion&nbsp;</h2>



The team's investigation into the Queensland invasion provides a comprehensive genetic chronology of a natural incursion, tracing back to the bees' 2007 arrival, likely from Papua New Guinea. This event raised biosecurity alarms in Australia due to potential parasite threats.&nbsp;



However, these bees were found to be free of the feared varroa mite, which has since entered Australia through unknown means, posing a risk to the local honey industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-biological-dataset-nbsp">Valuable biological dataset&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries</a>' exhaustive early sampling efforts, aimed at eradicating the bees, yielded a valuable biological dataset. 



“We were lucky to have a complete sample timeline of this invasive population thanks to the incredible efforts of the Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, which sampled the population extensively during the early years of the incursion as part of an eradication attempt,” Gloag explained.



“Although that attempt was unsuccessful, the biological material collected has been incredibly valuable for understanding how these invasions proceed. And that in turn helps us prepare better for future invasions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-natural-selection">Observing natural selection</h2>



Analyzing genomes from 118 bees collected over a decade, the researchers witnessed natural selection in action within a genetically constrained population. “We could essentially observe natural selection acting over time in a population that started with low genetic diversity,” Gloag said.&nbsp;



“From this unique vantage point, we could see that selection was acting on the variation in genomes that had arrived with the handful of original bees. It wasn’t variation that arose later by mutations. In other words, some species with very low genetic diversity can adapt very quickly.”



This finding that species can swiftly adapt with scant genetic diversity presents a mixed outcome. While it poses challenges for managing invasive species, it also offers hope for populations endangered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-the-biggest-threat-to-wild-bees/">climate change</a> or catastrophes, demonstrating potential resilience despite genetic losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-asian-honeybees">Invasive Asian honeybees</h2>



Invasive Asian honeybees, particularly Apis cerana, have become a topic of concern in various parts of the world due to their ability to adapt to diverse environments and compete with local bee populations.&nbsp;



These bees are smaller than the European honeybees (Apis mellifera) commonly found in agriculture and beekeeping industries worldwide.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-major-challenges">Major challenges</h3>



The spread of Asian honeybees outside of their native range poses several environmental and economic challenges.&nbsp;



First, they compete with local bee species for resources such as nectar and pollen, which can lead to a decrease in the populations of native bees. This is particularly concerning for areas with unique native bee species that are essential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-patches-of-land-can-help-support-pollinators/">pollinators</a> for local flora.



In addition, the introduction and establishment of invasive bee species can disrupt local ecosystems. Asian honeybees are known for their aggressive foraging behavior and efficient utilization of floral resources, which can lead to changes in the pollination dynamics of native plant species. Such changes can have cascading effects on the structure and function of ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-threats">Economic threats</h3>



From an economic perspective, the spread of Asian honeybees can impact the beekeeping industry. They often become pests to beekeepers by invading and colonizing European honeybee hives.&nbsp;



Furthermore, in areas where these bees become dominant, they can change the dynamics of pollination services, potentially affecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/floral-interventions-on-farms-boost-pollinators-and-crop-yields/">crop yields</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-management-and-mitigation">Management and mitigation</h3>



Efforts to manage and mitigate the impact of invasive Asian honeybees include monitoring their spread, implementing biosecurity measures to prevent their introduction into new areas, and researching biological control methods.&nbsp;



Conservationists and researchers are particularly focused on protecting native bee populations and ensuring that the ecological balance is maintained to support both agriculture and biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2024.02.010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Invasive Asian honeybees defy evolutionary expectations

In North Queensland, invasive Asian honeybees (Apis cerana) have surprisingly...

In the dense forests of Central and South America, Seba's short-tailed bats thrive, navigating through the trees and feeding primarily on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-secrets-how-bat-teeth-adapted-to-their-diverse-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pepper fruit</a> while living in large communal groups. 



These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-protein-in-bats-that-can-slow-aging-and-fight-most-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a>, nestled in the safety of hollow trunks and rocky caverns by day, emerge at night in search of food, guided by their unique ability to echolocate. 



This bat navigation process involves emitting ultrasonic sounds that bounce off objects, creating an "image" of their surroundings based on the returning echoes. 



But amidst the constant chatter and ambient noise of their colonies, how do these creatures manage to filter out and focus on the sounds critical for their survival?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bat-navigation-echolocation-and-communication">Bat navigation: Echolocation and communication</h2>



A recent study led by Johannes Wetekam and Professor Manfred Kössl from <a href="https://www.goethe-university-frankfurt.de/47091958/Department_of_Neurobiology_and_Biosensors" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goethe University</a> Frankfurt's Neurobiology and Biosensors Working Group has shed light on this fascinating question. 



Previously, it was believed that the brain's higher regions were responsible for processing sounds. 



However, research from 2021, conducted by the same team, revealed that this intricate processing begins in the brainstem -- a part of the brain vital for controlling essential functions like breathing and heart rate.



Unlike prior studies that relied on artificial stimuli, the latest research focused on natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-advice-leave-bats-alone-if-we-want-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat calls</a>, including both communication and echolocation sounds. 



“With our study, we wanted to find out what happens in deviation detection when, instead of meaningless stimuli, ones are presented to Seba’s short-tailed bat that actually occur in its auditory world,” explains Wetekam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-a-deep-dive-into-bat-brains">Taking a deep dive into bat brains</h2>



To conduct their experiments, the team inserted two ultra-thin electrodes under the bats' scalps, recording <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-brains-that-synchronize-when-they-socialize/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain waves</a> while the animals were under general anesthesia to prevent any movement that could skew the results. 



Remarkably, the bats' brains continued to respond to sounds even in this state, providing a clear picture of how different calls are processed.



The findings revealed a distinct difference in how the brainstem handles echolocation and communication calls. 



Echolocation sounds, which are crucial for navigating and avoiding obstacles, triggered stronger signals in the brainstem when they were less frequent, indicating a mechanism for deviance detection. 



This suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-bats-use-earths-magnetic-field-as-a-compass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> are primed to respond more swiftly to these crucial navigational cues. 



Communication sounds, on the other hand, did not show the same pattern, highlighting a tailored response system based on the type of sound and its importance for survival.



“Bats probably need to react faster during echolocation than when communicating with conspecifics,” presumes Manfred Kössl.



“The brainstem is the first station in the brain to receive the acoustic signals, which is why calculating the probability of echolocation calls might be necessary first of all there, and especially their echoes, so that the animal can dodge obstacles in good time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-insights-from-bat-brain-waves">Surprising insights from bat brain waves</h2>



Moreover, the study uncovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-brains-are-highly-specialized-for-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a>' brainstems do not just differentiate sounds based on frequency but can also detect rapid changes in frequency or volume, underscoring its sophisticated capacity for sound processing. 



This challenges the traditional view of the brainstem as a mere relay station for auditory signals, positioning it as a critical component in the early stages of sound analysis.



“This is astonishing, as the brainstem is a rather young part of the brain that scientists did not previously think capable of any substantial involvement in signal processing,” says Wetekam. 



“They saw its role more in receiving signals from the auditory nerve and transmitting them to high-level regions of the brain.”



These insights are not just a breakthrough in understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hibernation-may-be-key-to-extraordinary-longevity-in-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bat echolocation</a> but also hold potential implications for human medical research. 



Conditions like ADHD and schizophrenia, characterized by difficulties in processing external stimuli, may benefit from these findings, suggesting that the lower regions of the brain, such as the brainstem, play a more significant role than previously acknowledged. 



Additionally, by unraveling how the bat brainstem distinguishes between complex acoustic signals, researchers hope to gain deeper insights into the human brain's ability to process and interpret complex speech patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bat-navigation-and-brain-research-implications">Bat navigation and brain research implications</h2>



In summary, this fascinating study on Seba's short-tailed bats uncovers the sophisticated mechanisms of echolocation and communication processing in the bat brainstem, while paving the way for new understandings in human neurology. 



By demonstrating that the brainstem plays a critical role in deciphering complex acoustic signals, this research challenges previous notions and highlights the potential for advancements in treating neurological disorders. 



As we delve deeper into the echoes of bat communication and bat navigation, we uncover valuable insights that bridge the natural world with human health, showcasing the profound impact of animal studies on medical science and our understanding of the human brain.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.jneurosci.org/content/44/9/e1588232023">JNeurosci</a>.



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How bats navigate a noisy world

In the dense forests of Central and South America, Seba's...

Imagine a world without pharmacies, where expecting mothers have to find the nutrients they need scattered across the landscape. This is the reality for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-read-the-emotions-and-signs-of-well-being-in-wild-animals/">wild animals</a> like muskoxen, which rely on knowledge of their environment to find the essential minerals crucial for healthy pregnancies.&nbsp;



A recent study by researchers at <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a> reveals how these iconic creatures utilize the chemical makeup of the Arctic to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muskoxen-and-their-significance-nbsp">Muskoxen and their significance&nbsp;</h2>



Muskoxen, with their thick fur and impressive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperature-tolerance-has-co-evolved-with-sexual-selection/">horns</a>, are well-known residents of the harsh Arctic environment. They've been around for thousands of years and are perfectly suited to the extreme cold.&nbsp;



These animals play two important roles in the Arctic. First, they consume plants, which helps control the types of plants that grow there and creates <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-koala-habitats-face-an-escalating-threat-of-bushfires/">habitats</a> for other animals. Moreover, they are important to the cultures of Indigenous people in the Arctic, who use them for food, clothing, and other purposes.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, muskoxen face several challenges. Climate change is making it harder for them to find food and water. To help muskoxen survive, scientists are studying how things like the minerals in the soil affect their ability to reproduce. This information can be used to create better strategies for protecting these iconic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trace-elements-in-the-arctic">Trace elements in the Arctic</h2>



The researchers measured the levels of different elements, both helpful and harmful, in the plants that muskoxen eat. They then compared this information to how well muskoxen reproduced in various areas. This allowed the experts to identify which elements had the biggest impact.&nbsp;



“Usually researchers look at the quality of the plants that the animals forage on. They measure major components of the plants such as nitrogen. But we dig a little deeper," explained senior researcher Floris M. van Beest from the Aarhus Department of Ecoscience.



"We look at trace elements such as copper and selenium in the plants, but also if they are present in the ground beneath the plants."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-essential-elements-for-muskoxen">Essential elements for muskoxen</h2>



The results showed that certain elements found in plants are essential for healthy muskoxen populations in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-arctic-dipole-the-atmospheric-pattern-shaping-our-future-climate/">Arctic</a>. These elements, like nitrogen, copper, selenium, and molybdenum, play important roles in the animals' bodies.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrogen">Nitrogen</h3>



Nitrogen is needed to build proteins, which are used for muscle development, hormone production, and fighting off disease. If there isn't enough nitrogen in the plants muskoxen eat, they won't be able to grow and reproduce healthily.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-copper-and-muskoxen">Copper and muskoxen</h3>



Copper helps muskoxen produce energy, use iron, and protect their cells from damage. If muskoxen don't get enough copper, they may have problems reproducing, growing, and fighting off illness.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selenium">Selenium</h3>



Selenium protects muskoxen cells from damage and helps their thyroid glands work properly, which is important for growth and reproduction.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-molybdenum">Molybdenum</h3>



Molybdenum helps muskoxen use nitrogen and build certain important molecules. While it's not usually a problem, having the right amount of molybdenum in the environment ensures muskoxen have access to the nutrients they need.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-muskoxen-and-non-essential-elements">Muskoxen and non-essential elements</h2>



The researchers also examined the potential harm caused by non-essential elements like arsenic and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-appear-to-be-unaffected-by-lead-contaminated-soil/">lead</a>. These elements, although naturally occurring, can also be released into the environment by human activities like mining and industry.&nbsp;



While not crucial for life, non-essential elements can be poisonous in high amounts. For muskoxen, exposure to high levels of these elements in their environment can lead to various health problems, including difficulty reproducing, slower growth, and fewer calves surviving.



"In some areas we found arsenic and lead and we know that it can reduce the reproductive success of the muskoxen. However, we did not find a causal effect here. Normally it would cause the reproductive organs to collapse, but there are still muskoxen present, so somehow they found a way to survive," said Beest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduced-access-to-food">Reduced access to food</h2>



It is important to note that the measured levels were unlikely to directly harm the muskoxen's reproductive organs. Instead, the observed effects may be caused by other factors, such as limited access to food due to heavy snow.



During winter, deep snow can make it harder for muskoxen to find food, forcing them to search in areas with less desirable food sources, which might have higher concentrations of arsenic and lead.&nbsp;



This increased exposure to these contaminants can harm the health and reproduction of muskoxen, leading to fewer calves being born and surviving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variation-of-muskoxen-over-time">Variation of muskoxen over time</h2>



The experts found that muskoxen don't use the same areas every year, and their choices seem to depend on what's available and what the environment is like that year.&nbsp;



Additionally, muskoxen don't seem to use all the available nutrients equally, suggesting they have preferences or needs for specific ones.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that understanding how muskoxen choose their habitat is more complex than just looking at where nutrients are. Factors such as snow cover, plants, and competition with other animals likely also play a role.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-muskoxen">Broader implications for muskoxen</h2>



The research shows how the environment's chemical makeup can affect the health of wild animal populations. It reminds us that keeping these environments healthy requires considering both living things and the chemicals present.



The study also suggests that climate change might affect the balance of chemicals in the environment, which could harm wildlife. Understanding this connection is important for predicting and reducing the negative effects of climate change on various animal species.



Policies and land management practices should consider the chemicals present in animal habitats. Protecting areas with essential nutrients and limiting exposure to harmful ones could be crucial for protecting wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This research paves the way for more studies on how the chemical makeup of environments, or "geochemical landscapes," might affect the health of various wild animals.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that this could be important not just for the specific species studied, but also for many different animals living in different types of environments.



“Not every animal needs the same amount of elements. But you can use the approach in other areas," said Dr. Beest. "Now we know a little more about how these elements are spread through the ecosystem and how they affect the animals. Next step would be to use the same approach to map out other areas in Europe."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of the Total Environment</a>.



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Minerals in the ground affect reproductive success in muskoxen

Imagine a world without pharmacies, where expecting mothers have to...

Eastern,Chimpanzee,At,Kibale,Forest,,Uganda

In the heart of Africa's lush landscapes, a climate crisis is unfolding that threatens some of our planet's most majestic inhabitants: the African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-can-understand-the-gestures-of-other-great-apes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. Sharing over 98% of their DNA with humans, these remarkable creatures are facing an unprecedented challenge. 



Recent research spearheaded by Razak Kiribou at <a href="https://www.haramaya.edu.et/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Haramaya University</a> in Ethiopia, published in the open-access journal PLOS Climate, reveals a troubling future. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impending-reality-of-great-apes-and-climate-change">Impending reality of great apes and climate change</h2>



The study predicts that within the next thirty years, great apes will frequently face extreme climate events -- from wildfires and heatwaves to flooding -- endangering their very survival.



The serenity of Africa's forests, alive with the calls of wildlife, stands on the brink of disruption. Wildfires, scorching heat, and sudden floods could soon shatter this tranquility, as detailed by the study's thorough investigation. 



This climate scenario is not a mere possibility but an impending reality for the African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/playful-teasing-among-apes-suggests-that-humor-has-ancient-origins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>, demanding our immediate attention and action.



Undertaking an ambitious analysis, the researchers examined data from 363 sites across Africa, focusing on temperature and rainfall records from 1981 to 2010. 



By applying two climate change scenarios, they projected future conditions for African great apes from 2021 to 2050 and then from 2071 to 2099. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heatwaves-and-havoc-climate-forecast-for-great-apes">Heatwaves and havoc: Climate forecast for great apes</h2>



The results issued a compelling call to action, revealing that nearly half of the sites have already experienced higher than average temperatures between 2007 and 2016. 



Eastern chimpanzees are a particularly vulnerable species of African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-malaria-impact-wild-african-apes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>, having faced the most severe heat extremes. 



The study's future projections are even more alarming, with both scenarios predicting soaring temperatures across all sites, leading to widespread wildfires and crop failures. 



An estimated 84% of sites could experience frequent heatwaves, and 78% could face devastating flooding over the next 30 years. 



The situation for our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-recognize-long-lost-friends-after-decades/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great ape</a> cousins could deteriorate further should global temperatures rise by 3°C, intensifying the severity and frequency of these climate events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-as-a-human-imperative">Conservation as a human imperative</h2>



This pioneering study is the first to concretely illustrate the climate change impacts currently affecting African apes and to forecast the increased frequency of extreme weather events they will endure. 



The stark implications highlight the urgent need for swift conservation actions to bolster the resilience of ape populations, without which we may see profound biodiversity and ecosystem health losses.



The authors emphasize the critical necessity of integrating climate change adaptation strategies into conservation planning for African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-may-have-begun-walking-upright-to-eat-leaves-not-fruits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a>. 



This directive extends beyond conservationists to all of humanity, reflecting the interconnected fate of these apes and our shared environmental challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-strategy-for-great-ape-survival">Climate strategy for great ape survival</h2>



In summary, this study illuminates the immediate threats African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-evolved-shoulders-as-brakes-to-safely-climb-down-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes</a> face from climate change, including an uptick in extreme climate events. 



The scientists outline the projected climate impacts under two scenarios, forecasting a rise in temperatures, wildfires, and crop failures, alongside significant variability in heatwaves and flooding. 



These findings underscore the critical need for conservation strategies that protect apes while adapting to the evolving climate landscape.



As observers of these changes, the urgency to act is undeniable. We are called upon to engage in a concerted effort to protect our closest living relatives from the looming threats of climate change. 



Through education, conservation, and global cooperation, we have the opportunity to forge a resilient future for African great apes and the rich ecosystems they call home. Their important research serves as a warning and a guide for transformative action, urging us to respond before it's too late.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/climate/article?id=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Climate</a>.



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Great apes will suffer through frequent and extreme climate events

In the heart of Africa's lush landscapes, a climate crisis...

Walleye, a prized catch for freshwater sportfishing enthusiasts and a staple in Midwestern cuisine, also play a vital role in the cultural traditions of many Indigenous communities.&nbsp;



However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>, walleye populations are now facing challenges due to the increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lakes-are-struggling-to-maintain-oxygen-as-temperatures-rise/">temperatures</a> in the waters of the Midwest United States and Canada.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inability-of-walleye-to-adapt">Inability of walleye to adapt</h2>



The experts shed light on one important aspect of the problem: walleye's inability to adapt to rapidly changing seasonal conditions, especially the shift in winter's timing.&nbsp;



According to lead author Martha Barta, a research technician at the UW-Madison, the timing of walleye <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-light-pollution-from-coastal-cities-is-damaging-coral-reefs/">spawning</a> (when the fish mate and lay their eggs) has historically been tied to the thawing of frozen lakes each spring.&nbsp; Recently, due to climate change, walleye have been “unable to keep up with increasingly early and more variable ice-off dates."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupted-spawning-season">Disrupted spawning season</h2>



The study reveals that the crucial period following the melting of a lake's ice, which signals the start of the walleye spawning season, is being disrupted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fishing-communities-cooperate-to-survive-climate-change/">climate change</a>.&nbsp;



"Climate change is interrupting the historical pairing of ice-off and walleye spawning, and that threatens the persistence of walleye populations across the Upper Midwest," Barta said, emphasizing the urgency of the situation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universal-mismatches">Universal mismatches</h2>



To understand the impact of these changes, Barta and her team analyzed data on walleye populations from 194 lakes across Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered almost universal "mismatches" between the timing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-lakes-melting-earlier/">ice melt</a> and spawning, with the rate of change in ice-off dates outpacing the slight adjustments in spawning times three times faster.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-delicate-balance-nbsp">A delicate balance&nbsp;</h2>



Zach Feiner, a fisheries scientist affiliated with both the UW–Madison Center for Limnology and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, explained the delicate balance that normally exists.&nbsp;



"In an average ice-off year, you have this nice progression of events," said Feiner. "The ice goes off, you get light and warmer water that creates a bloom of small plant life called phytoplankton."&nbsp;



"And then tiny animals called zooplankton emerge and eat the phytoplankton, and usually, the walleye spawning is timed for them to hatch when zooplankton are around in high abundance and can serve as fish food for the baby walleye."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasingly-unpredictable-timing">Increasingly unpredictable timing</h2>



However, the study found that the timing of these ecological events is becoming increasingly unpredictable, often leaving newly hatched walleye without the necessary zooplankton food sources.&nbsp;



Feiner noted the "weird" nature of recent yearly thaws, with lakes thawing earlier on average but also experiencing an increase in late-thawing winters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-for-walleye">Broader implications for walleye</h2>



The implications of this research are significant not only for walleye but also for the broader ecosystem and human communities that rely on them.&nbsp;



Feiner highlighted the importance of identifying lakes that can act as refuges during challenging years and the potential for management strategies to bolster walleye resilience in the face of climate change.



“There is a need now to find places where, through management of things we can control - like land use, fish harvest and invasive species - we can buffer or boost their resiliency to be able to handle stuff we can’t control, like climate change,” he explained.



Furthermore, the study prompts questions about the effects of changing winter patterns on other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/">fish species</a> that spawn in the spring, underscoring the need for expanded research to understand and mitigate the impacts of climate change on freshwater ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/lol2.10383" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Limnology and Oceanography Lessons</a>.



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Walleye are struggling to adapt to rapid seasonal changes

Walleye, a prized catch for freshwater sportfishing enthusiasts and a...

Even with our constant exploration, nature continues to surprise us. Recently, scientists from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders University</a> made a remarkable discovery while studying the beautiful Pacific Islands: they found completely new types of bees that no one knew existed before. 



These amazing pollinators, known as Hylaeus bees, show us just how much unseen variety there is still on Earth.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-bee-diversity">Importance of bee diversity</h2>



Bees are much more than just honey-making insects. They play a critical role in the environment as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-patches-of-land-can-help-support-pollinators/">pollinators</a>, helping countless plants, trees, and flowers grow. This, in turn, provides food and shelter for various wildlife, maintaining the balance of ecosystems worldwide.&nbsp;



Over 20,000 known bee species exist, each with unique adaptations to their specific environment. These range from tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-threatens-solitary-bees-and-global-food-security/">solitary bees</a> nesting underground to social bumblebees forming complex colonies.&nbsp;



They are not just important for the environment; bees are crucial to human agriculture as well. They pollinate a significant portion of the crops we rely on for food, ensuring a diverse and nutritious diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and nuts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-tree-tops">Exploring the tree-tops</h2>



To uncover the hidden diversity of tree-top bees in the Pacific, scientists embarked on an adventurous study. They ventured into the canopies of Fiji, French Polynesia, and Micronesia, equipped with tools and techniques designed for canopy sampling.&nbsp;



This method isn't like the usual bee hunt; it involves reaching the tops of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/">trees</a>, where many species have remained elusive due to traditional sampling methods focusing on the ground.&nbsp;



By exploring these tree-top habitats, researchers were able to collect specimens and observe the behaviors of the bees in their natural environment.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hylaeus-bees">Hylaeus bees</h2>



The researchers identified eight species of Hylaeus bees that are completely new to science, doubling the known dispersals of these bees out of Australia.&nbsp;



“Our investigations have discovered an extra group of endemic bees in Fiji that have remained ‘hidden’ in the forest canopy despite years of looking and sampling,” said study first author and Australian native bee expert James B. Dorey.



Hylaeus bees are small in size and are often overlooked, yet they play a vital role in helping plants reproduce. Unlike the bees we typically see, Hylaeus bees live high up in the forest canopy - an area where the tops of trees create a thick layer of leaves and branches.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-long-standing-mystery">Solving a long-standing mystery</h2>



The study also solved a longstanding scientific mystery related to bees. Dr. Charles Michener, an expert on bees, had discovered a unique bee in French Polynesia called Hylaeus tuamotuensis. However, he couldn't determine its connection to other bees within the same family, Hylaeus.&nbsp;



The researchers have now successfully traced the lineage of this isolated bee back to its relatives in Fiji, finally clarifying its position within the Hylaeus family tree.&nbsp;



This discovery not only answers a long-standing question but also improves our understanding of how these bees are distributed and connected throughout the Pacific islands.&nbsp;



“Happily, this also solves ‘Michener’s mystery’ about how these tiny (3-5mm) Hylaeus made it to French Polynesia, dispersing over time from their closest relatives which were 4,000 km north in Hawaii and 6,000 km west in Australia,” said Dr. Dorey.



<h1 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eight-new-species">Eight new species</h1>



Scientists found eight new types of Hylaeus bees in the Pacific Ocean. These bees are all small and build their nests in special ways, but each new type has unique features.



In Fiji, the discovery includes six species: Hylaeus albaeus, Hylaeus apertus, Hylaeus derectus, Hylaeus navai, Hylaeus veli, and Hylaeus breviflavus.



From French Polynesia, the study adds Hylaeus aureaviridis, while Hylaeus chuukensis is the species identified in Micronesia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-about-the-species">More about about the species</h2>



The new bees in Fiji have different colors, sizes, and preferred living spaces. This suggests they have adapted to the various environments on the islands. These adaptations might involve how they find food, what flowers they like, or where they build their nests in the forest.&nbsp;



The single new bee type found in French Polynesia adds to the few known bee types there, suggesting there might be many more undiscovered bees. This discovery might show how bees in isolated islands have evolved in unique ways to fit their local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-shed-their-flowers-quickly-for-protection-from-microbes/">flowers</a> and climate.



The new bee type found in Micronesia is an important addition to the known animals in the area, and it shows that Hylaeus bees can travel long distances. Its presence suggests that bees may have moved across the ocean in the past, possibly helped by wind, storms, or floating plants.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-bee-conservation">Importance of bee conservation</h2>



Bees face many threats that could wipe them out, which would hurt both nature and our farms. As cities and farms get bigger, bees lose the places they naturally live and the plants they eat.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survey-mother-nature-is-more-likely-to-solve-climate-change-than-geoengineering/">Climate change</a> makes things even harder by changing where bees live and when plants flower, messing up their feeding schedule. Also, the widespread use of pesticides poisons their food, and diseases make them even sicker.



Each kind of bee has a special job and needs something different to survive, so we need different ways to protect them all. By learning where bees live and what they need, scientists and conservationists can create better ways to keep them safe. This will protect bees, the environment, and the food we grow.



The study is a testament to the endless wonder waiting to be discovered in our own backyards (or, in this case, in rainforests).



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2024.1339446" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Eight new Hylaeus bees discovered in the Pacific treetops

Even with our constant exploration, nature continues to surprise us....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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