Portrait,Of,A,Wild,Octopus,Under,Water.

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. 



Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. 



Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions.



Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food or medicine to someone trapped below. 



This vision has motivated scientists to study octopus arms in detail - both in the laboratory and in their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">environment</a>.



Until recently, most studies were limited to tanks, where behaviors may not reflect the complexity of life in the wild. That gap is now being addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-octopus-intelligence">Understanding octopus intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">Octopuses</a> are some of the most intelligent invertebrates on Earth. Unlike most animals without backbones, they can solve puzzles, open jars, and even escape from aquariums by remembering routes back to the ocean. 



Their brains are incredibly complex, with about 500 million neurons - similar to a dog. What makes them even more fascinating is that two-thirds of those neurons are in their arms. 



This means each arm can sense, move, and even make decisions on its own while still communicating with the central brain. It’s like having eight mini-brains working together with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-are-tricked-by-the-rubber-hand-illusion-like-humans-suggesting-self-awareness/">one big brain</a>.



Their intelligence also shows up in how they hunt and survive. Octopuses use tools, like carrying coconut shells to hide inside when threatened, and they can change color and texture in an instant to camouflage perfectly against rocks or coral. 



They’ve been observed watching other animals and learning from them, which is rare in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-octopus-arms-inspire-robotics">Flexible octopus arms inspire robotics</h2>



A new study from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole and Florida Atlantic University has provided the most comprehensive analysis of octopus arm movements in natural habitats. 



Researchers recorded 25 wild octopuses in six locations, ranging from the Caribbean to Spain. The footage captured thousands of arm movements across a variety of behaviors, including foraging, locomotion, and even defense.



“I’ve been trying for a long time to work out the natural behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-octopus-footage-could-revolutionize-flexible-robot-design-eyeris/">cephalopods</a> in their natural habitat,” said MBL Senior Scientist Roger Hanlon, who led the project. 



“Studying and recording octopus behavior from wild octopuses in the field gave us the opportunity to analyze a larger behavioral repertoire and further understand how they use their arms to achieve such complex behaviors,” added Chelsea Bennice, research fellow at <a href="https://www.fau.eu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guided-by-touch-not-sight">Guided by touch, not sight</h2>



Octopuses rely heavily on touch, guided by sensory organs in their arm suckers. “The octopus is a very tactile animal - it’s more tactile than visual,” said Hanlon. 



Each of their nearly 100 suckers per arm contains chemosensory-tactile receptors, combining functions similar to the human nose, lips, and tongue.



Finding octopuses to observe was not simple. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> skills make them almost invisible in coral reefs or sandy seabeds. Divers often relied on clues like discarded shells and food debris near their dens.



Once located, octopuses emerged briefly from hiding, offering precious opportunities to record their natural actions.



These moments revealed unique hunting strategies, arm movements, and subtle interactions with their environment otherwise impossible to witness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-arm-mechanics-of-octopuses">Complex arm mechanics of octopuses</h2>



The researchers identified 12 distinct arm actions across 15 behaviors, built from four fundamental deformations: shortening, elongating, bending, and torsion. They discovered a pattern of specialization within each arm. 



For instance, elongation and shortening were most common near the base, while bending occurred more at the tips. 



This functional partitioning allows octopuses to combine motions across arms for tasks like crawling, probing reef crevices, or launching sudden prey attacks.



“These are the actions that make up the whole complex of octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">behaviors</a>,” said study co-author Kendra Buresch. 



In the wild, researchers observed octopuses using different combinations of arm actions - sometimes relying on a single arm for tasks like grabbing food, and other times coordinating multiple arms for behaviors such as crawling or launching a parachute attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-that-guides-technology">Behavior that guides technology</h2>



The findings go beyond understanding animal behavior. With nearly 7,000 observed arm deformations, the study highlights an extraordinary degree of control and flexibility. 



This knowledge may inform robotics research, where engineers seek to design soft, adaptable arms capable of both precise and exploratory tasks.



“Understanding these natural behaviors not only deepens our knowledge of octopus biology but also opens exciting new avenues in fields like neuroscience, animal behavior, and even soft robotics inspired by these remarkable creatures,” Bennice said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-in-flexibility-and-change">Lessons in flexibility and change</h2>



From the ocean floor to robotics labs, octopuses continue to inspire, offering lessons in both biology and technology. 



Their flexible arms not only influence the design of machines that could navigate disaster zones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/">deep-sea environments</a>, but also remind us how problem-solving in nature often leads to solutions with real-world applications.



Beyond robotics, their adaptability symbolizes the broader principle that survival depends on innovation and change, a message equally relevant to ecosystems, human health, and future technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-10674-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Octopus arms are probably the most complex and flexible structures in nature

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions. Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food...

Portrait,Closeup,Of,A,Cute,Furry,Rock,Hyrax,(procavia,Capensis)

In a recent study published by the <a href="https://www.britishecologicalsociety.org/">British Ecological Society</a>, researchers have found a strong correlation between the song rhythm of male rock hyraxes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reproductive-health-is-impacted-by-geographic-location/">reproductive</a> success. More specifically, females are looking for a hyrax with rhythm. Females may interpret male rhythmic serenades as a sign of good health.&nbsp;



"We have been studying hyraxes for the past 20 years and have previously found several patterns in their songs that are common features of human language and music," said Dr. Vlad Demartsev, who collected data for the study.



"Their songs have regional dialects so individuals living in proximity sing more similarly to each other. They tend to sing in crescendo (getting louder as the song progresses) and reach peak complexity towards the end of their songs, maybe to keep the audience engaged and listening to the signals."



Dr. Demartsev further explained the importance of rhythm: "One assumption is that rhythm has evolved so that animals that call in groups can better synchronize their songs - like musicians in a band or singers in a choir."



In this case, however, there is a catch; the hyraxes do not sing in a group, but call individually. Yet, those males with rhythm still display greater fitness.&nbsp;



"Male hyraxes that sing more frequently tend to have more surviving offspring," said study co-founder Dr. Lee Koren. "Song rhythms and stability are related to reproductive success and thus potentially hold information about individual quality."



The researchers believe that the ability to create specific, rhythmic songs may signal that the male is free from disease, which could mean an ideal mate and more successful fitness.



Dr. Demartsev would like to see further research conducted on this topic in the future. "It would be fascinating to compare animal species who sing individually and species that sing in groups."



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.13801">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rhythm linked to reproductive success in male rock hyraxes

In a recent study published by the British Ecological Society,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-important-deserve-protections/">Sharks</a> are apex predators that provide a variety of vital functions for maintaining balanced ecosystems. They shape fish communities, ensure species diversity, and even contribute to carbon sequestration by maintaining seagrass meadows. However, they are highly susceptible to anthropogenic threats, such as fishing, particularly in tropical and coastal areas where large communities depend upon fish as their main source of nourishment.&nbsp;



To date, shark, ray, and chimaera species have not been sufficiently considered in the planning and designing of marine protected areas. Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for the Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) has developed a new framework to change how these species are considered in the design of protected areas and thus safeguard them against extinction.&nbsp;



“We still have so much to learn about many shark, ray, and chimaera species, but unfortunately several studies indicate that many protected areas are failing to adequately meet their needs. However, Important Shark and Ray Areas (ISRAs) will help to identify areas for these species using criteria which have been specifically designed to consider their biological and ecological needs,” said study lead author Ciaran Hyde, a consultant to the IUCN Ocean Team.



“Sharks are a long-lived species: many take a long time to reach sexual maturity and then only give birth to a few young. This makes them particularly susceptible to fishing pressure and with an estimated 37 percent of species with an elevated risk of extinction, they are facing a biodiversity crisis. Results from the ISRA project will inform policy and ensure that areas critical to the survival of sharks, rays, and chimaeras are considered in spatial planning,” added study senior author Rima Jabado, the chair of the IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Group.



The new ISRA criteria were developed through a collaborative effort among shark experts, conservation agencies, and governmental bodies, and include four criteria and seven sub-criteria which take into account the complex biological and ecological needs of sharks, the specific habitats supporting their vital functions and life-history characteristics (such as movement, resting, feeding, reproduction), their distinctive attributes, and the diversity of species within various regions.



“All efforts are being made to ensure that the ISRAs contain the best and most up-to-date place-based information that science can offer to decision makers, managers, and marine users. As the ISRA program proceeds by covering progressively the whole extent of the ocean (and relevant inland water) surface, a very broad involvement of the shark expert community world-wide is expected,” concluded co-author Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara, the co-chair of the IUCN Marine Mammal Protected Areas Taskforce and Deputy Chair of the IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Group.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2022.968853">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

New framework to protect sharks developed by IUCN

Sharks are apex predators that provide a variety of vital...

Urban living sulfur-crested cockatoos in some Australian cities have learned how to open the garbage disposal bins and access delicious food in the form of bread and other throwaway titbits. This has had residents up in arms as they try to control the birds’ access to the rubbish using innovative bin lid modifications. You see, although the cockatoos are pretty ingenious at opening the bins, they never close them again and this means garbage gets spread all over the street, leading to conflict between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-mimic-males-to-avoid-violence/">birds</a> and the local residents.



Previously, researchers have documented the ingenious bin-opening behavior of sulfur-crested cockatoos in suburban Sydney, and have found that this behavior is learned and transmitted culturally between sub-populations. Now, in a follow-up study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.008">Current Biology</a>, they note the techniques used by people to confound the cockatoos, and describe how these birds are learning all the tricks and overcoming the obstacles.&nbsp;



“When I first saw a video of the cockatoos opening the bins I thought it was such an interesting and unique behavior and I knew we needed to look into it,” said study lead author Barbara Klump, a behavioral ecologist at the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior. She explained that the cockatoos’ motivation is waste food. “They really like bread. Once one gets a bin open all the cockatoos in the vicinity will come and try to get something nice to eat.”



The birds typically pry the bins open with their beaks and then maneuver themselves along a small rim while retaining a grip of the lid in their beak. When they reach the back (hinge side) of the bin, they simply flip the lid open. It’s a community affair. “We could actually show that this is a cultural trait,” said Klump. “The cockatoos learn the behavior from observing other cockatoos and within each group they sort of have their own special technique, so across a wide geographic range the techniques are more dissimilar.”



Local residents have responded to the problem by trying to secure the lids using bricks, rocks and other contraptions to keep the birds out of the bins. The bin lids still need to open when the bins are tipped upside down and emptied by an automated arm on the garbage truck. This has led the humans to develop some fairly innovative solutions to restrict access by the parrots. A survey conducted by the researchers found that some people strap full water bottles to the lid, rig ropes to prevent the lid from flipping open, or use sticks or bottles to block the hinges. “There are even commercially available cockatoo locks for bins,” said Klump.&nbsp;



The researchers identified 5 different categories of bin alteration that had been adopted by residents in order to deter or thwart the efforts of the birds. Level 1 represented no alteration whatsoever, while level 2 involved no functional alteration (e.g., a rubber snake). Level 3 alterations included unfixed objects, such as rocks and bricks designed to prevent lifting, while level 4 included the use of objects to prevent flipping of the lid (e.g., bottles, sticks or shoes jammed in the hinges). Level 5 represented the greatest investment on the part of the human, for example an attached weight suspended on a rope.&nbsp;



The researchers found that while level 2 and 3 protection devices could be opened by the cockatoos, level 4 and 5 devices had not yet been conquered by the birds. Interestingly, they noted that the protection method used by humans was not randomly distributed around the suburbs; instead, protection methods appeared to be clustered within streets, implying that the residents in a street are learning from and copying each other.&nbsp;



Residents also reported that they switched techniques on a regular basis, just as soon as the cockatoos had worked out how to deal with a particular bin modification. This is akin to an innovation arms race because each time the cockatoos learn their way around a bin modification, the humans come up with a new technique and share it with others.



“It's not just a social learning on the cockatoo side, but it's also social learning on the human side,” said Klump. “People come up with new protection methods on their own, but a lot of people actually learn it from their neighbors or people on their street, so they get their inspiration from someone else.”



Klump won’t say whom she expects to win the race for control of the bins, but she and her colleagues plan to look at how the cockatoos’ behavior varies from season to season.



Klump expects we will see more of these kinds of human-wildlife interactions in the future. “As cities expand, we will have more interactions with wildlife. I'm hoping that there will be a better understanding and more tolerance for the animals that we share our lives with.”



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Conflict between cockatoos and humans leads to arms race

Urban living sulfur-crested cockatoos in some Australian cities have learned...

Beautiful,Mandrill,Portrait,Closeup,,Baboon,Monkey,With,Colorful,Face,And

Human-animal interactions and the impact on animals of the presence of zoo visitors are crucial for zoo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-welfare-is-essential-to-sustainable-development/">animal welfare</a>, with many studies providing evidence that different species or even individual animals respond differently to different humans. Now, a multi-institutional team of experts in animal behaviors has investigated how the closure of the zoos at the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic changed the behavioral patterns of bonobos, chimpanzees, western lowland gorillas, and olive baboons at Twycross Zoo and the Knowsley Safari. 



The analysis revealed that, during the first lockdown, primates spent more time alone and resting, engaged in more sexual and dominance behaviors, and ate less.



“Primates are some of the most cognitively advanced species in zoos and their interactions with visitors are complex,” said study senior author Samantha Ward, a zoo animal welfare scientist at <a href="https://www.ntu.ac.uk/">Nottingham Trent University</a>. “A limitation to understanding how visitors can affect behavior of animals in zoos and parks is that they rarely close to the public for prolonged periods, so this provided us with a unique opportunity.”



As visitors started returning to the zoos after the pandemic restrictions were lifted, the scientists found that bonobos and gorillas spent less time alone and resting, chimpanzees ate more, and olive baboons engaged less in sexual and dominance behaviors, while approaching visitors’ cars more frequently than they had the ranger’s vehicle when the park was closed.&nbsp;



While it is difficult to accurately assess which animal experiences were positive, negative, or neutral for specific animals, the return of visitors appeared to stimulate the chimpanzees and the baboons, while bonobos and gorillas also started to spend less solitary time – features which could be seen as positive. However, the reduction in resting behavior in more sedentary gorillas – which began altering their enclosures most likely to reduce potential overstimulation - could also suggest they were disrupted by the return of the visitors.



“Our study showed the varied ways in which visitors can influence the behavior of primates in captivity. Behavioral changes and changes in enclosure use in the presence of visitors highlights the adaptability of zoo species to their environments. Provision of environments which enable animals to actively adapt in this manner is really important for their welfare,” explained study lead author Ellen Williams, a zoo animal welfare specialist at the <a href="https://www.harper-adams.ac.uk/">Harper Adams University</a>.



“This collaborative study was really important in enabling us to understand the impacts of the closures on zoo animals. Future work could involve looking at the impact on a wider range of species in both zoos and safari parks as well as differences among individual animals,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12131622">Animals</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How did pandemic lockdowns affect zoo animals?

Human-animal interactions and the impact on animals of the presence...

It's a commonly held belief that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-microclimates-impact-bird-species-diversity/">species</a> diversity benefits an entire community, and researchers at <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> have completed a study that supports this idea. The research, published in&nbsp; <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-022-01847-3">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, shows that bee diversity is essential to ensuring crop pollination and human food supply.&nbsp;



The team observed bee communities on several farms in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and California and discovered that multiple bee species were necessary for pollination over a flowering season. To ensure pollination over numerous seasons, even more species were required.



"This research shows that abundance (of a species) matters, but bee diversity matters even more," said Michelle Elekonich, the deputy division director of the National Science Foundation's Directorate for Biological Sciences. "It's not the same bees that are abundant at a given point in time, and variety is necessary to provide balance during a growing season – and from year to year."



"We found that two to three times as many bee species were needed to meet a target level of crop pollination over the course of a growing season compared to a single date," explained Natalie Lemanski, lead author of the study. "Similarly, twice as many species were needed to provide pollination over the course of six years compared to a single year."



The researchers observed bees and pollen quantity over several years to gather data for the study. They collected data from six blueberry farms in southern New Jersey, 25 watermelon farms in central New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania, and 36 watermelon farms in the Northern Central Valley of California.&nbsp;



The experts note that these results indicate that species diversity is crucial for crop success, and the more bee diversity we support, the better our crops will do.



"The magnitude of increase in species needed over multiple years was remarkably consistent among crop systems when considered over the same interval of time," Lemanski concluded. "In addition, the fact that the relationship between timescale and the number of species needed did not level off suggests that even longer time series, spanning multiple seasons, may further bolster the need for biodiversity to ensure reliable ecosystem service."



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bee diversity is key to sustainable agriculture

It's a commonly held belief that species diversity benefits an...

According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.dal.ca/">Dalhousie University</a> in Canada, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-seafood-has-one-sixth-the-carbon-footprint-of-red-meat/">seafood</a> can provide better nutrition to people at a lower rate of greenhouse gas emissions than beef, pork, or chicken. These findings suggest that policies aiming to promote seafood diets as a substitute for other animal products could significantly improve food security, while also playing a key role in mitigating climate change.



By calculating the nutritional density and climate impacts of different sources of fish, the scientists found that half of the seafood species they studied have a higher nutrient density and contributed to fewer greenhouse emissions than beef, pork, or chicken. Of the most common species of fish consumed in the United Kingdom, the species with the lowest climate impact relative to their nutrition values were wild-caught salmon, herring, and mackerel, followed closely by anchovies, farmed mussels, and farmed oysters.



&nbsp;“This work makes clear that many of us can effect real climate impact reductions through the choices that we make in what animal-derived foods we include in our diet,” said study co-author Peter Tyedmens, an expert in Ecological Economics at Dalhousie University.&nbsp;



“Shifting from beef, pork and often even chicken to seafood options will almost always result in lower production-related emissions that are ultimately going to be necessary if we are to meaningfully address the climate crisis.”



These findings confirm previous hypotheses that seafood is highly nutritious – containing a variety of proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals - and its production results in relatively low impacts on the climate, especially when compared to the impacts of more widely consumed animal products, such as beef, pork, or even chicken. Thus, policies to promote seafood in diets as a substitute for other animal protein could improve future food security while also mitigating global warming.



“Based on the patterns found in nutritional attributes and climate impact, we recommend refocusing and tailoring production and consumption patterns towards species and production methods with improved nutrition and climate performance, taking into account specific nutritional needs and emission reduction goals,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-022-00516-4">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Replace meat with seafood for a healthier planet

According to a new study led by Dalhousie University in...

Domestic donkeys (Equus asinus) have been highly important to humans for millennia, providing a reliable source of animal labor and long-distance transport in many cultures. However, regardless of the key role they played in ancient pastoral societies across Africa, Europe, and Asia, as well as the functions they still serve in low- and middle-income communities (especially in semi-arid and upland environments), relatively little is known about their origin, domestication timeline, and the impact of human management on their genomes.&nbsp;



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.univ-tlse3.fr/">University Paul Sabatier</a> in Toulouse, France, has performed a comprehensive genetic analysis of both modern and ancient donkeys, revealing their origins, expansion, and management practices. By evaluating 238 modern and ancient donkey genomes - 207 modern donkeys, 31 ancient donkeys, as well as 15 wild equids - the scientists found strong phylogeographic evidence supporting a single domestication event in eastern Africa over 7,000 years ago.&nbsp;



This event was followed by a series of expansions throughout Africa and into Eurasia, where several sub-populations ultimately became isolated and differentiated, most probably due to the aridification of Sahara. Eventually though, genetic variants from Europe and the Near East found their way back into western African donkey populations.&nbsp;



“We found a strong phylogeographic structure in modern donkeys that supports a single domestication in Africa ~5000 BCE, followed by further expansions in this continent and Eurasia and ultimately returning to Africa,” the study authors reported.



In addition, the analyses revealed a previously unknown genetic lineage in the Levant approximately 2,200 years ago that likely contributed to increased genetic flow toward Asian donkey populations. Finally, throughout history, donkey management involved the interbreeding and the production of large-sized bloodlines, particularly during a period when these creatures were essential to the Roman economy and military activities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo3503">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Donkeys were domesticated over 7,000 years ago in Africa

Domestic donkeys (Equus asinus) have been highly important to humans...

Tetrapods are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">vertebrates</a> (backboned animals) that have four limbs or leg-like structures. They include all amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals and are thought to have evolved from lobe-finned fish way back in the Devonian Period, some 400 million years ago. The earliest tetrapods were aquatic and adapted to life in the water, but over time new species evolved that became more terrestrial and less dependent on watery environments for feeding, breeding and surviving.



In a study published in the journal Science Advances, researchers from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, Barcelona’s Universitat Pompeu Fabra and University College London investigated the skulls of over 100 living and fossil tetrapods to understand how skull bone arrangements had changed during the evolution of this important group. The scientists found that the skulls of tetrapods had far fewer bones than are found in the skulls of fish, both extinct and living, but that these bones had more complex connections between them than are found in fish skulls.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Tetrapod skulls generally have fewer skull bones than their fish ancestors, but simply counting the number of bones misses some important data," said study lead author James Rawson. "We used a technique called network analysis, where the arrangement of skull bones – which bones connect to which – is recorded in addition to bone number.”



“Traditionally, anatomy research has been mostly descriptive or qualitative. Network analysis provides a sound mathematical framework to quantify anatomical relations among bones: a kind of data often overlooked in most studies on morphological evolution," explained study co-author Dr. Borja Esteve-Altava.&nbsp;



One might expect that having fewer bones would make skull organization simpler, but this is not what the researchers found. They concluded that, for tetrapods, having fewer skull bones actually made the organization of their skulls more complex.



“It might seem strange, but having fewer bones means each of those bones must connect with more of its neighbors, resulting in a more complex arrangement," said Rawson. "Modern frogs and salamanders had the most complex skulls of all the animals we studied.” The skulls of the earliest tetrapods also became more consolidated into a single unit, whereas their fish ancestors had skulls made of several distinct sections.



By looking at the variety of skull bone arrangements over time, the authors also discovered that the origin of tetrapods coincided with a decrease in this variety. “We were surprised to find these changes to the skull seemed to limit tetrapod evolution, rather than promoting radiation to new habitats on land," said study senior author Professor&nbsp;<a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/people/person/Emily-Rayfield-940480df-c468-4e85-b0ba-1473e6b9f540/">Emily Rayfield</a>. "We think that the evolution of a neck, extinction events or a bottleneck in skull development may be responsible.”&nbsp;



“We also see a similar drop in structural variability for the limb bones in early tetrapods, but the drop in the limbs happens 10 million years earlier," said Rawson. "It seems that different factors were affecting skull and limb evolution in early tetrapods, and we have so much more to learn about this crucial time in our own evolutionary history.”



The authors of the study conclude that the cranial evolution of tetrapods is characterized by increasing complexity in terms of bone arrangements but decreasing variety. They say that, rather than promoting the diversification of life on land, these changes in skull anatomy actually limited the evolution of tetrapods for millions of years.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Science Photo Library / Alamy Stock Photo image ID (2G70HK2) Original artist: Mark Garlick



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earliest land animals had fewer skull bones than fish

Tetrapods are vertebrates (backboned animals) that have four limbs or...

Sampling near Penn State’s Fruit Research and Extension Center shows a decline in bee populations. The results of the study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9190">Ecology and Evolution</a> are worrying to researchers.



“Bees are one of the most important groups of pollinators, but previous research has found troubling declines among wild bees,” said study lead author Nash Turley, a postdoctoral scholar at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>. “For example, the range and abundance of some species have shrunk substantially, especially bumble bees in North America and Europe. Tracking changes in bee biodiversity is important for developing pollinator management plans that can help sustain wild plant communities and maximize crop yields.”



The researchers intended for their study to characterize bee community changes from 2014 to 2019 (the period when they sampled bees). Bees were collected continuously from eight sampling spots near four orchards from April to October of each year.&nbsp;



“These orchards are in a landscape that has high diversity and abundance of native plants and pollinators,” said study co-author Professor David Biddinger. “Only about 8% of the landscape is active orchards, and all of them are successfully pollinated only by wild pollinators.”



Overall, 26,700 bees from five families, 30 genera and 144 species were collected, representing 33 percent of the bee species known to live in Pennsylvania. The researchers found that the composition of bees was different in almost every month. Abundance of individuals as well as species of bees increased from April to June, for instance.



These seasonal changes are important, according to study co-author Professor Margarita López-Uribe.



“These groups of bees provide unique ecological functions,” said Professor López-Uribe. “For example, many of the early emerging bee species are of critical importance for early flowering plants such as spring ephemeral wildflowers, and these bee-plant interactions may be particularly sensitive to disruptions from climate change. And many crops, such as apples and blueberries, rely on pollination by early emerging wild bees.”



Unfortunately, the researchers found that some of these bees are in decline. They determined that 26 of the bee species had stable populations over time, while 13 species showed a decline over time. This is about one-third of the species with good data.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Wild bee communities are diverse and dynamic, and little is known about what species or groups have the greatest conservation needs,” said Professor López-Uribe. “Our findings could help to quantify the effects that different aspects of environmental change have on bee communities and to identify species of conservation concern.”



Image Credit: Nash Turley/Penn State



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bee populations in Pennsylvania are on the decline

Sampling near Penn State’s Fruit Research and Extension Center shows...

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.univ-poitiers.fr/en/">University of Poitiers</a> has identified a new, giant species of long-extinct otter in Ethiopia that was likely the size of a modern lion. While contemporary otters weigh between four and 100 pounds, Enhydriodon omoensis weighted an estimated 440 pounds, making it the largest otter discovered until now. This creature lived between 3.5 and 2.5 million years ago, and was a fierce terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-eddies-help-marine-predators-find-food/">predator</a>.



Traditionally, otters of the genus Enhydriodon were considered to be semi-aquatic animals, feeding on a variety of species common in African freshwater environments, including mollusks, turtles, catfish, or even crocodiles. The scientists analyzed stable oxygen isotopes and carbon in the tooth enamel of the newly discovered member of this group to clarify what type of environment it was inhabiting and what was it was feeding on. Presumably, the relative values of these isotopes should have been close to those of fossil hippopotami and other semi-aquatic animals. However, the researchers were surprised to discover that this giant otter occupied quite a different habitat from its relatives, and had a different diet.



“The peculiar thing, in addition to its massive size, is that [isotopes] in its teeth suggest it was not aquatic, like all modern otters,” said study co-author Kevin Uno, a geochemist at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a>. “We found it had a diet of terrestrial animals, also differing from modern otters.” Most probably, E. omoensis was able to hunt prey that consumed a large variety of terrestrial plants, ranging from tropical grasses to vegetation from trees.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In future research, the scientists plan to sample a larger variety of African otter fossils and conduct studies of tooth enamel and the shape and structure of long bones, in order to better understand which place these gigantic creatures occupied in ancient ecosystems, and what was the cause of their extinction about 200 million years ago.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://sciencepress.mnhn.fr/fr/periodiques/comptes-rendus-palevol/21/30">Comptes Rendus Palevol</a>. In addition, the authors presented their findings in a short video on <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9V2Oc_ihdpY&amp;t=11s&amp;ab_channel=LaboratoirePALEVOPRIM">YouTube</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Gigantic prehistoric otter discovered in Ethiopia

A team of scientists led by the University of Poitiers...

An,Upward,View,Of,A,Japanese,Maple,Tree,Canopy,In

There are only three known fossil specimens of the long extinct gliding lizard named Coelurosauravus elivensis. Dated to the late Permian Period – between 260 million to 252 million years ago&nbsp;– this unusual reptile inhabited the wetlands and forests of Madagascar when conditions were temperate, warm and humid. The species is striking because of its patagium – a membranous flap of skin stretching between front and hind limbs – that enabled it to glide; this makes it the oldest known gliding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-climate-change-drove-the-rapid-evolution-of-reptiles/">reptile</a> in the world.&nbsp;



The three fossils were discovered between 1906 and 1907, and the species was described to science in 1926. Since then, however, scientists have debated about how exactly the patagium was supported and used, and how this lizard moved about in it environment. A team of researchers has now examined in great detail the three fossils of&nbsp;C. elivensis from Madagascar, as well as a number of related specimens, all belonging to the same reptile family (Weigeltisaurida), in order to understand more about this unusual lizard.&nbsp;



Experts from the French National Museum of Natural History in Paris (Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle) and the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Karlsruhe in Germany further hypothesize that this remarkable lizard most likely evolved its flying ability in response to changes in the forests of the time.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Pennsylvanian [late Carboniferous] forests, while taxonomically and vertically heterogeneous, had rather open canopy strata with spatially separated arborescent taxa resulting in little crown overlap. In contrast, Cisuralian [early Permian] forests show evidence of denser communities suggestive of more continuous canopy strata. Such change in forest structure could explain why no gliders have been reported prior to weigeltisaurids although several arboreal or scansorial amniotes have been described from Pennsylvanian and Cisuralian deposits," said study lead author Valentin Buffa, from the Centre de Recherche en Paléontologie at the French Natural History Museum.



“These dragons weren’t forged in mythological fire, they simply needed to get from place to place. As it turned out, gliding was the most efficient mode of transport and here, in this new study, we see how their morphology enabled this.”



The researchers were particularly interested in understanding how all the bits of the C. elivensis skeleton fitted together, and so they focused on the postcranial portions – the body, including the torso, limbs, and remarkable gliding apparatus, the patagium. Previous analysis of the reptile had assumed that its patagium was supported by bones that extended from the ribs, as they do in modern gliding lizards of the genus&nbsp;Draco&nbsp;that are found in Southeast Asia.



Since there was no complete specimen among the fossils, the researchers had to piece together the existing parts of the fossils in order to get a better picture of the lizard’s skeletal structure. Their thorough investigation suggested that the patagium of&nbsp;C. elivensis&nbsp;was not supported by extensions from the ribs. Instead, the approximately 29 pairs of long, rod-shaped bones that supported the gliding membrane were proposed to originate either simply from the animal’s skin and trunk musculature, or from its gastralia.



Gastralia are dermal bones found in the skin covering the stomach region of some reptiles, including the crocodilians, the tuatara and the dinosaurs. If these bones in C. elivensis were modified gastralia, they would have been positioned more towards the lower lateral surface of the body, and not towards the dorsal side as is seen in modern Draco lizards. The researchers concluded that the bony rods were flexible and that furling and unfurling of the flight membrane would probably have been controlled by the abdominal muscles.&nbsp;



Combining these findings with others derived from the bone structure observed in the fossils, the researchers came up with a more refined vision of how this agile creature moved through its arboreal habitat.



“Sharp, curved claws and compressed body form support the idea that C. elivensis was perfectly adapted to moving vertically up tree trunks. The similarity in length of the forelimbs and hind limbs further indicates that it was an expert climber – their proportional length assisted it in remaining close to the tree’s surface, preventing it from pitching and losing its balance. Its long, lean body and whiplike tail, also seen in contemporary arboreal reptiles, further supports this interpretation,” explained Valentin Buffa.



An analysis of the similarities and differences between C. elivensis&nbsp;and living gliding lizards from the genus Draco found that the fossil species was likely less efficient at gliding than modern&nbsp;Draco&nbsp;species due to its larger body size. Its estimated wing loading of around 107.9 N/m2 is 4.5 times higher than that of the&nbsp;Draco species, which would likely lead to a substantial drop in height per glide and correspond with a steep descent angle of more than 45 degrees.



“C. elivensis&nbsp;does bear a striking resemblance to the contemporary genus Draco,” said Valentin Buffa. “While its habits were likely similar to those of its modern counterpart, we do see subtle differences though.”



“Like&nbsp;Draco&nbsp;lizards,&nbsp;Coelurosauravus&nbsp;was able to grasp its patagium with its front claws, stabilize it during flight, and even adjust it, allowing for greater maneuverability. An additional joint in one finger, though, may have enhanced this capability. This may have been a necessary compensation for the lower positioning of the patagium, which likely made it more unstable.”



The research is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02724634.2022.2108713">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Changes in tree canopy supported the earliest gliding lizards

There are only three known fossil specimens of the long...

Bullfrogs are considered the world’s leading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/managing-invasive-species-can-improve-climate-resilience/">invasive</a> amphibian. The American bullfrog (Aquarana catesbeiana) is native to North America and was first brought to Rio de Janeiro in Brazil in 1935 to produce meat. Now, it is farmed throughout the South and Southeast of Brazil, but has also spread into the wild, negatively impacting local ecosystems by competing with native species for food and other resources, feeding on other frogs, as well as snakes, birds, and even some mammals, and spreading fungal and viral diseases against which local species have little or no immunity.&nbsp;



Recently, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.fearp.usp.br/en/index.php/where-we-are/university-of-sao-paulo">University of São Paulo</a> (USP) and the <a href="https://www.unicamp.br/unicamp/english">State University of Campinas</a> (UNICAMP) has conducted the most comprehensive genetic analysis of the American bullfrog, and found that there are two populations of this species in Brazil, living on frog farms or invading local ecosystems.



“We confirmed the existence of at least two different populations of bullfrogs. One probably descends from the first bullfrogs introduced into Brazil. This population is present in practically all the South and Southeast. The other is basically confined to the state of Minas Gerais, but occurs in small numbers in other states,” said&nbsp;study lead author Gabriel Jorgewich-Cohen, a former master student in Biology at the USP, and currently a doctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>.



“Our results show that captive and invasive bullfrogs are genetically indistinguishable, reinforcing the importance of preventing escape from frog farms,”&nbsp;added study senior author Taran Grant, a professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the same university.&nbsp;



By analyzing specific genes in 324 tissue samples from 38 sites where captive and feral bullfrogs are found, the scientists discovered that the vast majority belonged to the same population descending from the animals brought from North America in 1935. The other population descended from a batch of bullfrogs brought in the 1970s to Minas Gerais.



“The results of the genetic analyses match these two more well-documented introductions, although there’s anecdotal evidence of others in the 1980s and 2000s, and isolated initiatives by some producers. If there were other introductions, the animals concerned could have had the same origin or may have interbred and merged with the existing population. Alternatively, we simply didn’t collect samples from these individuals,” Jorgewich-Cohen explained.



Since these bullfrogs can transmit pathogens, such as amphibian chytrid fungi or ranoviruses – which often end up decimating local, immunologically naïve populations - it is highly important to stop farm bullfrogs escaping from farms and to enforce high sanitary standards by both producers and consumers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-13870-2">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Brazil’s native ecosystems under threat from American bullfrogs

Bullfrogs are considered the world’s leading invasive amphibian. The American...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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