If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot.



In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. 



But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things get messy. Female choices become unpredictable. This isn’t just a frog issue - it ties into a broader idea that scientists call “choice overload.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frogs-face-chaos-in-the-chorus">Frogs face chaos in the chorus</h2>



In nature, frogs gather in large, noisy groups called choruses. Picture a shallow pond in spring, with dozens of males calling out at the same time. It’s the frog equivalent of a dating scene in a packed nightclub.



The researchers found that the crowded conditions of these choruses might be too overwhelming for females to reliably pick the best mate. It’s not that they stop caring - it’s that they can’t tell who’s who.



Professor Jessie Tanner of the <a href="https://www.utk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tennessee, Knoxville</a>, led a team studying how choice overload affects evolution.



“Because female mate choice can drive evolution, our results suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-story-of-early-animal-evolution/">evolution</a> might happen more slowly than we thought before,” she said. 



“Some males that are fairly unattractive could still mate, especially if they take advantage of crowded spaces where females might be less able to discriminate between attractive and unattractive males.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-when-choices-are-too-hard">What happens when choices are too hard?</h2>



The idea of choice overload is pretty common in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/science-behind-predicting-and-changing-human-behavior/">human behavior</a>. You walk into a store to buy toothpaste and face 50 brands. You either freeze, grab something random, or walk away. Same goes for dating apps with endless swiping.



“We wanted to understand how having to make mating decisions in crowded environments, where choice overload could be a problem, might drive the evolution of calls,” Tanner explained. 



“Since males that are chosen by females pass on their genes to the next generation, this mate choice can cause the population to change over time.”



When animals, like people, face too many options, their decision-making can break down. That opens up a chance for less attractive mates to get picked - not because they became more appealing, but because the chooser got overwhelmed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choice-overload-in-other-animals">Choice overload in other animals</h2>



This isn’t just about frogs. Scientists are now looking at how this effect shows up in other animals. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-increasingly-stressed-over-the-past-century/">Bumblebees</a>, for instance, are on the list. So are wood roaches.



“Our lab is working to understand how choice overload and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-have-lungs-that-cancel-out-background-noise/">noise</a> may each contribute to the difficulty female treefrogs face in making mating decisions,” Tanner said. 



“We are also working to understand whether this choice overload is something that occurs generally in many different kinds of animals or is more specific to individual species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simultaneous-cricket-songs">Simultaneous cricket songs </h2>



Tanner, who has a background in both psychology and biology, first got into animal behavior while studying mate choice as an undergrad. She later became interested in sound - especially how it plays into animal communication.



That led to earlier work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-male-crickets-go-silent-how-females-adapt-and-respond/">crickets</a>. Like treefrogs, male crickets use sound to attract mates. A study on cricket mating showed that noisy environments might either block females from hearing calls or make them too confused to pick. It was hard to tell which was causing the problem.



“During that study, it became clear that our work was consistent with both the possibility that many simultaneous cricket songs created noise that made it hard for females to hear, and the possibility that the females were experiencing choice overload,” Tanner said. “Our current work looks to disentangle those ideas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-average-becomes-good-enough">When average becomes good enough</h2>



The research adds a new layer to how scientists think about evolution. Normally, stronger signals - like a faster frog call - are expected to win out and spread through the population over time. 



But if crowded conditions keep females from consistently picking the top performers, evolution slows down. Mediocre traits stick around longer.



That changes the math for survival. In nature, being the best isn’t always enough - and sometimes, being just okay is good enough, especially if the crowd’s loud and the choices are many.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0585" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Frogs settle for average mates when dating gets too noisy

If you’re a male gray frog trying to find a mate, you’d better have a fast and steady call. That’s what female treefrogs usually go for. But when the crowd gets loud and chaotic, things change. The males that don’t sound all that great? They suddenly have a shot. In quiet situations where females only hear two males at once, their preferences are clear. They go for the one with the sharper, more rhythmic call. But when four or even eight males are calling at once, things...

A recently released study has shed light on the extraordinary genetic adaptations of wolves within the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone (CEZ). 



The experts found that wolves in Chernobyl have genetically altered immune systems and some level of resistance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/holy-grail-molecule-can-kill-all-types-of-solid-cancer-tumors/">cancer</a>. This discovery offers invaluable insights into the mechanisms of survival in one of the world's most hostile environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meticulous-research-nbsp">Meticulous research&nbsp;</h2>



The study, led by evolutionary biologist and ecotoxicologist Cara Love at <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a>, marks a decade-long endeavor to unravel the mysteries of Chernobyl's wildlife.&nbsp;



Love's team embarked on expeditions to the CEZ, collecting blood samples from the resident wolves and deploying radio collars to monitor their movements and radiation exposure.



Love highlighted the significance of their approach, stating, "We get real-time measurements of where they are and how much radiation they are exposed to."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-startling-statistics-nbsp">Startling statistics&nbsp;</h2>



The findings from the study revealed startling statistics regarding the radiation exposure faced by the wolves, with daily doses surpassing six times the legal limit for human workers.&nbsp;



Despite these hazardous conditions, the wolves exhibited signs of genetic resilience, characterized by altered immune systems reminiscent of cancer patients undergoing radiation therapy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinctive-mutations-nbsp">Distinctive mutations&nbsp;</h2>



Furthermore, genetic analysis unveiled distinctive mutations within the wolves' genome, suggesting a form of natural selection favoring traits conducive to cancer resistance.&nbsp;



This parallels previous observations among the semi-feral dog population inhabiting the CEZ, emphasizing the evolutionary pressures imposed by the radioactive landscape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



Love emphasized the potential implications of their findings for human health, envisioning the identification of protective mutations that could enhance cancer survival rates.&nbsp;



However, logistical challenges stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic and geopolitical tensions have hindered further research efforts, leaving the fate of future investigations uncertain.



Dr. Elaine Ostrander, a geneticist and co-author of the study, underscored the significance of the research. "We've had this golden opportunity' to lay the groundwork for answering a crucial question: 'How do you survive in a hostile environment like this for 15 generations?''



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-chernobyl-nbsp">More about Chernobyl&nbsp;</h2>



Chernobyl is known for the catastrophic nuclear accident that occurred there on April 26, 1986. Located in the former Soviet Union, specifically in Ukraine near the city of Pripyat, the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant experienced a massive explosion and fire in one of its four reactors, designated as Reactor No. 4.&nbsp;



This disaster released large quantities of radioactive particles into the atmosphere, which spread over much of the western USSR and Europe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cause-of-the-disaster-nbsp">Cause of the disaster&nbsp;</h3>



The immediate cause of the Chernobyl disaster was a flawed reactor design that was operated with inadequately trained personnel.&nbsp;



During a late-night safety test, which simulated a power outage to test the emergency power supply system, several critical safety systems were deliberately turned off. This led to an uncontrollable power surge that caused the reactor's fuel elements to explode and rupture the reactor vessel, thus releasing radioactive material.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-devastating-aftermath">Devastating aftermath</h3>



The aftermath of the explosion was devastating. Two workers died on the night of the accident, and dozens more suffered acute radiation sickness, leading to the deaths of at least 29 people within a few weeks.&nbsp;



The long-term health effects, including cancer and other diseases, have affected thousands of people, though the exact number remains disputed and difficult to determine due to the widespread nature of the radiation exposure.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disaster-response-nbsp">Disaster response&nbsp;</h3>



The Soviet government initially tried to hide the magnitude of the disaster, but the scale of the accident soon forced them to admit what had happened. The international community was alerted after increased radiation was detected in Sweden and other European countries.&nbsp;



The response to the disaster included evacuating and resettling over 300,000 people from contaminated areas and establishing an exclusion zone around the reactor, which remains in place today.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-securing-the-site">Securing the site</h3>



In the years following, a massive concrete sarcophagus was constructed to encase Reactor No. 4 and contain the radioactive materials. This was replaced by a larger, more secure structure known as the New Safe Confinement in 2016, designed to last 100 years.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-profound-impacts">Profound impacts</h3>



The Chernobyl disaster had profound impacts on the global perception of nuclear power, leading to changes in safety protocols and regulations. It also contributed to the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union due to its demonstration of the limitations of Soviet governance and the lack of transparency.&nbsp;



Today, the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone serves as a stark reminder of the disaster, drawing tourists and researchers interested in its history and the study of its environmental recovery.



The research on Chernobyl wolves was presented at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://sicb.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Society of Integrative and Comparative Biology</a> in Seattle, Washington.&nbsp;



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Chernobyl wolves have evolved resistance to cancer 

A recently released study has shed light on the extraordinary...

In the fascinating intersection of ancient biology and cutting-edge technology, researchers at <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carnegie Mellon University</a> are pioneering an innovative approach to soft robotics by drawing inspiration from the distant past.&nbsp;



The team has designed a new soft robot based on computer simulations of the movement of an ancient marine animal that lived millions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soft-robotics-nbsp">Soft robotics&nbsp;</h2>



Soft robotics, a field dedicated to the creation of robots made from flexible materials, offers unparalleled advantages in terms of safety and adaptability, particularly in human interactions.&nbsp;



These robots hold the promise of revolutionizing a wide array of applications, from medical devices that can navigate the delicate structures of the human body to sophisticated machines designed to operate in the challenging environments of the ocean or outer space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The research was led by Richard Desatnik under the guidance of Philip LeDuc and Carmel Majidi at Carnegie Mellon. In a unique collaboration with European paleontologists, Desatnik's team analyzed the locomotive methods of ancient sea creatures to inform and enhance the design of soft robots.&nbsp;



The focus was on pleurocystitids, a type of sea creature that thrived approximately 500 million years ago. The movement and structure of these animals provide valuable insights into potential robotic functionalities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-ancient-animals">Learning from ancient animals</h2>



“We've learned a lot from modern creatures, but that's only 1% of the animals that have existed during our planet’s history, and we want to see if there is something we can learn from the other 99% of creatures that once roamed the earth,” said Desatnik.&nbsp;



"There are animals that were very successful for millions of years and the reason they died out wasn't from a lack of success from their biology - there may have been a massive environmental change or extinction event.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



The research began with the examination of fossilized pleurocystitids, relatives of modern-day sea stars and sea urchins. Pleurocystitids are notable for their muscular stems or tails, which they used for movement.&nbsp;



Using CT scans to accurately reconstruct the three-dimensional shape of these creatures, the team employed computer simulations to hypothesize how these ancient animals might have propelled themselves through the water. Based on the results, the team constructed a soft robot that emulates the pleurocystitid's movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-insights">Key insights</h2>



The findings indicate that the pleurocystitids' method of movement, particularly the sweeping motion of their stem, could have been an efficient means of navigating the ocean floor. Moreover, the evolution of a longer stem, as suggested by the fossil record, could have enhanced their speed without significantly increasing their energy expenditure.&nbsp;



This insight has profound implications for the design of underwater soft robots, which could be employed in a variety of tasks, from geological surveying to the maintenance of underwater infrastructure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers' innovative approach, which they have termed "paleobionics," represents a merger of paleontology and robotics. 



By studying extinct animals to inform the design of soft robots, they are not only advancing our understanding of historical life forms but also pioneering new possibilities in robotic movement and functionality.&nbsp;



Desatnik will present the team's findings at the 68th Biophysical Society Annual Meeting, scheduled for February 10-14, 2024, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.&nbsp;



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Sea creatures of the past inspire the future of soft robots

In the fascinating intersection of ancient biology and cutting-edge technology,...

In a fascinating discovery in the Cabrières Biota, located in the south of France, nearly 400 extraordinarily well-preserved fossils have been unearthed by two dedicated amateur paleontologists, dating back 470 million years.



This finding from the the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-earths-earliest-major-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lower Ordovician</a> period is a testament to the persistence of passionate fossil hunters and a significant leap forward in understanding ancient polar ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cabrieres-biota-insights-from-the-ordovician">Cabrières Biota: Insights from the Ordovician</h2>



The discovery took place in the scenic Montagne Noire region, within the Hérault department, where Eric Monceret and Sylvie Monceret-Goujon, the amateur paleontologists, stumbled upon what is now considered one of the richest and most diverse fossil sites of its time. 



"We've been prospecting and searching for fossils since the age of twenty," Eric shared. Sylvie added, "When we came across this amazing biota, we understood the importance of the discovery and went from amazement to excitement." 



Their find, featuring over 400 fossils, is remarkable not only for the sheer quantity but for the exceptional state of preservation, including rare soft elements such as digestive systems and cuticles.



This deposit, known as the Cabrières Biota, was analyzed by scientists from the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/central/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lausanne</a>, in collaboration with the CNRS and international teams. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reflections-on-climate-past-present-and-future">Reflections on climate: Past, present, and future</h2>



The significance of this site extends globally, offering unprecedented insights into the ecosystems that thrived near the South Pole during the Ordovician period. 



The findings highlight a diverse array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life forms</a>, including arthropods, cnidarians, algae, and sponges, indicating a high-biodiversity refuge from the intense global warming of the era.



Farid Saleh, a researcher at the University of Lausanne and the study's first author, noted, "At this time of intense global warming, animals were indeed living in high latitude refugia, escaping extreme equatorial temperatures." 



Jonathan Antcliffe, a co-author and researcher at the same university, emphasized the relevance of these ancient patterns to contemporary climate challenges, saying, "The distant past gives us a glimpse of our possible near future."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-discovery-to-deep-analysis">From discovery to deep analysis</h2>



The discovery heralds the beginning of an extensive research program aimed at conducting large-scale excavations and in-depth analyses of the fossils. 



By employing innovative methods and techniques, scientists hope to uncover the internal and external anatomy of the organisms, determine their phylogenetic relationships, and understand their modes of life.



This collaborative effort between amateur enthusiasts and professional scientists underscores the value of passion-driven exploration in unveiling the mysteries of our planet's past. 



In summary, the Cabrières Biota, with its exceptional preservation and diversity, provides invaluable insights into the Ordovician period's polar ecosystems and offers a poignant reminder of the enduring power of natural history to inform our understanding of climate change and biodiversity. 



As researchers embark on a detailed journey of analysis and exploration, the findings from Montagne Noire promise to illuminate ancient life's complexities and resilience, offering lessons that resonate far beyond the confines of paleontology.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-024-02331-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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470 million-year-old animal fossils discovered in France's Cabrières Biota

In a fascinating discovery in the Cabrières Biota, located in...

Known for their elusive nature, beaked whales inhabit some of the most inaccessible regions on Earth, making them one of the least understood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hairless-mammals-evolved-at-a-faster-pace/">mammals</a>.&nbsp;



Among them, Baird's beaked whales have recently become the subject of a study that challenges long-held beliefs about their behavior and habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-ocean-diving">Deep ocean diving</h2>



Beaked whales, encompassing 24 known species, have traditionally been associated with deep ocean waters far from land. 



These creatures are renowned for their remarkable diving capabilities, with a Cuvier's beaked whale holding the record for the deepest mammalian dive at 2,992 meters and the longest dive lasting 222 minutes. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-behavior-nbsp">Surprising behavior&nbsp;</h2>



In the latest study, led by whale biologists Olga Filatova and Ivan Fedutin from the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southern Denmark</a>, a population of Baird's beaked whales were found in shallower waters than previously observed. This significant discovery came about during an expedition to the Commander Islands in 2008. Filatova and Fedutin stumbled upon a group of Baird's beaked whales near the coast.



"We were there to look for killer whales and humpback whales, so we just noted that we had seen a group of Baird's beaked whales and didn't do much about it. But we also saw them in the following years, and after five years, we suspected that it was a stable community frequently visiting the same area," said Filatova.&nbsp;



"We saw them every year until 2020, when Covid 19 prevented us from going back to the Commander Islands."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-habitats-nbsp">Unexpected habitats&nbsp;</h2>



The experts ultimately found that this population of beaked whales frequents coastal areas within four kilometers from land, residing in waters less than 300 meters deep - conditions that are uncharacteristic for their species.



The presence of Baird's beaked whales in such unexpected habitats suggests a remarkable adaptation and challenges the conventional wisdom that all beaked whales solely inhabit deep, offshore waters.&nbsp;



"It means that you cannot expect all individuals within a specific species to behave the same way. This makes it difficult to plan species protection - in this case, for example, you cannot plan based on the assumption that beaked whales only live far out in deep sea. We have shown that they can also live in shallow and coastal waters. There may be other different habitats that we are not aware of yet," said Filatova.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-learning-behavior">Social learning behavior</h2>



The observations also shed light on the fascinating social dynamics and learning behaviors within whale populations. The study suggests that the Baird's beaked whales' preference for shallow coastal waters may have emerged through social learning mechanisms, particularly through "local enhancement."&nbsp;



This process, where animals learn the value of a location by following their peers, appears to have led to the formation of a cultural tradition among the Baird's beaked whales at the Commander Islands. The tradition includes preferences for habitats and prey, marking the first time such a cultural phenomenon has been observed among beaked whales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-transient-whales">Transient whales</h2>



The experts meticulously documented 186 individuals of the Baird's beaked whale species, distinguishing between transient whales, observed only once, and residents, spotted multiple times over the years.&nbsp;



Interestingly, some transient whales were observed in the shallow waters after interacting with residents, suggesting that these encounters facilitated learning about the area.



"The transients are not as familiar with local conditions as the residents, and therefore, they usually seek food at the depths that are normal for their species. But we actually observed some transients in the shallow area," said Filatova.



"These were individuals who had some form of social contact with the residents. It must be in that contact that they learned about the shallow water and its advantages."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The implications of this study extend beyond the scientific community, offering a glimpse into the complex world of marine mammals.&nbsp;



The research highlights the importance of continued exploration and study of the world's oceans, where countless mysteries and undiscovered behaviors await.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Olga Filatova, University of Southern Denmark



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2023.12.021" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>. 



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Study reveals unexpected behavior among beaked whales 

Known for their elusive nature, beaked whales inhabit some of...

An international team of researchers led by <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a> has recently highlighted the critical ecological roles played by large herbivores throughout history. 



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-024-02327-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, emphasizes the profound effects these megafauna have on terrestrial ecosystems, effects that have been significantly altered by human-induced extinctions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-void">Ecological void</h2>



The research investigates the ecological void left by the disappearance of species such as European elephants, Australian giant wombats, and South American ground sloths, examining how their decline has led to shifts in ecosystem dynamics that are not fully understood.



This comprehensive study synthesizes data from various individual case studies to illustrate the widespread impacts of large animals on ecosystems, impacts that are largely absent in modern environments.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-herbivores-nbsp">Large herbivores&nbsp;</h2>



The research points out that large herbivores are instrumental in nutrient cycling, maintaining open habitats, and controlling smaller animal populations. A pivotal discovery is the role of these animals in enhancing ecosystem diversity by creating more structurally varied vegetation.



“The positive impact on variability in vegetation structure is particularly noteworthy, given that environmental heterogeneity is known as a universal driver of biodiversity. While our study mostly looked at the impact of megafauna on small scales, our findings suggest that they promote biodiversity even on the landscape level,” said lead author Jonas Trepel, a PhD student at Aarhus.



The study explores how large herbivores, through their interactions with vegetation, such as consumption of biomass, breaking of woody plants, and trampling, influence ecosystem structure, an effect that varies with the animal's size.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-plant-diversity-nbsp">Local plant diversity&nbsp;</h2>



The research, covering a broad range of body sizes (45-4500 kg), provides insights into how the presence of larger herbivores tends to enhance local plant diversity, whereas smaller species may have the opposite effect.



“Large herbivores can eat lower-quality food such as branches and stems, which may result in proportionally greater impacts on dominant plant species and thus give less competitive plants better odds in their struggle for sunlight and space,” explained senior author Erick Lundgren, an ecologist at Aarhus.



“These findings support the expectation that many small herbivores cannot fully compensate for the loss of a few large ones," added Elizabeth le Roux, also a senior author of the study and expert in megafauna ecology and restoration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystem-restoration">Ecosystem restoration</h2>



This meta-analysis, drawing from 297 studies and 5,990 data points, leverages a wide dataset to identify overarching patterns in how megafauna influence ecosystems, particularly through exclosure studies that compare fenced areas excluding large animals to unfenced ones.



The research underscores the necessity of integrating large herbivores into conservation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-mussels-are-ideal-for-ecosystem-restoration/">ecosystem restoration</a> efforts, given their essential roles in promoting biodiversity and ecosystem resilience. Moreover, there are potential benefits of reintroducing large animals to protected areas, such as enhancing ecosystem dynamics and adaptability to global changes.



The study concludes with a call to not only protect the remaining megafauna species but also to actively work towards their restoration, emphasizing the critical importance of these animals in maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity, especially in the face of accelerating environmental changes.



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Wild megafauna play a key role in maintaining ecological balance

An international team of researchers led by Aarhus University has...

A team of researchers from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL) has recently made an alarming discovery, finding that pollutants from burning fossil fuels are embedded in coral skeletons. 



This significant finding, published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170665" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of the Total Environment</a> journal, highlights <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-corals-and-reefs-are-showing-surprising-resilience-as-global-waters-warm/">corals</a> from Illa Grossa Bay near the Columbretes Islands in the Mediterranean Sea as carriers of carbon particles - specifically, fly-ash or spheroidal carbonaceous particles (SCPs) from fossil fuel combustion. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-induced-environmental-changes-nbsp">Human-induced environmental changes&nbsp;</h2>



Such contamination is a stark indicator of human environmental impact and serves as a historical marker for the onset of the Anthropocene epoch, a period defined by human activities being the dominant influence on climate and the environment.



Corals have long been valued in paleoclimate research for their ability to record environmental data analogous to tree rings, given their slow and regular growth. While traditionally used to study past climatic conditions like water temperature and chemistry, the detection of pollutant particles in corals marks a novel method for examining human-induced environmental changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-historic-rate-of-fossil-fuel-combustion">Historic rate of fossil fuel combustion</h2>



“The discovery of these pollutants embedded in coral skeletons extend over decades and paint a clear picture of how extensive human influence is on the environment,” said lead author Lucy Roberts, an environmental geochemist at UCL. “It’s the first time we’ve been able to see this kind of contaminant in corals, and its appearance in these deposits parallel the historic rate of fossil fuel combustion in the region.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cladocora-caespitosa">Cladocora caespitosa</h2>



The study focused on the coral species Cladocora caespitosa, collected from a reef off Castelló, Spain. This coral species is notable for being the only Mediterranean coral capable of forming large reefs, growing at an average rate of about 0.3 centimeters per year.&nbsp;



The selected site, positioned nearly 60 kilometers from the shore and within a protected marine reserve, minimizes potential local contamination influences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corals-as-natural-archives">Corals as natural archives</h2>



In the laboratory, the coral samples were dissolved in acid to isolate any pollutant particulates within the skeletons. The researchers utilized microscopes and x-ray analysis to identify and analyze the SCPs, finding a notable increase in contamination between approximately 1969 and 1992, coinciding with rapid industrialization and increased coal consumption in Europe.



This correlation between coral SCP contamination and historical pollution levels supports the concept of using corals as natural archives to monitor pollution trends over time. The study's findings contribute to the broader scientific endeavor to define the Anthropocene epoch, advocating for the inclusion of SCP presence as a key marker.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



“As it becomes clearer that humans have altered the natural environment to an unprecedented level, these pollutants act as indelible markers, indicating the start of the Anthropocene epoch,” Roberts said.&nbsp;



“This is valuable to researchers trying to better understand the history of human impact on the natural world and serves as a powerful reminder of how extensive human influence is over the environment,” she concluded.&nbsp;



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Pollutants from fossil fuels are embedded in coral skeletons

A team of researchers from University College London (UCL) has...

Monarch,Butterfly,Collecting,Nectar,From,A,White,Aster,Flower.,Tommy

The Eastern migratory monarch butterfly has suffered a drastic decline, with populations decreasing by 59% in 2024 compared to the previous year.&nbsp;



The startling figures were released following a meticulous annual survey conducted in central Mexico's forests, where the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-when-butterflies-evolved-and-what-plants-they-used-for-food/">butterflies</a> spend their winters.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drastic-reduction-in-numbers">Drastic reduction in numbers</h2>



The survey was a collaborative effort by the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a> (WWF) and partners including The National Commission of Protected Natural Areas in Mexico and the WWF-TELMEX Telcel Foundation Alliance. 



The researchers found that the monarchs occupied a mere 2.2 acres during the 2023-2024 winter season, a stark reduction from the 5.5 acres observed in the prior year.



This decrease has alarmed conservationists and scientists who monitor the area of forest where the monarch butterflies hibernate in each winter. This measurement serves as a crucial scientific indicator of the species' population status.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributing-factors">Contributing factors</h2>



The drastic reduction in habitat area has been attributed to climatic variations in the monarch’s breeding grounds across Canada and the United States, which have led to high temperatures and drought conditions. These adverse weather patterns have notably diminished the abundance of milkweed, the sole plant species where monarchs lay their eggs.&nbsp;



Additionally, land-use changes and the widespread application of herbicides in the United States have further exacerbated the loss of milkweed and other nectar plants vital for the adult monarchs’ sustenance.



Conservation measures must be intensified



"Fewer monarchs hibernating in their traditional forest habitat in Mexico greatly concerns all of us. It's critical that all communities, governments, non-governmental organizations, scientists, and others continue to strengthen our conservation and protection efforts to support the monarch's unique migration," said Jorge Rickards, general director of WWF Mexico.&nbsp;



"This is not the first time we've observed changes in the locations of the largest monarch colonies. It's telling us that we need to intensify conservation and restoration measures not only in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, but also outside of it."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fluctuating-population-numbers">Fluctuating population numbers</h2>



The largest monarch colonies of this season were identified outside the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, with notable areas in the Palomas and Peña Ahumada sanctuaries in the State of Mexico, and a traditionally large colony in El Rosario, Sierra Campanario sanctuary, Michoacán.&nbsp;



The 2023-2024 data records the second-smallest area occupied by monarch butterfly colonies in Mexico since monitoring began in 1993, surpassed only by the 1.7 acres observed in the 2013-2014 season. The peak population was recorded in the 1996-1997 season, with an expansive 45 acres monitored.



The monarch butterfly's migration is one of nature's most astonishing phenomena, with some individuals traveling nearly 3,000 miles from southern Canada and the northern and central United States to their overwintering sites in Michoacán and the State of Mexico.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-forest-ecosystems">Valuable forest ecosystems</h2>



These forests not only provide sanctuary for the monarchs but also support the regional communities by improving water quality in the Cutzamala System, benefiting more than 6 million people in Mexico City and its metropolitan area. Moreover, these forest ecosystems are a haven for biodiversity, home to a diverse range of species including 132 birds, 56 mammals, 432 vascular plants, and 211 fungi.



The significant decline in monarch populations underscores the urgent need for intensified conservation efforts across North America. Protecting these majestic creatures and their habitats not only preserves a fascinating natural wonder but also safeguards the ecological health and biodiversity of the regions they inhabit.



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Monarch butterfly populations have plummeted by 59 percent

The Eastern migratory monarch butterfly has suffered a drastic decline,...

In a new study, researchers have unveiled a major contributor to the decline in nighttime pollinator activity, with human activities being identified as a primary culprit.&nbsp;



The study reveals that nitrate radicals (NO3) in the atmosphere, resulting from the combustion of gas and coal, degrade the scent chemicals of common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildflowers-are-self-fertilizing-to-deal-with-a-lack-of-pollinators/">wildflowers</a>, thus impairing the ability of nighttime pollinators to locate these flowers through smell.



The team was co-led by Jeff Riffell, a professor of Biology, and Joel Thornton, a professor of Atmospheric Sciences at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pale-evening-primrose">Pale evening primrose</h2>



The researchers focused on the pale evening primrose (Oenothera pallida), a wildflower native to the arid regions of the western United States.&nbsp;



This flower was chosen due to its white blossoms that emit a scent attracting a diverse group of pollinators, notably nocturnal moths, which are among its most crucial pollinators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemical-components-nbsp">Chemical components&nbsp;</h2>



The experts embarked on a detailed analysis of the wildflower’s scent by collecting samples from field sites in eastern Washington. Utilizing advanced chemical analysis techniques, including mass spectrometry, they identified and examined the dozens of individual chemicals that constitute the flower's scent.&nbsp;



“When you smell a rose, you’re smelling a diverse bouquet composed of different types of chemicals,” said Professor Riffell. “The same is true for almost any flower. Each has its own scent made up of a specific chemical recipe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-insights">Critical insights</h2>



The findings were startling. When exposed to NO3, certain key scent chemicals, particularly monoterpene compounds which moths find highly attractive, were nearly eradicated. This discovery was further explored through experiments with moths, which demonstrated a remarkable ability to detect scents, akin to dogs and far surpassing human olfactory capabilities.&nbsp;



The researchers used a wind tunnel and an odor-stimulus system to simulate the flower's scent in the presence of NO3, observing a significant decrease in the moths' ability to locate the scent source.&nbsp;



For instance, the accuracy of the tobacco hawkmoth (Manduca sexta) dropped by 50%, and the white-lined sphinx (Hyles lineata), a primary nocturnal pollinator, could not locate the source at all.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-altered-floral-scent">Altered floral scent</h2>



Further field experiments reinforced these findings, revealing a drastic reduction in moth visitation to flowers when their scent was altered by NO3.&nbsp;



Riffell emphasized the impact of NO3 on reducing the "reach" of a flower’s scent, severely limiting its ability to attract nighttime pollinators before the scent becomes undetectable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-high-risk-regions">High-risk regions</h2>



The study also compared the effects of daytime versus nighttime pollution on floral scents, concluding that nighttime pollution poses a much greater threat due to the stability of NO3 in the absence of sunlight, which otherwise helps degrade NO3.



Utilizing a computer model to simulate global weather patterns and atmospheric chemistry, the researchers identified regions most at risk of experiencing disruptions in plant-pollinator communication due to NO3 pollution. These areas span across western North America, Europe, the Middle East, Central and South Asia, and southern Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



“Outside of human activity, some regions accumulate more NO3 because of natural sources, geography and atmospheric circulation,” said Professor Thornton, who added that natural sources of NO3 include wildfires and lightning.&nbsp;



“But human activity is producing more NO3 everywhere. We wanted to understand how those two sources - natural and human - combine and where levels could be so high that they could interfere with the ability of pollinators to find flowers.”



“Our approach could serve as a roadmap for others to investigate how pollutants impact plant-pollinator interactions, and to really get at the underlying mechanisms."



“You need this kind of holistic approach, especially if you want to understand how widespread the breakdown in plant-pollinator interactions is and what the consequences will be.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adi0858">Science</a>.



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Pollution prevents nighttime pollinators from finding flowers

In a new study, researchers have unveiled a major contributor...

In Africa, pangolins are equipped with a distinctive armor of overlapping scales, made of keratin - the same material as human fingernails - providing them with protection against predators such as lions, hyenas, snakes, and wild dogs. This natural defense mechanism allows them to curl into a ball, shielding their soft underbellies.&nbsp;



However, these very scales make pangolins a target for illegal wildlife traffickers, driving a lucrative and unlawful trade that poses a significant threat to wildlife and human communities globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-forensics-laboratory-nbsp">Wildlife forensics laboratory&nbsp;</h2>



To address the pressing issue of wildlife <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-global-wildlife-trafficking/">trafficking</a>, the College of Natural Resources and Environment at <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> has been granted $2.6 million by the <a href="https://www.state.gov/bureaus-offices/under-secretary-for-civilian-security-democracy-and-human-rights/bureau-of-international-narcotics-and-law-enforcement-affairs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of State's Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs</a>. 



This funding is allocated for the establishment of a cutting-edge wildlife forensics laboratory in Kasane, Botswana, which will operate in partnership with the Botswana government.&nbsp;



Professor Kathleen Alexander of Virginia Tech’s Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation will lead this initiative, significantly enhancing the institution's research capabilities in Botswana.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-effort">Collaborative effort</h2>



The lab aims to facilitate swift DNA evidence processing to aid the investigation and prosecution of wildlife trafficking cases in the region, and it will also support the launch of Botswana's multiagency wildlife crime training and response units, dubbed the Elite Team.



The project is a collaborative effort between Virginia Tech, the Republic of Botswana, and the <a href="https://www.caracal.info/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for African Resources: Animals, Communities, and Land Use</a> (CARACAL), a nongovernmental organization founded by Alexander in 2001. Additionally, the <a href="https://witatrain.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildlife Investigation Training Alliance</a>, a nonprofit conservation organization, will oversee the educational aspects of the initiative.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increasing-global-threat">Increasing global threat</h2>



Alexander, the project's principal investigator, emphasized the increasing global threat of wildlife trafficking, highlighting its implications not only for conservation but also for national and global security.&nbsp;



“Wildlife trafficking is escalating across the globe and is increasingly seen as a threat to conservation and local livelihoods. But more significantly, we’re seeing that wildlife trafficking is part of an integrated system that allows criminal syndicates to operate and grow. Tackling wildlife crime is not just about conservation related impacts, it’s about national and global security,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combating-wildlife-crime">Combating wildlife crime</h2>



The establishment of the wildlife forensic center builds upon Virginia Tech's ongoing collaboration with the Botswana government. This partnership was underscored by the visits of Botswana President Eric Mokgweetsi Keabetswe Masisi to Virginia Tech and Virginia Tech President Tim Sands to Botswana, marking significant milestones in the relationship between the two entities.



President Masisi acknowledged Botswana's leadership in conservation but pointed out the need to bridge gaps in the country's capacity to combat wildlife crime. He believes the forensic center will serve as a crucial resource in protecting Botswana's natural heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



Illegal wildlife trade, encompassing products ranging from pangolin scales to elephant ivory, poses one of the largest threats to global biodiversity and public health, facilitating zoonotic disease spread and funding criminal networks. Botswana, with its rich biodiversity including the world's largest elephant population, is strategically positioned in the fight against this illicit trade.



Alexander's work in Botswana takes a One Health approach, addressing the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health. The new forensic center represents a significant step forward in combating wildlife trafficking and its broader implications for security and conservation in southern Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-technologies-nbsp">Innovative technologies&nbsp;</h2>



The forensic center will employ innovative technologies to trace the origins of trafficked animal products and develop strategies to combat wildlife smuggling. This initiative underscores a collective effort to tackle wildlife trafficking within and beyond Botswana's borders, leveraging advanced DNA sequencing technologies to analyze complex samples.



The collaboration between Virginia Tech and the Botswana government exemplifies a model for how academic institutions and governments can unite to address global challenges, reflecting Virginia Tech's commitment to service and providing a blueprint for future partnerships aimed at securing peace, democracy, and equity worldwide.



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Experts are using forensic science to fight wildlife trafficking

In Africa, pangolins are equipped with a distinctive armor of...

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> have unveiled new insights into the locomotive versatility of dinosaurs, attributing their adaptability as a key factor to their dominance on Earth for 160 million years. 



This study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.231495" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>, demonstrates that the earliest dinosaurs possessed superior speed and dynamism compared to their contemporaries, which significantly contributed to their evolutionary success.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-locomotion-styles-nbsp">Locomotion styles&nbsp;</h2>



By analyzing limb proportions of various reptiles from the Triassic period (252 to 201 million years ago) - the era marking the emergence and ascendancy of dinosaurs - the team was able to discern the locomotion styles of these ancient creatures.&nbsp;



They distinguished between quadrupedal (four-footed) and bipedal (two-footed) species, additionally evaluating their cursoriality index, indicative of their running capabilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-advantage-nbsp">Evolutionary advantage&nbsp;</h2>



The findings revealed that dinosaurs and their close relatives were inherently bipedal and cursorial, meaning their limbs were evolutionarily fashioned for running. This adaptability allowed them a broader spectrum of running styles than their rivals, the Pseudosuchia, which included the progenitors of today's crocodiles.



“When the crunch came, 233 million years ago, dinosaurs won out,” said lead author Amy Shipley, an MSc Palaeobiology student at Bristol. “At that time, climates shifted from wet to dry, intensifying the competition for food. Despite being relatively few in number for 20 million years, dinosaurs managed to flourish while the pseudosuchians faltered.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival-and-expansion">Survival and expansion</h2>



The study suggests that dinosaurs' capability for water conservation, akin to many of today's reptiles and birds, alongside their versatile mobility, were crucial to their survival and expansion, especially following the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-be-enduring-its-seventh-mass-extinction-not-sixth/">mass extinction</a> at the Triassic's close.&nbsp;



“After the end of the Triassic, when there was a mass extinction, the dinosaurs expanded again,” said study senior author Mike Benton, a professor of Paleontology at the same university.&nbsp;



“Most of the pseudosuchians were wiped out by the mass extinction, except for the ancestors of crocodiles, and we found that these surviving dinosaurs expanded their range of locomotion again, taking over many of the empty niches.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-insights">New insights</h2>



Contrary to expectations, the research, co-authored by Dr Armin Elsler, found that dinosaurs did not evolve at exceptionally rapid rates.&nbsp;



“This was a surprise because we expected to see fast evolution in avemetatarsalians and slower evolution in pseudosuchians. What this means is that the locomotion style of dinosaurs was advantageous to them, but it was not an engine of intense evolutionary selection. In other words, when crises happened, they were well placed to take advantage of opportunities after the crisis,” Elsler explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immensely-adaptable-nbsp">Immensely adaptable&nbsp;</h2>



Dr Tom Stubbs, another collaborator, highlighted the misconception of dinosaurs as solely massive, slow-moving creatures, pointing out their origins as agile, bipedal insect-eaters. This agility and varied leg posture enabled their ancestors to swiftly navigate their environments, capturing prey while evading larger predators.



“And of course, their diversity of posture and focus on fast running meant that dinosaurs could diversify when they had the chance. After the end-Triassic mass extinction, we get truly huge dinosaurs, over ten meters long, some with armor, many quadrupedal, but many still bipedal like their ancestors,” said co-author Suresh Singh. “The diversity of their posture and gait meant they were immensely adaptable, and this ensured strong success on Earth for so long.”&nbsp;



The study not only sheds light on the evolutionary prowess of dinosaurs but also underscores the significance of adaptability in the face of changing environmental conditions and crises.



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Locomotive versatility helped dinosaurs adapt and survive

Researchers from the University of Bristol have unveiled new insights...

The reintroduction of apex predators into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-coastal-ecosystems-can-mitigate-climate-change/">ecosystems</a> does not result in the immediate or quick restoration of those ecosystems to their original states, according to a study from <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a> (CSU).



The research challenges the previously held belief that the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park fully restored the ecosystem degraded by their absence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-absence-of-apex-predators">Absence of apex predators</h2>



The study was conducted by scientists at CSU’s Warner College of Natural Resources, focusing on the effects of three apex predators: wolves, cougars, and grizzly bears in Yellowstone. These carnivores, positioned at the top of the food chain and not preyed upon by other animals, had populations that were depleted over time.&nbsp;



The return of wolves to the park in 1995 was concurrent with the natural recovery of cougar and grizzly populations. Their absence for nearly a century had significantly altered the park's landscape and food web, transforming regions rich in willow and aspen along small streams into grasslands due to intense elk browsing.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternative-ecological-state-nbsp">Alternative ecological state&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, the widespread changes stabilized into an alternative ecological state that resisted returning to previous conditions once the carnivores were restored.



Conducted over more than two decades, this experiment in Yellowstone is the longest of its kind. The results of the research support the theory that degradation of ecosystems may not be reversed when harmful stressors are mitigated.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lasting-changes">Lasting changes</h2>



"When you disturb ecosystems by changing the makeup of a food web, it can lead to lasting changes that are not quickly fixed,” said study lead author Professor Tom Hobbs.&nbsp;



“We can't rule out the possibility that the ecosystem will be restored over the next 40 years as a result of the return of apex predators. All we can be sure of is what's observable now - the ecosystem has not responded dramatically to the restored food web.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healthier-ecosystems-nbsp">Healthier ecosystems&nbsp;</h2>



While it is not a quick and easy solution, said Professor Hobbs, the restoration of apex predators produces healthier ecosystems in the long run.&nbsp;



"The conservation message is don't lose them in the first place. Keep the food web intact, because there's not a quick fix for losing top predators from ecosystems.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-excessive-elk-grazing">Excessive elk grazing</h2>



The researchers also explored the implications of these findings for Colorado, where Colorado Parks and Wildlife has begun reintroducing wolves following voter approval in 2020.&nbsp;



Hobbs noted the differences between Colorado's management of elk populations through hunting and Yellowstone's policy, which led to excessive grazing and browsing by elk.



"Unlike Yellowstone, Colorado's landscapes have not experienced widespread excessive grazing or browsing from elk,” said Hobbs. “The state has done a good job of managing elk populations using hunting."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-nbsp">Broader implications&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers said there are many good reasons to restore wolves - just don’t expect them to cause immediate ecosystem improvements.&nbsp;



"Our work supports the fact that wolves are important components of ecosystems,” said study co-author David Cooper, a research scientist emeritus in the Department of Forest and Rangeland Stewardship.&nbsp;



“They will have some ecosystem benefits by reducing some large herbivore populations. Over the next hundred years, they'll have a greater role in regulating some of the ecological processes that we've been studying."&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



"This research contributes greatly to our understanding of Yellowstone by teasing out the degree to which complex links in a food web affect ecosystems under native species recovery,” said Yellowstone National Park Senior Wildlife Biologist Daniel Stahler.



“Importantly, it is among few published studies to date on the Yellowstone ecosystem that highlight that not just wolves, but multiple predator species together have contributed to changes in elk abundance. This point has ramifications for how we evaluate how complex ecosystems respond to carnivore presence and absence.”



“This long-term research conducted by the CSU team also highlights the value of national parks in helping us understand ecological processes, in order to better protect ecosystems. We should not only cherish our national parks because they protect, preserve and allow people to enjoy nature, but because they provide a place where well-designed science can elevate our understanding of its complexity."&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecm.1598" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecological Monographs</a>. 



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Apex predators can help restore ecosystems, but not immediately 

The reintroduction of apex predators into ecosystems does not result...

Experts in canine behavior and artificial intelligence have made a groundbreaking advancement. The team has created an algorithm aimed at revolutionizing the evaluation of personality in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dogs-communicate-with-us-is-impacted-by-their-facial-markings/">working dogs</a>.



This innovative approach seeks to assist dog training organizations in efficiently determining the suitability of dogs for roles in law enforcement and assistance for individuals with disabilities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-human-compatibility-nbsp">Dog-human compatibility&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, this technology holds promise for enhancing dog-human compatibility in shelters, potentially reducing the rate of animals returned due to poor matches with their new homes.



This study, titled “An Artificial Intelligence Approach To Predicting Personality Types In Dogs” and published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-52920-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>, was led by researchers from the <a href="https://uel.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East London</a> and the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pennsylvania</a>, under the sponsorship of <a href="https://www.dogvatar.dog/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogvatar</a>, a pioneering canine technology firm based in Miami, Florida. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-canine-personality-traits-nbsp">Canine personality traits&nbsp;</h2>



Leveraging nearly 8,000 responses from the Canine Behavioral Assessment &amp; Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ), the AI algorithm was trained to recognize and categorize canine personality traits.&nbsp;



The C-BARQ, with its 100 questions, has been the benchmark for assessing potential working dogs for over two decades. However, the AI's objective is to refine this process by accounting for the subjective nature of certain survey responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance-nbsp">Study significance&nbsp;</h2>



James Serpell, a professor of ethics and animal welfare emeritus at the University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine and co-Principal Investigator of the study, highlighted the significance of addressing subjectivity in the C-BARQ responses.&nbsp;



“C-BARQ is highly effective, but many of its questions are also subjective,” said Serpell. “By clustering data from thousands of surveys, we can adjust for outlying responses inherent to subjective survey questions in categories such as dog rivalry and stranger-directed fear.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personality-profiles">Personality profiles</h2>



The AI algorithm categorizes dog personalities into five distinct types: “excitable/attached,” “anxious/fearful,” “aloof/predatory,” “reactive/assertive,” and “calm/agreeable,” based on key behavioral attributes. This classification helps create a comprehensive personality profile for each dog, which can guide their training and placement.



“It’s rather remarkable – these clusters are very meaningful, very coherent,” Serpell remarked, emphasizing the algorithm's accuracy in reflecting genuine canine personality traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exciting-breakthrough-nbsp">Exciting breakthrough&nbsp;</h2>



Dogvatar's CEO, referred to humorously as the “Alpha Pack Leader” Piya Pettigrew, expressed enthusiasm about the project's potential.&nbsp;



“This has been a really exciting breakthrough for us,” Pettigrew said. “This algorithm could greatly improve efficiency in the working dog training and placement process, and could help reduce the number of companion dogs brought back to shelters for not being compatible. It’s a win for both dogs and the people they serve.”



The collaboration between Dogvatar and the research team signifies a significant step forward in the application of AI in animal behavior studies, promising enhancements in the selection and training of service dogs as well as in the adoption process in shelters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-dog-personalities-nbsp">More about dog personalities&nbsp;</h2>



Dog personalities are as varied and complex as human personalities. Just like people, dogs have distinct characteristics that can define their behavior, preferences, and interactions with both humans and other animals.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influential-factors">Influential factors</h3>



A dog's personality can be influenced by its breed, upbringing, environment, and experiences. For instance, some dogs are naturally more outgoing and sociable, always eager to greet new people and explore new environments with enthusiasm. Others may be more reserved or cautious, possibly taking time to warm up to strangers or new situations.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breed-nbsp">Breed&nbsp;</h4>



Certain breeds are known for specific traits, such as Labrador Retrievers, who are often friendly, outgoing, and highly trainable, making them excellent family pets and service dogs.&nbsp;



On the other hand, breeds like the Shiba Inu can be more independent and reserved, showing loyalty and affection primarily to their immediate family members.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upbringing">Upbringing</h4>



The upbringing and training a dog receives play a crucial role in shaping its personality. Positive reinforcement and socialization from a young age can help develop a well-adjusted dog that is comfortable in various situations. Conversely, negative experiences or lack of socialization can lead to behavioral issues, such as anxiety or aggression.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotions">Emotions</h4>



Dogs also exhibit a range of emotions that influence their personality, including joy, fear, affection, and even jealousy. These emotions can affect how they interact with their environment and the people and animals within it. A dog's personality can change over time due to life experiences, much like humans.



Understanding a dog's personality is key to fostering a strong, positive relationship with them. It helps in training, in providing the right kind of care and environment, and in matching a dog to the right home or job. Whether a dog is adventurous, laid-back, protective, or playful, each has a unique set of traits that make them special companions.



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Dog personality algorithm will improve work and home placement

Experts in canine behavior and artificial intelligence have made a...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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