Did you know you can read a chicken's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-can-now-decipher-the-emotional-states-of-chickens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotions</a>? It turns out our feathered friends have a surprising way of showing their feelings - their faces blush a deeper red when they're distressed. 



A revolutionary study has confirmed this, opening up new ways to understand how chickens feel and build better relationships with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-chickens-express-their-emotions">How do chickens express their emotions?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chicken-psychology-birds-smart-complex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chickens</a>, like many animals, experience a spectrum of emotions ranging from joy and excitement to frustration and fear. However, their ways of expressing these emotions differ from ours. They don't rely on facial expressions like smiling or frowning to communicate how they feel.



Instead, changes in chickens' facial coloration offer clues about their inner state. The skin around their faces, including the comb and wattle, is particularly sensitive. These areas maintain a lighter red hue when chickens are relaxed and content. 



When chickens experience negative emotions, the blood flow to these areas increases significantly. This causes a visible change as their faces become flushed with a much brighter scarlet shade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-chickens-blush">Why do chickens blush?</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INRAE</a> (France's National Research Institute for Agriculture, Food, and Environment) embarked on a detailed investigation to decipher how a chicken's blush reveals its emotions. They focused on Sussex hens, a popular breed of laying chickens. 



To ensure accuracy, the research team employed advanced camera technology and specialized software. This allowed them to precisely measure and analyze subtle changes in facial redness.



The researchers exposed hens to various stimuli and carefully documented the changes in coloration. When presented with appetizing feed such as mealworms, the hens did get a bit red but their entire face became scarlet red during negative experiences such as capture. This demonstrated a clear connection between the hens' emotional state and the intensity of their flushing.



Intriguingly, the study also shed light on how chickens perceive humans. Hens who had been gradually accustomed to the presence of a friendly researcher over time showed a reduced stress response. 



This was evident in their calmer demeanor and the less intense flushing of their faces in the researcher's presence. In comparison, hens without this positive exposure exhibited a more pronounced stress response when near humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotions-in-chickens-and-humans">Emotions in chickens and humans</h2>



The ability to accurately interpret chicken emotions provides invaluable insights for farmers, animal scientists, and veterinarians. Using this knowledge, they can tailor environments and care practices to promote positive emotional states in chickens. 



This includes minimizing stressful situations, providing opportunities for enrichment, and fostering a sense of security. Such changes in animal management can lead to improvements in overall chicken well-being and health.



While chickens and humans may seem worlds apart, this study highlights a shared emotional language. By learning to recognize the subtle cues chickens use to express their feelings, we can develop greater empathy and understanding towards them. 



This awareness can promote more respectful and compassionate interactions, potentially transforming our relationship with these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zebra-finches-use-both-calls-and-vision-to-coordinate-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> even in backyard settings or small-scale farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions">Future directions</h2>



The study serves as a springboard for numerous exciting avenues of future research. Scientists are keen to delve deeper into the diverse ways chickens might communicate their emotions.



Beyond facial flushing, changes in the position or movement of head feathers could hold clues to a chicken's emotional state. For instance, during moments of excitement, a hen might rapidly raise and lower her head feathers. 



Conversely, fear or stress might be signaled by flattened or ruffled feathers. Careful observation and analysis are needed to decode this potential new emotional language.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tech-uses-chicken-feathers-to-generate-clean-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chickens</a> live within complex social structures, often with clear dominance relationships. Researchers want to understand how emotional signals play a role in these interactions. 



For example, a dominant hen might display specific feather patterns or facial coloration changes to assert her position, while a subordinate hen might exhibit different signals to indicate submission. Understanding these nuances could unlock secrets about chicken communication and social dynamics.



The next time you see a chicken, take a good look at its face. Is it pale, relaxed, and content? Or is it flushed, indicating the chicken might be feeling stressed or worried?



Remember, our awareness and empathy can make all the difference in the lives of animals around us, even backyard chickens.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168159124001163?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Applied Animal Behaviour Science</a>.



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Chickens' faces change color depending on their emotions

Did you know you can read a chicken's emotions? It turns out our feathered friends have a surprising way of showing their feelings - their faces blush a deeper red when they're distressed. A revolutionary study has confirmed this, opening up new ways to understand how chickens feel and build better relationships with them. How do chickens express their emotions? Chickens, like many animals, experience a spectrum of emotions ranging from joy and excitement to frustration and fear. However, their ways of expressing these emotions differ from...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California Santa Cruz</a>, the researchers found that mother elephant seals can recognize their pup's voice at just two days old. The experts said this helps mothers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-develop-preferences-based-on-random-choices/">babies</a> survive during a precarious time.&nbsp;



An international team of scientists led by Dr. Juliette Linossier recorded calls of elephant pups using a microphone on the end of a long pole. The recordings were played to mother elephant seals as their responses were monitored. The moms were played calls from their own babies, as well as calls from a pup of a similar age.



The study revealed that the mothers were much more interested in the speaker and moved toward it when it was playing calls from their own pup.



"This is a rare demonstration of individual recognition among phocid mothers and their offspring, and suggests that consistency in maternal responsiveness may be an important social factor influencing the pup's growth and survival," wrote the study authors.



While feeding newborn elephant seals, the mothers lose about half of their body mass. Meanwhile, the pups gain about seven times their initial weight. This substantial weight gain can be attributed to the "exceptional fat content" of the mother's milk.



While the early recognition is necessary for survival, the researchers could not explain why female seals are often observed feeding each other's pups.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Females fast for the entire month they are nursing," study co-author Dr Caroline Casey told BBC. "So it makes no (evolutionary) sense for them to use their resources on another mother's pup."



"But at this site (a colony in California) that we study, there have been a lot of observations of females feeding pups not related to them."



According to Dr. Casey, it is possible that humans are to blame. She noted that elephant seals were hunted to near extinction during the late 1800s. As a result, the tens of thousands of elephant seals that are alive today can be traced back to just a couple dozen seals that historically survived. 



This phenomenon would make the elephant seals genetically similar, which may explain why mothers would feed other pups if the their moms are closely-related females. 



Going forward, the researchers want to investigate whether the seals are more likely to feed the pups of their sisters or cousins.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsbl">Royal Society journal Biology Letters</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Elephants seals recognize pup's voice at two days old

In a new study from the University of California Santa...

The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-severe-covid-19-infections-start-in-the-brain-not-the-lungs/">lungs</a> of the brown anole lizard are providing experts with new inspiration for advanced biotechnologies. Human lungs take months and years to develop into complex structures, but the anole lung develops in just a few days.&nbsp;



While the anole lung is not nearly as sophisticated, it still allows the lizard to exchange oxygen for waste gases just as human lungs do, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a>.



"Our group is really interested in understanding lung development for engineering purposes," said Professor Celeste Nelson, the study's principal investigator. "If we understand how lungs build themselves, then perhaps we can take advantage of the mechanisms mother nature uses to regenerate or engineer tissues."



The brown anole lung forms very quickly through a mechanical process that the researchers compared to a mesh stress ball. The study is the first of its kind to examine the development of a reptile lung.



The experts noted that, for engineers looking to use nature's shortcuts on behalf of human health, the speed and simplicity of anole lung development could lead to radical new ways to create artificial lungs. Beyond this, the study will help scientists gain brand new insight into reptile development.



When Professor Nelson first started studying chicken lungs in the late 2000s, the conventional was that "chicken lungs were the same as mouse lungs were the same as human lungs," she said. "And that's not true."



"The architecture of the bird lung is just so incredibly different from that of the mammalian lung." For example, instead of a diaphragm, birds have air sacs embedded throughout their bodies.



The team looked at the eggs of brown anole lizards to map the reptile's lung development. Study co-author Michael Palmer used his observations to build a computational model of the lung and understand its physics.



"We were curious if we could learn anything about the basics of lung development from studying such a simple lung," said Palmer. "The lizard lung develops using a very physical mechanism. A cascade of pressure-induced tensions and pressure-induced buckling."



According to the study, the organ goes from flat balloon to fully formed lung in less than two days. The process is simple enough that Palmer was able to use his computational model to build a working replica in the lab.&nbsp;



"Different organisms have different organ structures, and that's beautiful, and we can learn a lot from it," said Professor Nelson. "If we appreciate that there's a lot of biodiversity that we can't see, and we try to take advantage of it, then we as engineers will have more tools to tackle some of the major challenges that face society."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Anole lizards have lungs that develop in less than two days

The lungs of the brown anole lizard are providing experts...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667121003712?via%3Dihub">Cretaceous Research</a> has recently identified and described a previously unknown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sauropod-dinosaurs-lived-only-in-earths-warmer-regions/">dinosaur</a> species, Velociraptor greeni. The newly discovered animal is an ancient relative of fierce Velociraptors, which roamed the earth 75 million years ago. 



The fossils that the scientists analyzed have been found on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">Isle of Wight</a>, and appeared to belong to a ten feet long creature with huge slashing talons and finely serrated teeth. This discovery marks the first time a large raptor has ever been found in England.



According to a research team led by the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a>, this dinosaur lived 125 million years ago, during the Early Cretaceous, when the Isle of Wight was covered by forests.



“This was a large, and very heavily constructed animal,” said study lead author Dr. Nicholas&nbsp;Longrich. “The bones are thick-walled and massive. It clearly didn't hunt small prey, but animals as large or larger than itself.”



Due to its strong limbs and talons, it is possible that&nbsp;this dinosaur was able to climb trees. As Longrich and its colleagues noted, its heavy bones certainly suggest an animal that relied on strength and surprise rather than speed, in order to capture its prey.



Other top predators of the Early Cretaceous which lived in the area that is today’s Britain included the&nbsp;allosaur Neovenator, spinosaurs such as Baryonyx, and an early tyrannosaur named Eotyrannus.



“There's an extraordinary diversity of dinosaurs known in England in the Cretaceous, and even after more than a century of study, we continue to find new species,” explained Dr Longrich.&nbsp;



“Although palaeontologists have been studying these dinosaurs for a long time, it's hard going. We have to wait for the sea cliffs to fall and expose bits of bone, or for the waves to wash them out of the rocks. We've spent two centuries on the Isle of Wight piecing together our picture of English dinosaurs.”&nbsp;



The recent discovery of Velociraptor greeni helps build a bigger picture of the Early Cretaceous world, and provides, according to Dr. Longrich, “a tantalizing hint at the diversity of dinosaurs in England at that time.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A new dinosaur species related to Velociraptors has been found

A new study published in the journal Cretaceous Research has...

The Arctic Report Card 2021, published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), reveals that beavers are slowly but steadily moving northward and expanding their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maternal-chemical-signals-help-infants-bond-with-strangers/">range</a>.&nbsp;



Researchers from the Arctic Beaver Observation Network (A-BON) have been using satellite imagery to map the beaver’s movements northward.&nbsp;



So far, more than 12,000 beaver ponds have been mapped in western Alaska. This represents a doubling of ponds in most areas over the last 20 years.&nbsp;



By contrast, aerial photography in coastal areas of western Alaska from 1949 to 1955 found no beaver ponds at all.&nbsp;



Beavers are ecosystem engineers, capable of changing landscapes to better suit them as well as favoring other different organisms. Almost two-thirds of the cases where surface water has increased in western Alaska were related to beaver ponds.&nbsp;



Beaver ponds can melt permafrost and provide habitat to new species. The full impact of the beavers is yet to be seen.&nbsp;



“The true impact of the spread of beavers into the Arctic on the environment and the Indigenous communities who live there, is not yet fully known. However, we do know that people are concerned about the impact beaver dams are having on water quality, the numbers of fish downstream of the dams, and access for their boats," said study co-author Dr. Wheeler of <a href="https://aru.ac.uk/">Anglia Ruskin University</a> (ARU).



"The abundance of vegetation, particularly trees and woody shrubs, appears to help beavers to thrive in previously inhospitable terrain, and we are also finding beaver lodges at ever higher elevations, including above the treeline."



"Whether their expansion northwards is entirely due to climate change or increased populations following historical reductions in the trapping of beavers for fur and food, or a combination of the two, is not entirely clear, but we do know that beavers are having a significant impact on the ecosystems they are colonising.”



The report is available to read here <a href="https://arctic.noaa.gov/Report-Card/Report-Card-2021/ArtMID/8022/ArticleID/955/Beaver-Engineering-Tracking-a-New-Disturbance-in-the-Arctic">Beaver Engineering: Tracking a New Disturbance in the Arctic</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Migrating beavers change the landscape of the Arctic

The Arctic Report Card 2021, published by the National Oceanic...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/">Queen Mary University of London</a>, <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) has provided the most detailed timeline of mammal evolution to date. By using a novel computational approach, the researchers confirmed that modern mammal groups originated after the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-reveal-a-previously-unknown-mass-extinction-event/">mass extinction</a>, offering a new perspective on a long-standing controversy in evolutionary biology.



Large genomic datasets are essential for understanding the evolution of species. However, analysis of such enormous datasets can be slow and require a large amount of computational power.&nbsp;



“Inferring evolutionary timelines is a fundamental goal of biology. However, state-of-the-art methods rely on using computers to simulate evolutionary timelines and assess the most plausible ones. In our case, this was difficult due to the gigantic dataset analyzed, involving genetic data from almost 5,000 mammal species and 72 complete genomes,” said study lead author Dr. Mario dos Reis, a senior lecturer in Biology at Queen Mary University.



Dr. dos Reis and his colleagues developed a new, fast Bayesian approach to analyze large numbers of genomic sequences, while also accounting for uncertainties within the data. Without this innovative method, which helped scientists reduce computation time by a factor of 100, inferring the mammal evolutionary trees from the available data would have taken several decades.&nbsp;



“This new approach not only allows the analysis of genomic datasets, but also, by being more efficient, substantially reduces the CO2&nbsp;emissions released due to computing,” said study co-lead author Dr. Sandra Álvarez-Carretero, a postdoctoral researcher at UCL.



The findings confirm that the ancestors of modern placental mammal groups postdate the K-Pg extinction that occurred 66 million years ago and wiped-out 70 percent of all species.



“The timeline of mammal evolution is perhaps one of the most contentious topics in evolutionary biology. Early studies provided origination estimates for modern placental groups deep in the Cretaceous, in the dinosaur era. The past two decades had seen studies moving back and forth between post- and pre-K-Pg diversification scenarios. Our precise timeline settles the issue,” explained study co-senior author Phil Donoghue, a paleontologist at the University of Bristol.



The method developed in this study could be used in future research to shed more light on other contentious evolutionary timelines that require analysis of large datasets.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-04341-1">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists shed new light on the timeline of mammal evolution

A new study led by Queen Mary University of London,...

The world’s first octopus farm is set to open in Spain next year. However, this news has been met with dismay by many scientists and conservationists. According to them, since octopuses are intelligent, sentient creatures able to feel pain and a whole range of emotions, they should never be reared for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farmed-seafood-supply-is-at-risk-due-to-climate-change/">food</a>.



Currently, almost 350,000 tons of octopus are caught and eaten each year. They are considered a delicacy, especially across Asia and the Mediterranean. Since the demand is so high, companies worldwide have spent decades trying to discover the best methods to breed this animal in captivity.&nbsp;



Recently, the Spanish multinational Nueva Pescanova has announced that it will start marketing farmed octopus next summer, and begin selling it in 2023. They estimate that they could produce up to 3,000 tons of octopus per year. However, they did not disclose the conditions in which the animals will be kept, such as the size of the tanks, the food they will eat, and the ways in which they will be killed.



Nueva Pescanova’s announcement was met with strong criticism by a large array of scientists and conservationists, who claim that many studies prove that octopuses are highly intelligent creatures, capable of a wide range of emotional responses, and prone to experience pain and distress if harmed.



They have large and complex brains, and are capable of learning set tasks quickly. They have been observed to use coconut and sea shells to hide and defend themselves, and were often able to escape from aquariums and steal from traps set by people fishing.



"We have an example of an organism that has evolved to have an intelligence that is extremely comparable to ours," said Dr. Jakob Vinther, an evolutionary biologist at the University of Bristol. "This is potentially how it would look if we were ever going to meet an intelligent alien from a different planet."&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.ciwf.com/">Compassion in World Farming</a> (CIWF), an animal welfare organization, has already sent written complaints to several governments, urging them to ban octopus farming.



“These animals are amazing,” said Dr. Elena Lara, CIWF’s research messenger.&nbsp;“They are solitary, and very smart. So to put them in barren tanks with no cognitive stimulation, it's wrong for them.”



Moreover, octopuses appear to be highly territorial, making scientists fear that, if more animals would be kept in the same tank, they might end up killing one another.



"They are extremely complex beings. I think as humans we need to respect that if we want to farm them or eat them," concluded Dr. Vinther.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists rally against the world’s first octopus farm

The world’s first octopus farm is set to open in...

Over the last century, scientists have discovered many fossilized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dinosaur-species-discovered-in-brazil/">dinosaur</a> eggs and nests all over the world, but finding one with a well-preserved embryo is an extremely rare event. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://en.cug.edu.cn/">China University of Geosciences</a> described an oviraptosaur embryo perfectly preserved inside a fossilized egg.&nbsp;



The analysis of the embryo suggests that oviraptorids (a group of theropod dinosaurs from the Late Cretaceous that were closely related to birds) took on a distinctive tucking posture before hatching – a behavior previously thought to be unique to birds.



The fossilized dinosaur embryo comes from Ganzhou, a city in the Jiangxi Province of Southern China, and had been acquired in 2000 by Liang Liu, the director of the company <a href="https://www.yingliangstone.com/">Yingliang Group</a>, a leading mining and stone sales company. The egg ended up in storage until it was rediscovered ten years later, when the fossils were unearthed during the construction of the Yingliang Stone Nature History Museum.



“Most known non-avian dinosaur embryos are incomplete with skeletons disarticulated,” said study co-author Waisum Ma, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>. “We were surprised to see this embryo beautifully preserved inside a dinosaur egg, lying in a bird-like posture. This posture had not been recognized in non-avian dinosaurs before.”



In their analyses, the scientists reported that the embryo’s head lied ventral to the body, with the feet on either side, while the back curled along the blunt pole of the egg, in a posture previously not found in a non-avian dinosaur.&nbsp;



The comparison of this specimen to other late-stage oviraptosaur embryos suggests that, before hatching, oviraptorids developed bird-like postures in a late stage of their incubation. In modern birds, such coordinated embryonic movements are associated with tucking, a behavior known to be critical for hatching success.



Further research is needed to understand whether pre-hacking behavior may have originated among non-avian theropods. According to the study authors, future discoveries of embryo fossils will be essential for clarifying this issue.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(21)01487-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004221014875%3Fshowall%3Dtrue#secsectitle0055">iScience</a>.



Image Credit Lida Xing



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur embryo suggests bird-like pre-hatching posture

Over the last century, scientists have discovered many fossilized dinosaur...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> in collaboration with <a href="https://www.elephantsforafrica.org/">Elephants for Africa</a> has discovered that male elephants are more aggressive when fewer older males are present in their group. These findings suggest that the removal of old male elephants, which are often the victims of trophy hunting, could also lead to increased conflicts between younger elephants and humans.



The researchers examined a cohort of 281 male elephants in an all-male area in the Makgadikgadi Pans National Park, Botswana, during a period of three years. The elephants were divided into four groups – two consisting of adolescents (10-15 and 16-20 years), and two of adults (21-25 and 26+ years).



They found that when fewer old elephants were around, the younger ones were likely to be more aggressive towards non-elephant targets including livestock, other animals, and even vehicles.



“Our research draws attention to what is often a rather overlooked area in animal behavior; that of the complex relationships and connections that occur between males in non-breeding all-male societies,” said lead author Connie Allen, a doctoral student in Behavioral Ecology at the University of Exeter.



“It appears the presence of more knowledgeable, older elephants in groups may play a key role in keeping the younger, less experienced males calm and lowering their perception of their current threat level, which means there’s less risk of aggression towards humans and other species. Alternatively, older bulls may police other males’ aggression directed toward non-elephant targets.”



According to study co-author Darren Croft, a professor of Animal Behavior at the University of Exeter, understanding the causes of aggression in male elephants is crucial for reducing human-elephant conflict. The fact that old male elephants seem to play a significant role in shaping the behavior of younger ones and making them less aggressive, should be an incentive for wildlife managers to try to protect them.



“Elephants are highly social animals. This study clearly shows how wildlife management can be informed by how elephants interact and react to each other,” said study co-author Lauren Brent, an associate professor of Biology at the University of Exeter.



“Future research on social behavior will continue to enhance conservation efforts of this iconic species,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Older male elephants make younger ones less aggressive

A new study led by the University of Exeter in...

We are used to the idea that testosterone levels in males can drive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aggressive-behavior-in-dogs-is-most-often-caused-by-fear/">aggressive</a> behavior and dominance. But in new research on meerkat societies in South Africa, it seems that females with high levels of testosterone run the show.&nbsp;



A team of researchers led by Christine Drea, professor of Evolutionary Anthropology at <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>, has shown that testosterone-fueled aggression in female meerkats may have played a crucial part in the evolution of cooperation in meerkat societies.



Meerkats are social mammals that live in small to medium-sized groups in arid environments in southern Africa. A single dominant matriarch rules the group and is assisted in rearing her pups by the subordinate members. Meerkat parents cannot raise offspring on their own as they need the help of others to find food for the pups and protect them while the adults are off foraging.&nbsp;



The research team worked with 22 clans of meerkats that live in the Kuruman River Reserve, in South Africa’s Kalahari Desert. These meerkats have been the subjects of numerous scientific studies, over decades, and are habituated to the presence of humans. Researchers were able to observe the behavior of the matriarchs during their pregnancies, and to note instances of aggression. They also collected samples of blood and feces from individuals to measure testosterone levels.&nbsp;



Observations showed that matriarchs do not lead their groups by being kind or nice. They dominate by pushing, shoving, and biting the subordinates, and mark their territories with a pungent substance secreted from glands under their tails. If any subordinate females do become pregnant, a matriarch may expel them from the group or kill their new-born pups.&nbsp;



As a result, few of the adult subordinate females in a clan manage to have surviving pups in any given year. By contrast, a successful matriarch, can have as many as three or four successful litters in a good year.



Analysis of testosterone levels indicated that the matriarch has very high levels of this hormone, which is usually associated with male aggression.



“We always think of male competition being driven by testosterone, but here we’re showing that it’s driving female competition too,” she said.



“In non-pregnant matriarchs, testosterone values are equivalent to the males’, and just a little bit lower in subordinate females. But when matriarchs get pregnant, they ramp up,” said Drea.



During pregnancy, the matriarch’s levels of testosterone increases, as does her aggressiveness towards subordinate individuals. In addition, once born, her pups are also aggressive, furiously demanding attention from the subordinates, like spoiled children.



In order to test whether this aggressiveness is being driven by testosterone, the researchers dosed some matriarchs with flutamide, a testosterone-receptor blocker that prevents testosterone’s action in the body. These matriarchs soon lost their edge; they didn’t shove, bite, or growl as much, nor did they scent-mark their territories as often. Subordinates lost their respect and showed less deference.&nbsp;



Interestingly, any offspring born to a matriarch that had been treated with flutamide were also less aggressive and demanding towards the subordinates. Without the influence of testosterone while in the womb, these offspring were calmer and less dominant.



“The subordinate females and their pups are also aggressive, but not as much as the matriarchs and their pups” said Drea. “It's this difference that gives matriarchs their edge, and it's this difference that we completely erased with testosterone blockers.”



The fact that matriarchs passed on the benefits of high testosterone levels to their offspring implies that, in addition to helping the matriarch keep control and produce more pups, this hormone also helps her pups to get the best possible start in life by ensuring that the subordinates cooperate and supply food and care to them. Hormone levels may thus be driving the maintenance of a cooperative family dynasty.



“Here we have experimental results revealing a new mechanism for the evolution of cooperative breeding,” Drea said, “one that is based on testosterone-mediated aggression and competition between females.”



“Females are not primarily competing for food,” she said. “Competition is about ensuring that other individuals help raise their kids. And testosterone helps them win that reproductive battle.”



The researchers say that the matriarch’s testosterone-fueled aggression is the glue that holds the cooperative group together. If females were treated with testosterone blockers for longer, they expect that the matriarch would be overthrown, and the group’s structure would be temporarily destabilized.



“When people think about cooperation, they usually think about altruism or helping others,” Drea said. “This study is showing that cooperation can also arise through aggressive means, and quite effectively.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Matriarchal meerkat leaders are driven by testosterone

We are used to the idea that testosterone levels in...

Despite the Biden administration’s promises on climate action, unfulfilled as they may be, no commitments of any kind seem to be forthcoming for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indigenous-knowledge-can-help-protect-amazon-wildlife/">wildlife</a>. This includes the Yellowstone Park bison herd, which will soon be greatly diminished under a plan to address a booming population.



In a continuation of the disgraced legacy of Trump’s Secretary of the Interior, Ryan Zinke, Yellowstone National Park is recommending the slaughter of 900 to 1,100 animals. This number represents over 20 percent of the Yellowstone bison population.&nbsp;



Zinke once told managers that Yellowstone bison can be managed more actively like cattle on a ranch. They seem to be taking this advice to heart.&nbsp;



Bison have already been slaughtered annually for fears from cattle interests and the state of Montana of Brucellosis, a disease first passed from cattle to bison. There has never been a confirmed case of brucellosis transferred from bison to cattle.&nbsp;



To avoid the theoretical spread of Brucellosis, bison are lured every winter into traps baited with fresh hay. The animals that survive the capture are shipped to slaughter houses.



The <a href="https://www.buffalofieldcampaign.org/">Buffalo Field Campaign</a> (BFC), a bison conservation organization, points out that although elk are also carriers of Brucellosis, the two species are treated very differently.&nbsp;



In Montana, an estimated 140,000 elk freely roam over 38 million acres. Bison on the other hand, have a small population of only about 5,000 animals occupying less than 0.1% of the land base of Montana.&nbsp;



”For 25 years BFC has witnessed the artificial suppression of wild bison populations and monitored the negative impacts in the field," said BFC Executive Director James Holt Sr.&nbsp;



"The Central Herd of Yellowstone bison is gravely imperiled, ecosystem health is diminished, and resilience to climate change is inhibited. Ongoing bison management fails a keystone species and violates the public trust. Yellowstone bison management must reflect the values of the American People.”



The organization warns that carrying out the planned cull could seriously threaten the genetics of Yellowstone’s Central Herd, a unique bison population directly descended from 23 bison that survived the slaughter of commercial hunting at the end of the 19th century. If this happened, the park service wouldn’t even know until the census next summer.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Yellowstone plans to continue bison slaughter

Despite the Biden administration’s promises on climate action, unfulfilled as...

An international effort of massive proportions is underway to search for ten rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-dragonfly-species-at-risk-of-extinction/">species</a> of birds that are now lost to science. The project is a part of the much bigger <a href="https://www.rewild.org/lost-species">Search for Lost Species Program</a> created by Re:wild in 2017.&nbsp;



“During the past five years, since we launched the Search for Lost Species, our list of species that could be considered lost has grown to more than 2,000," said Barney Long, senior director for conservation strategies with Re:wild.



"We never planned to look for all of them alone, but to encourage others to search and develop partnerships to help. Through this new partnership we’ll be able to get more targeted expeditions in the field. If we can find these lost birds, conservationists can better protect them from the threats they face.”



The search for lost birds hopes to capitalize on the very active community of bird watchers and the citizen science they provide to researchers. One such online community is eBird, which has 700,000 registered users who have contributed more than one billion bird sightings.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, of the many eBird sightings, none have involved the most wanted 10 lost bird species. Even though these birds have not been documented for at least ten years, the species have not been officially declared as extinct.&nbsp;



There are various reasons for the undocumented status of the lost birds. Habitat destruction, invasive species and other factors have contributed to declines. Some species may simply live in areas that are hard to legally access. In other cases,&nbsp; scientists may not know where to search for the birds.&nbsp;



Collectively, these ten lost bird species are found on five continents and range from hummingbirds to raptors. The Negros Fruit Dove and the Siau Scops-owl, for example, have only one documented sighting each in 1953 and the mid-1800s respectively.&nbsp;



Two expeditions are preparing to head into the field and start the search within the next year. These searches are for the Siau Scops-owl in Indonesia and the Dusky tetraka in Madagascar. One bird, the South Island kōkao of New Zealand is already the focus of an ongoing search.



Recent searches for lost species - even those that were unsuccessful such as a search for the Sinù parakeet in Colombia earlier this year - have still managed to document an abundance of previously unknown biodiversity.&nbsp;



After all, the search for lost species is really about protecting our planet’s rich life before it’s truly lost for good.&nbsp;



The Search for Lost Species project is a collaboration between Re:wild, American Bird Conservancy (ABC) and BirdLife International. The program is also lent by Cornell Lab of Ornithology and its eBird platform.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

International project is searching for lost birds

An international effort of massive proportions is underway to search...

A new study has shown that forest restoration limits the potential for "megafires," which can help protect species such as the California spotted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/barn-owls-construct-mental-maps-during-flight/">owl</a> in the long term.



The researchers noted that in the seasonally dry forests of western North America, large-scale restoration may reduce severe fire and increase forest resilience. However, the experts wanted to investigate whether restoration treatments may inadvertently eliminate existing habitat for sensitive wildlife species.&nbsp;



Study lead author Dr. Gavin Jones is a research ecologist with the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/">USDA Forest Service</a> (USFS) Rocky Mountain Research Station. He explained the research shows that forest restoration and the preservation of the spotted owl are not mutually exclusive, as had previously been feared.



“We’ve shown that restoration provides co-benefits to owls by reducing their exposure to stand-replacing wildfire, which leads to loss of nesting habitat,” said Dr. Jones.



The researchers developed a fire simulation model to predict severe fire across the Sierra Nevada through the year 2050. As forest restoration strategies were accounted for in the model, the predicted amount of severe fire decreased.



"We modeled bioregional-scale effects of forest restoration on future severe fire activity and occupancy dynamics of an old-forest species declining in abundance, the spotted owl (Strix occidentalis), in the Sierra Nevada mountains of California," explained the researchers.



"Our findings suggest restoring historical forest structure may mitigate severe fire activity as the climate warms, particularly when restoration occurs in owl habitat."&nbsp;



The study revealed that placing treatments inside spotted owl territories reduced the amount of predicted severe fire by nearly 50 percent compared to using treatments outside of owl territories.&nbsp;



"Even under climate change, forest management can move the needle on forest ecosystem conservation by reducing future stand-replacing fire and do so in a way that safeguards habitat for sensitive species like the California spotted owl," said Dr. Jones.



He noted that the research team is now expanding its efforts beyond the spotted owl to see how the broader forest wildlife might respond to future fire and forest management.



"On average, benefits provided by restoration to owls (reduced severe fire) were found to exceed potential costs (direct habitat alteration) by mid-century," wrote the study authors.&nbsp; "However, the magnitude and direction of restoration trade-offs varied spatially, which informs restoration planning. When large, old trees are maintained, forest restoration can provide co-benefits to old-forest species and forest ecosystem resilience under climate change."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.esa.org/frontiers-in-ecology-and-the-environment/">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Forest restoration could protect spotted owls in the long term

A new study has shown that forest restoration limits the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...