Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower than most people walk, yet some were already adults when the United States was founded. 



Their astonishing lifespan has turned this elusive fish into a living time capsule, capturing the imagination of biologists and longevity researchers alike.



Julius Nielsen of the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> leads many of the modern expeditions that tag, scan, and sometimes briefly corral these giants in the icy dark.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-greenland-sharks-live-so-long">Why Greenland sharks live so long</h2>



<a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eye‑lens radiocarbon dating</a> shows females can live at least 272 years, with one specimen estimated at 392 ± 120 years. The method pinpoints birth dates because the lens proteins stop exchanging carbon after a shark pup forms in utero.



“This is the longest living vertebrate that we know of,” said Nielsen, who helped age the record fish. He and colleagues calculate that females do not reach sexual maturity until roughly 150 years, a timetable unheard of in other sharks.



Slow annual growth, barely half an inch, means injuries heal gradually but bones and organs escape the cumulative cellular wear seen in faster‑growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-skeletons-could-lead-to-technological-innovations/">animals</a>. 



Researchers suspect a combination of frigid water, low oxygen demand, and genes that police DNA damage all contribute, yet no single “silver bullet” for longevity has appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-have-slow-heartbeats">Greenland sharks have slow heartbeats</h2>



Greenland sharks have resting <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/221/19/jeb186957/33812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart rates</a> of about 10 beats per minute and unusually low blood pressure. That’s much lower than what you’d find in other large sharks, and it may help protect their blood vessels from long-term damage like heart attacks or strokes.



Even with such a slow heartbeat, each pump moves a lot of blood, keeping their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/different-shark-species-seen-scavenge-feeding-together-in-rare-event/">bodies</a> fueled during slow swimming under Arctic ice. 



Doctors are paying attention, hoping this natural “strong pump, gentle pressure” system could offer ideas for treating high blood pressure in people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-bodies-save-energy">Slow bodies save energy</h2>



These sharks burn energy very slowly. In fact, their oxygen use is among the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-76371-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lowest ever recorded</a> for a fish their size. That kind of slow metabolism may reduce cell damage over time and help them survive long gaps between meals. 



A 280-pound shark might get through the day on fewer calories than a cheeseburger, making a single big meal last for months.



Because the deep Arctic is so cold, they digest food slowly too. Instead of burning energy for speed or growth, they stretch it out for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mediterranean-sharks-face-growing-threats-despite-conservation-efforts/">survival</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-they-are-toxic-top-predators">Why they are toxic top predators</h2>



Greenland shark meat is laced with <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5127123/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trimethylamine N‑oxide</a>, a compound that stabilizes proteins under high pressure yet renders the raw flesh neurotoxic to mammals.



Icelanders neutralize it through months of fermentation to create the ceremonial dish kæstur hákarl, but few tourists finish more than a nibble.



The species ranks as an apex predator; evidence shows adults seizing fish, squid, and the occasional sleeping seal. 



Sightings in the Gulf of Mexico and off Spain reveal a wider range than once believed, hinting at deep‑water corridors that connect polar and temperate seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greenland-sharks-are-at-risk">Greenland sharks are at risk</h2>



Commercial trawlers unintentionally haul up about 3,500 Greenland <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/melissacristinamarquez/2022/11/07/greenland-shark-finally-gets-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a> each year as bycatch. Because breeding may not begin for a century and a half, losing even sub‑adults chips away at population recovery.



The <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/60213/3112909" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> lists the species as “Vulnerable,” citing low fecundity and expanding deep‑sea fisheries. 



Simple changes, switching to LED‑lit nets that deter sharks, banning deep set gill nets in nursery zones, and funding release‑training for crews, can cut mortality without shrinking catches of cod or halibut.



Scientists also urge Arctic nations to establish no‑take refuges around known mating aggregations once those secret sites are found. Protecting a fish that may still be swimming in 2425 demands policies that look far beyond typical political horizons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-search-for-hidden-nursery-grounds">The search for hidden nursery grounds</h2>



No one has ever observed Greenland sharks mating or giving birth in the wild. Only one pregnant female has been studied, and her embryos suggest the species may be <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/sharpen-your-shark-facts" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aplacental viviparous</a>, meaning the young develop inside eggs that hatch within the mother’s body.



Females seem to carry up to 10 pups at a time, but the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/five-wild-facts-about-shark-reproduction" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gestation period</a> could last several years. Without regular breeding or nursery sightings, it's hard to estimate how often they reproduce or whether their range shifts during these vulnerable periods.



This gap in knowledge makes population modeling difficult. Without better data, scientists can't say how quickly these sharks could recover if current bycatch trends continue. 



Tagging mature females may help reveal mating routes or hidden nursery grounds. Learning how and where they reproduce could play a key role in designing effective marine protected areas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaf1703" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



Image Credit: Julius Nielsen



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Longest-living vertebrates on Earth survive for centuries in icy waters

Greenland sharks cruise the North Atlantic at a pace slower than most people walk, yet some were already adults when the United States was founded. Their astonishing lifespan has turned this elusive fish into a living time capsule, capturing the imagination of biologists and longevity researchers alike. Julius Nielsen of the University of Copenhagen leads many of the modern expeditions that tag, scan, and sometimes briefly corral these giants in the icy dark. Why Greenland sharks live so long Eye‑lens radiocarbon dating shows females can live at...

Plastic debris is widespread throughout the oceans and may be carried far from its source when it catches the right waves or currents. As if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-global-issue-of-plastic-trash-nears-a-tipping-point/">trash</a> itself isn’t bad enough, new research suggests that invasive species may be hitching rides to distant shores on ocean plastic. &nbsp;



The study documented a total of 15 non-native species, including bryozoans and other invertebrates, on beaches on the Catalan coast. There was even a shark egg case found attached to plastic trash. The research, which was led by the <a href="https://www.icm.csic.es/ca">Institut de Ciències del Mar</a> (ICM-CSIC), highlights the necessity of keeping an eye on plastic pollution problems.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"It is important to undertake constant monitoring to confirm the establishment of this and other non-native species in natural or artificial habitats on the Catalan coast, as in the future they could become invasive and, consequently, contribute to the reduction of natural biodiversity, making ecosystems less resilient to change," said study co-author Blanca Figuerola, a specialist in bryozoans.



Most of the species found on the plastics were from shallow water areas and most of the plastics were lighter than water. It seems that the only reason the plastics were found in the seabed at all was from the additional weight of attached organisms.



"This shows that the colonization of plastic surfaces by different organisms plays an important role in the sinking of plastic debris, so the identification of these organisms can provide us key information on the processes of plastic dispersion and transport in the oceans," explained Figuerola.



The scientists suspect that the plastic is only temporarily caught in the coastal zones but may sometimes be swept out to deeper waters by energetic currents.&nbsp;



"The presence of different species attached to the plastics found on the beaches suggests that this deposition is not permanent, and that these particles that have been deposited on the seabed may first be resuspended by currents, and then transported back to the coast due to the waves during storms," said study co-author Anna Sànchez, lecturer in the University of Barcelona.



The study points out an easily overlooked way in which plastic trash may be changing, and damaging, marine ecosystems. The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/marine-pollution-bulletin">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive species can hitchhike on ocean plastic

Plastic debris is widespread throughout the oceans and may be...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, scientists have investigated how wild chimpanzee social networks are impacted by human-dominated landscapes. The researchers discovered that male and female chimpanzees react much differently to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-botanical-extract-extend-the-lifespan-of-humans/">human</a> presence.&nbsp;



"Wild animals are being forced to modify their behavior due to the risks of living alongside humans," said study lead author Zoe Satsias.



By observing chimpanzees in forests and human-dominated landscapes, the researchers determined that females tend to avoid human presence, particularly those with dependent offspring. This avoidance may be because the females are less likely to risk the danger associated with human presence. These risks include the humans themselves, dogs, livestock, snares, traps, and roads.&nbsp;



Males seem to feel much differently. In fact, Dr. Matt McLennan, who runs the Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project, said that male chimpanzees seem unperturbed by the prospect of running into people, and are even willing to engage in confrontations with villagers.



The differences in behavior affect chimpanzee social structure. Dr. Kimberly Hockings is an expert in the Centre for Ecology and Conservation on Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall. She explained that males and females were equally central in their social networks inside the forest - but in more risky croplands and village areas, the core of the social network was dominated exclusively by males.



This change in social structure could lead to devastating consequences for chimpanzee populations as human encroachment continues.



"The avoidance of certain areas by females – resulting in them being in the periphery of their social networks – could disrupt the spread of information and reduce social learning opportunities for younger chimpanzees, potentially suppressing the learning of new behaviors that could help them survive," said Dr. Hockings.



"Large animal species are most likely to survive human-induced rapid environmental change if they display high levels of behavioral flexibility," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Examining social responses in species that form closely bonded social groups and display high fission-fusion dynamics, such as chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, will help determine their resilience to dynamic human activities and the potential for sustainable human-wildlife interactions."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female chimpanzees try to avoid the dangers of humans

In a new study from the University of Exeter, scientists...

Coastal and pelagic soundscapes are becoming more and more noisy, as offshore energy development, shipping and construction activities become more widespread and intense. One acoustic impact of the louder noise is a reduction in hearing sensitivity recorded in some marine and freshwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disposable-masks-are-increasingly-impacting-marine-animals/">animals</a>, including fish, squid and whales. 



Researchers now say that reptiles, such as turtles, are also likely to experience hearing loss as a result of exposure to underwater noise pollution. The results of their recent study will be presented at the 2022 <a href="https://osm2022.secure-platform.com/">Ocean Sciences Meeting</a>, being held online until the 4th of March.&nbsp;



“Our preliminary findings are the first to support that these animals are vulnerable to underwater hearing loss after exposure to intense noise,” said Andria Salas, who is a researcher at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and will present the findings of the research. “We have assumed that turtles experience hearing loss when exposed to sufficiently intense sounds as observed in other animals, but there hasn't been any data collected specifically on turtles.”



The researchers used two non-threatened species of freshwater turtles in their experiments to determine the impact of loud noise on hearing. They inserted a minimally invasive electrode just under the skin above a turtle’s ear, to monitor the very small electrical voltages created by the turtle’s auditory system when it hears sounds. Before exposing the turtles to loud noise, the researchers first determined the lower threshold of turtles’ underwater hearing and which sound frequencies they heard best.



They then exposed the turtles to loud noise before removing them from the source and continuing to measure hearing sensitivity over the next hour to determine the extent of underwater hearing loss and whether this recovered in the short term. The turtles’ hearing was checked again two days later, to establish whether it had recovered fully.&nbsp;



The researchers found that, while the turtles always recovered their hearing, sensitivity loss could last anywhere from 20 minutes to over an hour. In some instances, however, hearing had not recovered by the end of the testing hour, indicating that the turtles needed more time to recover fully from the noise exposure. The hearing of one turtle was affected for multiple days.



Salas and her colleagues were surprised by the relatively low level of noise that caused these changes to the turtles’ hearing, which is essential for communication and avoiding predators. The new findings could have implications for the survival of some threatened turtle species.&nbsp;



“If this occurs in nature, turtles would be less able to detect sounds in their environment on these timescales, including sounds used for communication or warning them of approaching predators,” she said. “Over half of turtle and tortoise species are threatened, and noise pollution is an additional stressor to consider as we work towards protecting these animals.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea turtles suffer from hearing loss caused by noise pollution

Coastal and pelagic soundscapes are becoming more and more noisy,...

Fossils of the dinosaur group known as Stegosauria have been discovered on all continents except Antarctica and Australia, but more than half of the 14 different species unearthed thus far have been found in China. These iconic herbivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">dinosaurs</a> with small heads and impressive armored plates and sharp spikes on their bodies roamed the planet during the Middle and Late Jurassic period, about 170 to 145 million years ago.&nbsp;



Stegosaurian fossil finds are rare, and the skeletons are always incomplete, making it difficult to work out how many different species there are, and what evolutionary relationships exist between them.&nbsp;



A team from the Chongqing Bureau of Geological and Mineral Resource Exploration and Development in China, and London’s Natural History Museum, have now identified and named a new species, Bashanosaurus primitivus. The remains of the new stegosaur were excavated from a deposit in Chongqing, China. Its scientific name, “Bashan,” refers to the ancient name for the area of Chongqing in China where it was found.



The new species has some unique features that led the paleontologists to place it in a brand new genus. It has a smaller head and less developed shoulder blades, as well as armored plates that are narrower and have thicker bases than other stegosaurians discovered thus far. In addition, the bony point at the end of the Bashanosaurus shoulder blade is small and less well developed than in other stegosaurians, while a bony projection of the thighbone is positioned below the middle of the shaft, and the bases of the armor plates curve outwards and are thicker than the plates on the backs of its later relatives.&nbsp;



Interestingly, it does share some features with the very earliest armored dinosaurs, which date from 20 million years earlier, indicating that it may indeed be an early representative of the Stegosauria. The evolutionary history of this group is not well understood, so the addition of a new species contributes important and valuable knowledge.&nbsp;



“All these features are clues to the stegosaurs’ place on the dinosaur family tree,” said Dr. Dai Hui, who led the research. “Bashanosaurus&nbsp;can be distinguished from&nbsp;other Middle Jurassic stegosaurs, and clearly represents a new species.”



The fossilized remains of the new stegosaurian, which included bones from the back, shoulder, thigh, feet, and ribs, as well as several armor plates, have been dated to the Bajocian stage of the Middle Jurassic period, around 168 million years ago. This is much earlier than most known stegosaurians and can thus cast light on the early evolution of the group.&nbsp;



“Our analysis of the family tree indicates that it is one of the earliest-diverging stegosaurs along with the Chongqing Lizard (Chungkingosaurus) and Huyangosaurus. These were all unearthed from Middle to Late Jurassic Shaximiao Formation in China, suggesting that stegosaurs might have originated in Asia,” said Dr. Hui.



Well-known Stegosauria include&nbsp;Huayangosaurus&nbsp;(one of the most primitive members of the group),&nbsp;Gigantspinosaurus, notable for its enormous shoulder spines, and&nbsp;Miragaia, known&nbsp;for its extremely long neck. However, the fragmentary fossil material has hindered attempts to understand how the stegosaurians evolved and what the evolutionary relationships are between species.



With the discovery of this new species, however, the relationships have become clearer.&nbsp;Bashanosaurus primitivus&nbsp;has several primitive features that are similar to those of the earliest stegosaurians like&nbsp;Huayangosaurus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Gigantspinosaurus,&nbsp;as well as to early representatives of the armored dinosaurs. These features include longer tail vertebrae, a shoulder blade that is narrower and flares out, and features of the back vertebrae that are similar to the early armored dinosaur, Scelidosaurus, which lived during the Early Jurassic period.



“The discovery of this stegosaur from the Middle Jurassic of China adds to an increasing body of evidence that the group evolved in the early Middle Jurassic, or perhaps even in the Early Jurassic, and as such represent some of the earliest known bird-hipped dinosaurs,” said study co-author Dr. Susannah Maidment.



“China seems to have been a hotspot for stegosaur diversity, with numerous species now known from the Middle Jurassic right the way through until the end of the Early Cretaceous period.”



Image Credit: Banana Art Studio



The study is published in the <a href="https://vertpaleo.org/journal-of-vertebrate-paleontology/">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossil from China may be the world’s oldest stegosaur

Fossils of the dinosaur group known as Stegosauria have been...

After noticing an increase in the number of disposal masks littering rocky pools, an international team of researchers became interested in learning how masks and their chemicals are affecting marine life. It is already known that polypropylene, a type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-interior-has-accumulated-missing-plastics/">plastic</a> found in masks, has detrimental effects on aquatic animals.&nbsp;



The researchers observed the behavior of three small crustaceans - blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), sea snails (Littorina littorea), and copepods - in the presence of masks and compared this to their normal behavior.&nbsp;



When put into a simulated rocky environment with mask fragments, scientists noticed that mussels were 40 percent more likely to cluster together, a behavior typically observed when confronted with a threat which is also used to measure stress in the species. The experts believe mussels are using their osphradium (a sensory organ) to detect the chemicals released by the masks and aggregate together as a result.&nbsp;



Marine snails were also affected. Although they did not avoid the mask or the mask fragments, they did exhibit stress when they crawled on them and preferred not to crawl over them. Furthermore, the chemicals from the masks seemed to make them less alert, which means they might be more likely to suffer predation.&nbsp;



The study also suggests that copepod reproduction is affected by mask chemicals. Male copepods found it more challenging to detect female pheromones, which meant they were less likely to find females and mate with them.



The findings of this study may have wider implications. The species observed for this study are keystone species, which means that other members of the ecosystem heavily depend on them. A decline in populations of keystone species could have devastating consequences for other members of their community, including human consumers.&nbsp;



“We’re seeing more and more masks in rocky pools,” said Laurent Seuront, a marine ecologist at the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. “This could cascade up the food chain and up to us.”



The research will be presented by Seuront at the <a href="https://osm2022.secure-platform.com/">2022 Ocean Sciences Meeting</a>, which will be held online. The meeting brings together researchers from the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a>, the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography, and The Oceanography Society.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disposable masks are increasingly impacting marine animals

After noticing an increase in the number of disposal masks...

The use of eDNA, or environmental DNA, is an increasingly common practice in conservation. DNA found in the environment has been used to detect endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-are-making-a-comeback-in-the-cayman-islands/">turtles</a> in Vietnam, and has also been used in demanding environments like the Amazon and Mt. Everest.&nbsp;



In an attempt to monitor whale and dolphin populations, many of which are endangered, researchers from three universities and the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> (WCS) have turned to eDNA collected from water samples. This method can be used in concert with other monitoring methods, including acoustic surveys. It’s even possible that eDNA may one day be used to identify individual animals.&nbsp;



Whales and dolphins are increasingly in need of protection and careful monitoring. Plans by the Biden administration, the state of New York (where the study was carried out) and others to increase offshore wind administration pose potential threats to whales. This on top of threats from fishing gear, whaling, pollution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-whales-are-killed-by-ship-strikes-each-year/">strikes with ships</a>. 



Environmental DNA could be one more tool to help understand and protect whales and dolphins. WCS has already been working to develop guidelines for wind energy to make it as whale and dolphin friendly as possible.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 



“Determining how cetaceans and other threatened marine animals use coastal habitats is critical to their effective conservation," said study lead author Dr. Elizabeth Alter of California State University.



"By generating eDNA data in parallel with survey data, it will be possible to gain a clearer understanding of how this tool can be used in management and conservation contexts to monitor species of conservation concern over large marine ecosystems.”



Not only are whales and dolphins detectable with eDNA, so are some of their prey species, such as fish. Monitoring whales, dolphins, and smaller animals may provide a greater understanding of the state of various populations and the habitats that are suitable for them.&nbsp;



Study co-author Dr. Howard C. Rosenbaum is the director of WCS’s Ocean Giants Program and a senior scientist at the NY Aquarium.



“Innovation and application of new techniques, such as the possibility of using eDNA, that leads to having better information about distribution of whales, dolphins and their prey is so important today, especially where potential impacts in these habitats may be increasing human activities," said Dr. Rosenbaum.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Environmental DNA collected from water used to monitor whales

The use of eDNA, or environmental DNA, is an increasingly...

Farming insects for food and for animal feed is set to take off in the near future, according to the authors of an Opinion piece published today in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/home">Trends in Plant Science</a>. The experts point out that the EU has recently authorized the incorporation of insects into pig and poultry feed, and that this will support the newly developing practice of insect farming. 



Insects provide an excellent source of readily available protein and, unlike the situation with mammal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scavengers-protect-livestock-from-infectious-disease/">livestock</a>, the whole insect body is edible. In addition, the farming of insects gives rise to a steady supply of waste products that can be used to fertilize soils and improve crop growth.



In the publication, researchers including Marcel Dicke of Wageningen University discuss the many potential benefits of using the waste from insect production in circular farming practices to promote sustainable agriculture. The authors argue this approach could enhance plant growth, health, pollination, and resilience.



Waste comes in two main forms; there are the exuviae (molted exoskeletons or skins), and the frass, which is insect feces mixed with uneaten food. Both substances are rich in nutrients and could form an important organic fertilizer, especially these days as the use of inorganic fertilizers becomes more and more restricted. Frass is rich in nitrogen, an element that is required for plant growth, but that is often in short supply in the soil. And exuviae contain chitin, an amino-sugar polysaccharide that is indigestible for most animals but can be broken down by bacteria.&nbsp;



“There is a set of bacteria that can metabolize chitin, and those microbes help plants to be more resilient to diseases and pests,” explained Dicke. “When exuviae are added to soil, the populations of those beneficial bacteria increase.”



The scientists propose that by adding waste from insect farming to the soil, the microbial populations in the soil could be enhanced. Microbes are very beneficial for plant growth and modern agricultural practices often include inoculating soils with specific types of soil bacteria that improve crop growth, resistance to disease and herbivory, and tolerance of abiotic conditions. Enhancing soil microbes is seen as an attractive alternative to using agrochemicals.



However, inoculating soil with microbes is not always a successful practice. The authors of the paper suggest, instead, that enriching the soil with organic waste from insect farming will encourage the development of the important microbes anyway. They propose that insect “livestock” could be fed waste from crops, such as offcut leaves and stems. The insects would form food for people or for livestock, such as poultry or pigs, and their waste could be introduced into the soil as an organic fertilizer, to enhance the growth of the crops. This type of circular farming leads to almost no wastage.&nbsp;



Insects are very efficient to farm, especially when compared with more traditional livestock. It takes roughly 25 kilograms of grass to produce one kilogram of beef. The same amount of grass can produce ten times as much edible insect protein. This is because insects are more efficient at converting their food into body mass, and also because up to 90 percent of an insect’s body mass is edible, as opposed to only 40 percent of a cow.



The team’s research showed that beneficial soil bacteria, derived from the enrichment of the soil with insect waste, can boost plant growth and also cause changes in plant physiology, attract mutualistic insects such as pollinators and natural enemies, and suppress insect pests on crop plants. They stress that further studies on the effects of insect waste on plant production are needed because these interactions are complex and dynamic but potentially extremely useful.&nbsp;



Currently, several different species of insects are farmed for use as both human food and livestock feed. These include yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor), lesser meal-worms (Alphitobius diaperinus), house crickets (Acheta domesticus), black soldierflies (Hermetiaillucens), and houseflies (Musca domestica).&nbsp;



“I have eaten crickets, mealworms, and locusts,” said Dicke. “Many people in in our part of the world need to get used to eating insects, but I can tell you that I've eaten many other insect species around the globe, and I've always had a wonderful meal on them.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Insect farming could have huge benefits for crop production

Farming insects for food and for animal feed is set...

The La Brea Tar Pits are located in urban Los Angeles, at a site where natural asphalt has seeped up from the ground for tens of thousands of years. In the past, animals became trapped in the tar and died, their bones being fossilized over time. Today, the site is famous for its deposits of Ice Age animals, particularly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mammoths-survived-longer-than-initially-thought/">mammoths</a> and mastodons, which are excavated in real time by paleontologists.



The bones of long-lost animals from the tar pits are impressive and fascinating, and are on display in the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> of Los Angeles County; but the animals themselves remain dead and extinct. In an attempt to bring some of these creatures “back to life” for visitors to the museum, scientists and designers have got together to produce lifelike, 3D animations of the long-lost species through augmented reality (AR). Dr. Matt Davis and colleagues at the Natural History Museum and La Brea Tar Pits collaborated with researchers and designers at the University of Southern California (USC) to create more than a dozen new, scientifically accurate&nbsp;<a href="https://skfb.ly/osowz">virtual models of the Ice Age animals</a> that used to roam the area up to 38,000 years ago.&nbsp;



The team had originally set out to research how AR impacts learning in museums in general, but soon realized that there weren’t any accurate Ice Age animals in the metaverse yet. They decided to use the latest paleontological research, along with the newest design technologies, to make their own. In addition, they chose to publish all the research and detail that goes into reconstructing extinct species in the virtual world, so that others can appreciate and perhaps add to the paleoart animals in the metaverse. Their research is published today in the journal <a href="https://palaeo-electronica.org/">Palaeontologia Electronica</a>.



According to study co-author Dr. William Swartout, Chief Technology Officer at the USC Institute for Creative Technologies: “The innovation of this approach is that it allows us to create scientifically accurate artwork for the metaverse without overcommitting to details where we still lack good fossil evidence.”



In some instances, when the skin and fur of an animal has been preserved, a great deal of detail is known about its appearance. For example, virtual Shasta ground sloths from La Brea can be depicted with long, shaggy fur because specimens with their skin and fur have been excavated. However, many fossils do not show this extent of detail and paleoartists have to make their own decisions about how the animals might have looked while they were alive. The researchers hope their article will bring more understanding about the processes involved in creating lifelike representations of extinct animals.&nbsp;



“Paleoart can be very influential in how the public, and even scientists, understand fossil life,” said Dr. Emily Lindsey, Assistant Curator at La Brea Tar Pits and senior author of the study. Although paleoart has an important role in improving people’s understanding of prehistoric animals, a lot of paleoart is treated as an afterthought, and is not subjected to the same rigorous scrutiny as other scientific research. This can lead to particularly bad reconstructions and misrepresentations of extinct animals being propagated for generations in both popular media and academic publications.



“We think paleoart is a crucial part of paleontological research,” said Dr. Davis, the study’s lead author. “That’s why we decided to publish all the scientific research and artistic decisions that went into creating these models. This will make it easier for other scientists and paleoartists to critique and build off our team’s work.”



Visitors to the La Brea Tar Pits and Natural History Museum can now view scientifically based 3D AR animations of different animals on their cell phones. These include the giant sloth, saber-toothed cat, dire wolf, Shasta ground sloth, Harlan’s ground sloth, American lion, Columbian mammoth, American mastodon, Western camel, ancient bison, dwarf pronghorn, Western horse, teratorn bird, and short-faced bear.&nbsp;



Dr. Davis and colleagues hope that other paleoartists and scientists will follow their example by publishing all the research that goes into their reconstructions of extinct species as this will lead to better and more accurate paleoart for everyone.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Extinct Ice Age animals join the metaverse

The La Brea Tar Pits are located in urban Los...

A new study suggests that losing sleep to keep up with the demands of the day is not unique to humans. An international team of scientists has examined sleep behavior among baboons at the Mpala Research Centre in Kenya. The research is the first of its kind to investigate the sleeping habits of a group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-primates-go-extinct-so-will-their-parasites/">primates</a> in the wild. 



Study senior author Meg Crofoot is the director of the Department for the Ecology of Animal Societies at the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>. She was the first to apply GPS tracking and accelerometry technology to study social behavior in primate societies.



The study revealed that even when the baboons were sleep deprived, they still dedicated time and energy to other priorities - such as socializing or watching out for predators - rather than catching up on lost sleep.&nbsp;



“We discovered that sleep is a collective behavior in baboon groups. Group-mates were highly coordinated in their patterns of awakening during the night, which in turn led to shorter and more fragmented sleep," said Crofoot. "Our results show that these highly gregarious animals are balancing their physiological need for sleep with the social pressures of group living.”



Previous studies on animal sleep behavior, which were based on animals in a laboratory setting, revealed patterns of sleep homeostasis. This is a balance in which animals who are sleep deprived will sleep longer or more deeply than usual to compensate for the sleep debt.



The results of the baboon study, however, reveal that animals in the wild face a number of demands that disrupt sleep homeostasis. The baboons were found to sacrifice sleep to stay awake in new environments and to remain close to their group-mates. Regardless of how much they had slept the previous night, or how much energy they had burned up the previous day, the baboons stayed awake and vigilant.&nbsp;



"The competing priorities that lead humans to accumulate sleep debt might seem unique to a modern, industrialized society like ours. But our findings demonstrate that non-human primates also sacrifice sleep, even when it might be unhealthy to do so, to partake in other activities," said study lead author Carter Loftus from UC Davis.



"The tradeoff between sleep and other pressing demands on our time is, therefore, one that we have likely been navigating throughout our evolution.”



“Baboons are highly vulnerable to night-time predation and their fitness depends on maintaining strong social bonds. Trading off sleep to maintain alertness in novel, risky environments and to remain close to group-mates during the night may therefore represent an essential adaptation.”



According to Crofoot, the study opens an exciting new frontier of scientific inquiry into the dynamics of sleep.



“The accelerometry-based method can be easily and cheaply integrated into studies tracking animals in their natural habitats, allowing us to massively expand what we know about sleep across a range of species," explained Crofoot. "In the same way, the technique can be applied to many individuals at the same time, paving the way for understanding how sleeping in groups shapes the structures of animal societies.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Primates sacrifice sleep to meet life's daily demands

A new study suggests that losing sleep to keep up...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11692-022-09561-5">Evolutionary Biology</a> has argued that the most iconic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">dinosaur</a>, Tyrannosaurus Rex, should actually be split into three different species, with T.rex being joined by Tyrannosaurus imperator (“emperor tyrant lizard”) and Tyrannosaurus regina (“tyrant lizard queen”). This proposal has started a fierce debate in the paleontology community, with many of the world’s leading experts on T.rex being highly skeptical of the study results.



Paleontologists have in fact discussed the notion of multiple Tyrannosaurus species for decades. Due to this predator’s large habitat, extending on the territory of ancient North America from Western Canada to New Mexico, and considering the long period of time (over a million years) that the creature had roamed these regions, there was a significant possibility for Tyrannosaurus populations to drift apart and form multiple species. Moreover, several differences that paleontologists identified in the existent fossils could also be proof that more Tyrannosaurus species may have existed, as the authors of the current study argue.



According to a research team led by independent paleontologist Gregory Paul, the known Tyrannosaurus fossils vary more than the bones of other large predatory dinosaurs, and can be split into three different clusters, based on the stoutness of the skeletons and the presence of certain chisel-like teeth.&nbsp;



By measuring the femurs and lower jaw teeth of 37 Tyrannosaurus skeletons, most of them found within the Hell Creek Formation – a geological formation of Upper Cretaceous rocks in North America – Paul and his colleagues showed that the fossils could be split into three distinct clusters: one found in the oldest rock layers, with robust skeletons and two pairs of chisel-like teeth (T.imperator), and two found in the younger, upper layers. Although each of these younger specimens had only a single pair of chisel-like teeth, one of them had a more robust (T.rex) and the other a spindlier, more gracile skeleton (T.regina).



This proposal was already criticized by several established, world-leading paleontologists. For instance, according to Jingmai O’Connor – an associate curator of fossil reptiles at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago - the femur proportions of all three proposed species overlap rather than showing clear separations, as do the time periods when the dinosaurs were supposed to live. To her, this suggests a continuous spectrum of change, which Paul and his team arbitrarily split into three species.



“The diagnoses provided for each species are incredibly vague, using words like ‘usually’ and ‘generally.’ Even in well-preserved specimens, the authors are unable to refer them to a specific species,” Dr. O’Connor said.&nbsp;



Similar views were expressed by Professor Thomas Carr, a T.rex expert at <a href="https://www.carthage.edu/">Carthage College</a>, or Professor Steve Brusatte, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University of Edinburgh</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“I understand the temptation to divide T.rex into different species, because there is some variation in the fossil bones that we have. But ultimately, to me, this variation is very minor and not indicative of meaningful biological separation of distinct species that can be defined based on clear, explicit, consistent differences,” Professor Brusatte said.



The careful investigation of a larger number of fossils is needed in order to settle this debate. Unfortunately, as Paul argues, it could take several decades until enough specimens will allow a more scientific, statistical analysis.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Were there three distinct species of Tyrannosaurus Rex?

A new study published in the journal Evolutionary Biology has...

Life in the ocean requires some very intriguing survival tactics, and dolphins are no exception. Dolphins must strike a balance between searching for prey and hiding from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-of-predators-can-damage-prey-as-much-as-predation-itself/">predators</a>. They must also learn to avoid human disturbances, such as ship strikes or being trapped in fishing nets as bycatch. These survival tactics depend on a dolphin’s ability to increase speed and shift into high gear.&nbsp;



Speed swimming is an exhausting sport that causes animals to burn a lot of energy. Over time, this can deplete energy that is vital for the mammal’s growth and overall health - especially if the dolphin burns more calories than it consumes. This is referred to as energy costs of locomotion (COL), which researchers consider integral to understanding dolphin physiology.&nbsp;



Studying COL in the wild is difficult. Most findings are limited to estimations of a dolphins’ fluke stroke per minute, which does not provide precise data.&nbsp;



In a new study led by Duke University, experts have taken a more reliable approach to calculating energy costs of locomotion among dolphins by using overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA) - an integrated measure of all body motions a dolphin makes during swimming.&nbsp; “This is the first published study calibrating ODBA with energy expenditure in multiple dolphins,” said study leader Austin Allen.



To do this, the researchers conducted swim trials with six bottlenose dolphins at Dolphin Quest (a zoological facility on Oahu, Hawaii) from 2017 to 2019. The team measured each dolphin’s resting metabolic rate by measuring oxygen consumption after swimming 80-meters, using a device known as a pneumotachometer. Non-invasive biologging tags were used to detect changes in motion throughout the trial, such as slowing down or turning around.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Over the course of the three-year study, a pattern emerged in the data which found a “significant correlation between oxygen consumption and body acceleration, which suggests ODBA can be a reliable proxy for COL,” said Allen.



The strength of the correlation between ODBA and COL varied among individuals, but the overall relationship can be used to further investigate the energy costs of diving in free-ranging animals where bio-logging data are available.&nbsp;



The research proved a more efficient approach to measuring dolphin fuel efficiency, which could inform efforts to boost odds of survival. “Working with dolphins in zoos or aquariums is allowing us to use data we’ve already collected using these tags in the field to evaluate the cost of locomotion in wild populations,” explained Allen.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dolphins burn energy during speedy swims for survival

Life in the ocean requires some very intriguing survival tactics,...

Each year, pregnant elephant seals travel over 10,000 kilometers across the Eastern North Pacific Ocean before returning to their breeding beaches to give birth (in about five days after their arrival). A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsc.edu/">University of California Santa Cruz</a> has found that this 240-days trek is possible due to the animals’ impressive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/howler-monkeys-use-mental-maps-for-route-navigation/">navigation</a> abilities depending upon an internal map sense that functions much like an in-built GPS system.



“We found that migrating elephant seals know how far they are from their breeding beach thousands of kilometers away. They also know approximately how long it will take them to get back,” said study lead author Roxanne Beltran, a postdoctoral researcher in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at UC Santa Cruz.



Although scientists have long known that elephant seals are expert navigators, how the seals managed to make it back to the beach just in time for the breeding season remained a mystery. By using satellite tracking data collected from over 100 adult female seals, Dr. Beltran and her colleagues discovered that elephant seals can adjust the timing of their travels based on a complex internal perception of space and time.



The data suggested that seals decided to turn around based on how far they were from the breeding beaches. According to the researchers, these decisions were not related to their body condition, measured as amount of body fat.



“We were surprised that foraging success or percent body fat was not more strongly related to when seals begin the return portion of the migration,” Beltran said. “We expected that highly successful (i.e. fatter) seals might end their foraging trips earlier, but that was not the case; instead, it seems like they are well programmed to turn around strategically based on where they are and in turn how long it will take them to get back.”&nbsp;



Further research is needed to find out what sensory cues the elephant seals depend on to keep track of where they are and to decide to head in the right direction at the right time. Clarifying these issues will help scientists better understand elephant seals and devise more efficient strategies of conservation.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.01.031">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Elephant seals have impressive navigation abilities

Each year, pregnant elephant seals travel over 10,000 kilometers across...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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