Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations.



In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways.



This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human trick</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-calls-and-language-origins">Chimpanzee calls and language origins</h2>



Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts, and hoos that can match specific events or contexts. Scientists studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primate</a> communication often focus on whether these calls can be recombined to express novel ideas.



“Generating new or combined meanings by combining words is a hallmark of human language, and it is crucial to investigate whether a similar capacity exists in our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, in order to decipher the origins of human language,” said Dr. Crockford. 



Observing apes in rich forest environments over many years helped researchers gather thousands of vocal utterances, matching them to various daily events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-chimpanzees-use-call-combinations">How chimpanzees use call combinations</h2>



Previous analyses suggested that primates usually rely on single calls. But chimpanzees in this project displayed a variety of two-call combinations that seemed to deliver more complex messages than either single call alone.



“Recording chimpanzee vocalisations over several years in their natural environment is essential in order to document their full communicative capabilities, a task that is becoming increasingly challenging due to growing human threats to wild chimpanzee populations,” said Roman Wittig, co-author of the study and director of the Taï Chimpanzee Project. 



Calls like hoo, pant, and grunt were often linked to feeding, traveling, approaching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">companions</a>, or even building a nest.



Some paired calls strayed far from the meaning of either individual call. Others narrowed or clarified the meaning of one call by combining it with another.



Researchers also discovered that a pair of calls could add both meanings together. Sometimes, flipping the order of the same two calls changed which events triggered that combination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-are-complex">Chimp calls are complex</h2>



“Our findings suggest a highly generative vocal communication system, unprecedented in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-chimp-nests-can-tell-us-about-early-independence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal kingdom</a>, which echoes recent findings in bonobos suggesting that complex combinatorial capacities were already present in the common ancestor of humans and these two great ape species,” said Cédric Girard-Buttoz, first author of the study. 



”This changes the views of the last century which considered communication in the great apes to be fixed and linked to emotional states.”&nbsp;



Humans rely on syntax to shift the message of a group of words by rearranging them. Chimpanzee call combinations seem to share a similar principle, at least in miniature form.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-and-specific-events">Chimp calls and specific events</h2>



Scientists matched each vocal utterance to events such as resting, traveling, or social interactions. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982205010407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> found that certain hoo calls link with resting or feeding. This project took that approach further by analyzing two-call sequences in multiple communities of wild chimpanzees.



Some call pairs combined rest and social signals, while others popped up in contexts that had little to do with either call used alone. The addition or repositioning of a second call often changed the full vocal sequence’s event links.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimp-calls-hint-at-early-language">Chimp calls hint at early language</h2>



Human language can create countless meanings from a limited set of sounds. These chimpanzee findings point to a flexible communication system that can widen its meaning capacity using simple steps.



Researchers say it is possible that human ancestors carried similar abilities. Over time, these may have expanded into the more detailed language structures we know today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-still-need-to-learn">What researchers still need to learn</h2>



Questions remain about longer sequences that might chain three or more calls. Future studies may investigate how that chaining impacts clarity or social bonding among chimpanzees.



Scientists also want to see if other primates or animals use multiple call-combining strategies. Some suggest that more species might do the same if studied across enough time and daily contexts.



Experts emphasize that playback experiments could confirm how receivers interpret each combination. Wild animals rarely stand still for tests, but careful monitoring might reveal which part of a call they respond to.



There is also the question of whether some call pairs express reference to upcoming events. Knowing that certain sequences appear during, say, nest-building might help reveal how apes convey planning or intention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-is-needed">More data is needed </h2>



With more data, researchers hope to better map how these combinations relate to specific events or states. Each new finding challenges the idea that only humans generate layered meanings from limited vocal elements.



Spending years in the field was crucial. It took that long to observe enough high-quality instances of different chimp calls, especially for rarer behaviors like nest-building.



Many wonder if these chimp call strategies might extend to gestures or other signals. Studies of both vocal and non-vocal communication could fill in gaps that remain.



Efforts to protect wild populations are also vital. Researchers stress that deforestation or poaching will cut short our chance to learn more about ape communication in its natural setting.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Chimpanzees mix vocal calls to create new meanings, like humans

Wild chimpanzees have surprised scientists again. They seem to combine single calls in ways that create new meanings for different situations. In a new investigation led by Dr. Catherine Crockford of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, researchers have found that chimpanzees can embed one vocal call into another to shift its message in several ways. This approach sheds light on how meaningful combinations of sounds might not be an exclusively human trick. Chimpanzee calls and language origins Chimpanzees produce a set of pant calls, grunts,...

In a study from the <a href="https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/">University of Liverpool</a>, researchers sequenced the genome of a capuchin monkey for the first time. The genetic analysis has revealed new clues about the evolution of the exceptionally long lives and big <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-brains-that-learn-implicitly-have-stronger-religious-beliefs/">brains</a> of capuchin monkeys.

"Capuchins have the largest relative brain size of any monkey and can live past the age of 50, despite their small size, but their genetic underpinnings had remained unexplored until now," explained study co-author Professor Joao Pedro De Magalhaes.

The researchers used a comparative genomics approach to study the white-faced capuchin monkey against a wide variety of mammals. They identified genes associated with longevity and brain development that had been evolutionarily selected in capuchin monkeys.

Study senior author and Canada Research Chair Amanda Melin has studied capuchin monkey behavior and genetics for almost 20 years.

"We found signatures of positive selection on genes underlying both traits, which helps us to better understand how such traits evolve," said Melin. "In addition, we found evidence of genetic adaptation to drought and seasonal environments by looking at populations of capuchins from a rainforest and a seasonal dry forest."

The experts identified genes that are involved in DNA damage response, metabolism, cell cycle, and insulin signaling. DNA damage is thought to be a major contributor to aging. Previous studies by Professor de Magalhaes showed that genes involved in DNA damage responses exhibit selection patterns that are specific to longevity in mammals.

"Of course, because aging-related genes often play multiple roles it is impossible to be sure whether selection in these genes is related to aging or to other life-history traits, like growth rates and developmental times, that in turn correlate with longevity," said Professor De Magalhaes.

"Although we should be cautious about the biological significance of our findings, it is tempting to speculate that, like in other species, changes to specific aging-related genes or pathways, could contribute to the longevity of capuchins."

The research was made possible by the development of a new technique, FecalFACS, which allows experts to isolate DNA more efficiently from primate faeces.

"This is a major breakthrough because the typical way to extract DNA from faeces results in about 95-99% of the DNA coming from gut microbes and food items," said study lead author Dr. Joseph Orkin.

"A lot of money has been spent sequencing genomes from different organisms than the mammals we're actually trying to study. Because of this, when wildlife biologists have required entire genomes, they have had to rely on more pure sources of DNA, like blood, saliva, or tissue - but as you can imagine, those are very hard to come by when studying endangered animals."

"FecalFACS finally provides a way to sequence whole genomes from free-ranging mammals using readily available, non-invasive samples, which could really help future conservation efforts."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Age-rated genes help capuchin monkeys live longer

In a study from the University of Liverpool, researchers sequenced...

A study from <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a> describes behavioral and physiological changes that occur among some ants after the death of their queen. A species of jumping ants found in India, Harpegnathos saltator, engages in dueling tournaments to establish new leadership.

The ants strike each other with their antennae in a series of battles that can drag out for weeks. But the new study found that even if the sparring matches stretch out for months, the winner can be determined in a matter of just three days based on changes in behavior and gene expression.

"Despite prolonged social upheaval in ant colonies following the loss of the queen, the winners of these dueling tournaments are rapidly determined," said study co-author Professor Claude Desplan. 

"Our findings may provide clues on adaptability in reproduction and aging, given that the workers who win the duel, or 'pseudoqueens,' gain the ability to lay eggs and live much longer than the average worker ant. This suggests that changes in the environment are able to dramatically affect the structure of a society."

Ant societies have a division of labor in which the queen is in charge of reproduction and workers are responsible for maintaining the colony. The workers take on daily tasks like cleaning, caring for the young, hunting for food, and defending the nest.

In many cases, the entire ant colony collapses and dies after the queen due to a lack of reproduction. However, Indian jumping ants go through a period of social unrest and "caste switching" after queen loss. 

While the queen is still alive, she secretes pheromones that prevent female workers from laying eggs. When the queen dies, the workers sense the lack of pheromones and begin fighting each other for social dominance.

"Most workers quickly abandon the tournament while a few workers continue the dueling for months and become gamergates (pseudo queens)," explained the researchers.

The ants that stick it out in battle and become pseudo queens acquire new behaviors, and their life expectancy dramatically increases from seven months to four years. The pseudo queens begin laying eggs, which allows the colony to survive.

The NYU team analyzed changes in social behavior and accompanying changes in gene expression during the early stages of the transition from worker bee to pseudo queen.

The study revealed that, as early as three days after Indian jumping ants begin dueling, the winners can be accurately predicted solely based on their behavior. 

The workers who ultimately became pseudo queens were found to engage in about twice as much dueling activity within the first five days. Meanwhile, the bees who dueled less gradually went back to cleaning, hunting, and other worker bee tasks.

According to study co-author Professor Danny Reinberg, both behavioral and molecular data - especially changes in gene expression in the brain - show that new pseudo queens are quickly determined after a colony's social structure has been disrupted by the loss of the queen.

"Despite the fact that dueling tournaments last for several weeks, we were able to anticipate which ants would become pseudo queens in only three days," said study co-lead author Comzit Opachaloemphan.

The experts found that the first genes to respond to the loss of the queen were in the brain, and that the absence of the queen pheromones triggers a series of behavioral and physiological changes. Ultimately, the brain is the driving force behind the dueling and early caste determination in the ants, with other tissues taking cues from the brain.

"We show that molecular changes in the brain serve as earliest caste predictors compared with other tissues," wrote the researchers. "Thus, behavioral and molecular data indicate that despite the prolonged social upheaval, the gamergate fate is rapidly established, suggesting a robust re-establishment of social structure."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://genesdev.cshlp.org/">Genes &amp; Development</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Jumping ants fight for dominance after their queen dies

A study from New York University describes behavioral and physiological...

As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/north-americas-largest-mammals-were-a-casualty-of-climate-change/">climate</a> change transforms the planet, some areas will get hotter and drier, while others will get wetter. In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a>, experts have discovered that yellow warblers can track down their preferred climate over thousands of miles. 

The research revealed that the songbirds have the same climate from one side of their migration range to the other.

"What's amazing is that the birds track similar climates despite the fact that they have migrated thousands of miles," said study co-author Rachael Bay, an assistant professor in the Department of Evolution and Ecology, College of Biological Sciences. "It seems that individual birds may be adapted to particular climate regimes."

Yellow warblers have breeding grounds throughout North America and fly south to spend their winters in Central and South America. 

In a previous study, Professor Bay and her team linked genetic variations among warblers with precipitation patterns across North America. This indicated that certain individuals are adapted to dry conditions, while others thrive in wet conditions. Based on their genetics, the researchers were able to predict where birds would breed.

Professor Bay collected data for the current study during her postdoctoral research, in collaboration with banding stations and collecting sites in North and South America. 

When the experts compared climate patterns in their winter and summer areas, they found that individual birds showed preferences for drier or wetter areas, but not for warmer or cooler areas. 

Yellow warblers that bred in relatively dry parts of North America, such as California's Central Valley, had overwintering grounds in dry parts of South or Central America.

"This is the first demonstration of using individual genetic tracking to link climates across the migratory cycle within a bird species," said Professor Bay.

The specialized ranges could have consequences for how the birds respond to climate change. Professor Bay speculates that the variation she and her colleagues found might provide the raw material for the species to adapt to changing climate conditions. 

For example, bird populations that are adapted to dry conditions could ultimately displace those adapted to wetter ones. This transition may have already begun, as the researchers found that population sizes of yellow warblers have changed with precipitation patterns over time. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14610248">Ecology Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Yellow warblers find their preferred climate over thousands of miles

As climate change transforms the planet, some areas will get...

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the northern Gulf of Mexico had a lasting impact on the immune function of bottlenose dolphins, according to a new study published by <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us">Wiley</a>.

For health assessments, bottlenose dolphins were captured, sampled, and released from an area that was heavily impacted by the oil spill. The experts compared the dolphins to those living in an unaffected area. 

The study revealed that immunological alterations in bottlenose dolphins tested up to a ten years following the oil spill were similar in nature to the effects documented immediately following the spill. The health impacts were seen detected in dolphins born after the spill. 

The findings suggest that there are long-term consequences of oil exposure on the immune systems of mammals, with possible multigenerational effects.

"The parallel between findings in dolphins exposed following the Deepwater Horizon spill and laboratory mice experimentally exposed to oil was impressive and really helped build the weight of evidence between oil exposure and specific effects on the immune system," said study co-author Dr. Sylvain De Guise.

"However, the long-term effects and potential for multigenerational effects raise significant concerns for the recovery of dolphin populations following the spill."

The Deepwater Horizon disaster released more than 205 million gallons of oil into the Gulf, and only about 25 percent of the oil was recovered. This left over 150 gallons of oil, along with nearly two million gallons of toxic dispersants, in the water. 

The oil dispersants, which were used in unprecedented quantities, did not reduce the oil in the ocean. Instead, the chemicals broke the oil down into smaller particles that may have actually been more toxic to marine life. 

According to previous estimates from the Center for Biological Diversity, the oil spill harmed or killed about 82,000 birds, 6,000 sea turtles, 25,900 marine mammals, and a vast number of fish. More than a thousand miles of coastal habitats were also affected, with cascading impacts on seagrass, shorebirds, and other species. 

The current study is published in the journal <a href="https://setac.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15528618">Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry</a>

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bottlenose dolphins are suffering from oil spill ten years later

The 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the northern Gulf...

Rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-linked-to-low-quality-diets-among-children/">temperatures</a> could have a major impact on livestock production of meat and milk in East Africa, according to a new study from <a href="https://ciat.cgiar.org/">CIAT</a>. Hotter and more humid weather are expected to create unsuitable conditions for dairy cattle, beef cattle, sheep, goat, pigs, and poultry. 

Heat stress in these animals will occur more frequently and for longer periods, explained the researchers. In an analysis of data from 1981 to 2010, they found that livestock have already been progressively subjected to heat stress.

Projections show that environmental conditions are set to worsen significantly, which has serious implications for livestock. 

"We knew that climate change would bring problems for animals, yet we were surprised about the magnitude of change," said livestock expert An Notenbaert. "Climate change mitigation and adaptation measures absolutely need to be factored into decisions and strategies for livestock production."

The study authors noted that up to 19 percent of current meat and milk production takes place in areas where dangerous heat stress conditions are likely to increase in frequency from 2071 to 2100. 

Without urgent action to combat climate change, much of East Africa will become unsuitable for exotic pig, poultry, and dairy cattle production at the current rate of global warming.

Based on climate projections, the experts found that dairy production will be hit hardest in South Sudan, Southern parts of Eritrea, and eastern and northwestern parts of Kenya. Action is being taken to protect the pig sector in parts of Uganda, where heat stress is already prevalent.

"This paper is an alarm bell for policymakers and anyone involved in livestock in the tropical region," said study co-author Klaus Butterbach-Bahl of the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

"In East Africa, where protein consumption is already low, this could worsen the food and nutrition security situation."

According to the researchers, well-targeted and evidence-based climate adaptation will enable livestock production to continue and expand across East Africa. Such measures include identifying productive animal breeds that are adapted to heat.

"Holstein Friesians, a popular imported breed, are not indigenous to Africa. Although they produce more milk than local breeds, they do not cope well with heat," said Notenbaert. "To make livestock production more environmentally efficient, we need breeds that can cope with rising temperatures while at the same time produce more meat and milk."

In addition to breeding, there are other mitigation strategies that could be considered to help animals cope with rising temperatures, such as providing them with shelter, shaded areas, or better access to water sources. 

"Heat stress in livestock, besides being an animal welfare issue, also means less income to the farmer, less efficient use of natural resources, and higher greenhouse gas emissions per unit of livestock product," said <a href="https://www.ilri.org/">ILRI</a> livestock breeder Karen Marshall.

"It is important to keep in mind, however, that while heat stress provides an important lens on the effect of climate change on animals, it is just one part of the picture."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natfood/">Nature Food</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Livestock production could be hit hard by global warming

Rising temperatures could have a major impact on livestock production...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-poop-up-to-66-percent-less-when-they-eat-human-grade-foods/">Dogs</a> were the first animal to be domesticated by humans, evolving from a group of wolves thousands of years ago. But when it comes to Australian dingoes, exactly where they fit into the family is still up for debate, according to retired <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> anthropologist Pat Shipman.

For most animals, hybridization does not occur between closely related species. When there is an exception, the offspring are usually infertile, such as when female horses and male donkeys produce mules.

On the other hand, many canid species - including wolves, dingoes, and dogs - can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. This makes it challenging to define species boundaries in canids.

"Indigenous Australians understood that there was something different about the dingoes and the colonial dogs," said Shipman. "They really are, I think, different animals. They react differently to humans. A lot of genetic and behavioral work has been done with wolves, dogs and dingoes. Dingoes come out somewhere in between."

Domestic dogs made their Australian debut in in 1788 with the first 11 ships of convicts. At this time, dingoes were already present on the continent, along with aboriginal Australians who arrived about 65,000 years ago. Today, many dingoes have domestic dogs in their ancestry. 

According to fossil evidence, dingoes came to Australia at least 4,000 years ago, and Shipman believes that this date may be actually turn out to be even earlier.

"Part of the reason I'm so fascinated with dingoes is that if you see a dingo through American eyes you say, 'that's a dog,'" said Shipman. "In evolutionary terms, dingoes give us a glimpse of what started the domestication process."

Dingoes have a "basic doggy look" even though they are not dogs, explained Shipman. They differ from dogs in both behavior and genetics, and are more like wolves in their relationships with humans.

Domestic doggs were evolving at a time when humans began growing food and moved to a diet containing large amounts of starch from maize, rice, potatoes, or wheat. While wolves and dingoes have very few of the genes for starch digestion, the dog's genome adapted to tolerate it. 

Indigenous Australians stole dingo puppies from their dens and raised them, yet these puppies generally left human homes at maturity and went off to breed and raise offspring. This demonstrates that their ability to closely bond with humans is limited.

"Aboriginal Australians were not well-regarded as holders of knowledge or special skill when Europeans came to the continent," said Shipman. "So, no one thought to ask them about dingoes. Even recently, asking aboriginals for their scientific or behavioral knowledge really was not common."

Regardless, aboriginal Australians have a long history of living with dingoes in their lives. Many people argue that dingoes are just dogs - strange dogs, but just dogs, said Shipman. However, aboriginals would disagree.

Since dingoes exhibit behaviors that fall somewhere between wolves and dogs, and possess a slight ability to tolerate living in captivity, Shipman concluded that a dingo is simply a wolf on its way to becoming a dog, that never got there.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/loi/19328494">Anatomical Record</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Are dingoes actually just strange dogs?

Dogs were the first animal to be domesticated by humans,...

In a new study published by <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS</a>, scientists have observed some unexpected breeding behavior among Brazilian treefrogs. 

The researchers found that Paranapiacaba treefrogs lay spawn in small pools of water inside the leaves of bromeliad <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a> that are located on the banks of a stream. The tadpoles hatch from the aquatic eggs in the leaf tanks, and then make their way into the nearby stream to complete development.

The study is the first to report this unusual reproductive strategy among frogs, which are also known as anurans. 

Led by Leo Ramos Malagoli from the Universidade Estadual Paulista in Brazil, the researchers spent 11 years collecting data on the courtship behaviors, mating, spawning, and tadpole development of Paranapiacaba treefrogs. This little-known species is native to the Atlantic Forests of Brazil. 

The experts observed the males calling out from bromeliad ponds located on or over streams. Next, the females mated with the males inside of the leaf tanks and layed spawn there. 

However, the researchers found that the tadpoles did not complete their entire development in the tanks. By at least the 26th stage of development, the tadpoles had managed to enter the neighboring stream. 

The study authors theorize that the tadpoles must fall, jump, or get washed out of the tank to complete their development in a large body of water.

It is not uncommon for frogs to mate in leaf tanks, which offer a refuge out of the sights of predators and competitors. With other species, however, the frogs usually relocate to lay their eggs in larger water bodies or the tadpoles remain in the leaf tanks until adulthood. 

The developmental strategy used by Paranapiacaba treefrogs allows their tadpoles to grow in a safe location while escaping before limited food and space runs out in the small leaf tank.

According to the study authors, high summer rainfall in the Atlantic forests of southeast Brazil likely drove the evolution of this unique breeding strategy.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brazilian treefrogs have adopted an unusual breeding strategy

In a new study published by PLOS, scientists have observed...

Socialization makes a big difference in the life expectancy of adult female giraffes, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html">University of Zurich</a>. The experts have found that female giraffes who spend more time with other females have a higher chance of survival than those who are less sociable.

For over five years, a research team led by Monica Bond has been conducting the largest study to date of a giraffe population. The site of the investigation, which is in the Tarangire region of Tanzania, spans more than 1,000 square kilometers and includes multiple social communities with hundreds of adult female members.

The researchers determined that the benefits of socializing outweigh the effects of environmental factors or human presence on the survival of female giraffes.

While group formations change throughout the day, adult females were found to maintain many special friendships over the long term.

"Grouping with more females, called gregariousness, is correlated with better survival of female giraffes, even as group membership is frequently changing," said Bond. "This aspect of giraffe sociability is even more important than attributes of their non-social environment such as vegetation and nearness to human settlements."

Beyond the threats of poaching and wildlife trafficking, adult female giraffe mortality is primarily caused by disease, stress, and malnutrition. 

"Social relationships can improve foraging efficiency, and help manage intraspecific competition, predation, disease risk and psychosocial stress," said study senior author Professor Barbara König. 

For example, female giraffes may team up with other females to obtain information about the best places to find food. Socializing in larger groups may also lower stress levels, reduce harassment from males, and provide help in caring for young.

The team analyzed the social behaviors of the wild giraffes using network algorithms. The analysis showed that giraffes are surprisingly similar to humans and other primates in their social habits.

"It seems to be beneficial for female giraffes to connect with a greater number of others and develop a sense of larger community, but without a strong sense of exclusive subgroup affiliation," said Bond.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rspb">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female giraffes live longer when they stick together

Socialization makes a big difference in the life expectancy of...

Tourists may be carelessly spreading COVID-19 to wild mountain gorillas by taking selfies with them. A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.brookes.ac.uk/">Oxford Brookes University</a> analyzed nearly 1,000 Instagram posts containing photos taken with mountain gorillas in East <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shipwrecked-ivory-sheds-new-light-on-african-forest-elephants/">Africa</a>.

The study revealed that most of the tourists were close enough to the animals to transmit a virus or infection, and they were not wearing face masks. 

"The risk of disease transmission between visitors and gorillas is very concerning. It is vital that we strengthen and enforce tour regulations to ensure gorilla trekking practices do not further threaten these already imperiled great apes," said study lead author Gaspard Van Hamme.

In January 2021, captive gorillas at San Diego Zoo tested positive for SARS-CoV-2, providing new evidence that the COVID-19 pandemic can affect great apes. 

"In the photos we analyzed, we found that face masks were rarely worn by tourists visiting gorillas and that brings potential for disease transmission between people and the gorillas they visit," said study co-author Dr. Magdalena Svensson. "With people all over the world getting more used to wearing face masks we have hope that in the future wearing face masks will become common practice in gorilla trekking."

Mountain gorillas are native to East Africa, and can currently be found in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, and Rwanda. After decades of threats from human activities, gorilla numbers have started to bounce back in recent years. There are now an estimated 1,063 individuals.

"This research provides a valuable perspective on how much tourists are willing to share their too close encounters with mountain gorillas through Instagram, which creates expectations for future tourists," explained Dr. Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka.

"It highlights a great need for responsible tourism to provide adequate protection while minimizing disease transmission, especially now during the COVID-19 pandemic."

Trekking is a valuable way to generate income to support mountain gorilla conservation. At the same time, large numbers of visitors can negatively impact the wildlife and their environment.

One of the main guidelines for visitors is to maintain a minimum distance of seven meters away from the gorillas, but the new research shows that such guidelines are not adequately followed or enforced.

Russell A. Mittermeier is the Chair of the IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, who was not involved in the study.

"It has become apparent in the past few years that studies of anthroponotic and zoonotic disease spread are crucial to the field of primate conservation. With that in mind, it is very exciting to see the new research on this topic coming out of the Primate Conservation Group at Oxford Brookes University," said Mittermeier.

"While this study focused on one species, the mountain gorilla, the lessons learned are also applicable to many other primate species that are increasingly coming into contact with people. This line of research will certainly become more important in the future."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/25758314">People and Nature</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tourists taking selfies with mountain gorillas put them at risk of disease

Tourists may be carelessly spreading COVID-19 to wild mountain gorillas...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/songbirds-rely-on-an-autism-gene-for-memorization/">Birds</a> grow thicker down feathers to survive the cold conditions in high elevations, according to a new study. The researchers examined feathers across 249 species of Himalayan songbirds using a collection of bird specimens at the <a href="http://naturalhistory.si.edu/">Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History</a>.

To regulate their body temperature, birds grow a layer of fluffy down insulation between their bodies and their outermost feathers.

The study revealed that birds living at higher elevations have more down feathers than birds living at lower elevations. The experts also found that smaller birds, which lose heat faster than large birds, grow longer down feathers in proportion to their body size.

The research highlights the importance of feathers in helping birds adapt to their environment, and suggests that adding down may be a common strategy among songbirds. The findings may ultimately help researchers predict which birds are most vulnerable to climate change by simply studying their feathers.

"The Himalayas are seeing some of the fastest rates of warming on Earth," said study lead author Sahas Barve. "At the same time, climate change is driving an increase in the frequency and intensity of extremely cold events like snowstorms. Being able to accurately predict the temperatures a bird can withstand could give us a new tool to predict how certain species might respond to climate change."

During a frigid morning of field work in the Sho-kharkh forest of the Himalayas, Barve observed a tiny goldcrest dashing across the treetops. He wondered how this little bird, which weighed about as much as a teaspoon of sugar, was able to thrive in frigid conditions. Barve set out to investigate whether Himalayan birds wear their own version of down jackets.

While previous studies suggested that birds from colder habitats had extra down feathers, Barve said this is the first study to analyze this pattern for such a large number of species in cold environments and across 15,000 feet of elevation.

The researchers used a microscope to image the chest feathers of 1,715 specimens from the high-altitude Himalayan Mountains. The team analyzed the photos to determine how long each feather's downy section was relative to its total length. 

The analysis revealed that the birds from the highest elevations, as well as the smallest birds, tended to have the highest proportion of down on their body feathers. Small birds had down feathers that were three times as long as the largest birds, while high-elevation birds had up to 25 percent more down.

"Seeing this correlation across so many species makes our findings more general and lets us say these results suggest all passerine birds may show this pattern," said Barve. "And we never would have been able to look at so many different species and get at this more general pattern of evolution without the Smithsonian's collections."

Study co-author Carla Dove said she was excited to work together with Barve to use the Smithsonian's collections in a new way. 

"Sahas looked at more than 1,700 specimens. Having them all in one place in downtown Washington, D.C., as opposed to having to go to the Himalayas and study these birds in the wild, obviously makes a big difference. It allowed him to gather the data he needed quickly before the COVID lockdowns swept the globe, and then work on the analysis remotely."

According to Dove, the potential to use these results to predict how some birds will cope with climate change demonstrates the value of museum collections. 

"We have more than 620,000 bird specimens collected over the past 200 years waiting for studies like this. We don't know what our specimens will be used for down the line; that's why we have to maintain them and keep enhancing them. These specimens from the past can be used to predict the future."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/16000587">Ecography</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Birds grow more down feathers in higher elevations

Birds grow thicker down feathers to survive the cold conditions...

Around 10,000 years ago, the largest mammals in North America completely vanished. Megafauna including mammoths, ground sloths, and giant beavers were widely believed to have fallen victim to overhunting by rapidly expanding human populations, with climate change playing a significant role in the extinctions as well. 

But now, experts at the <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> have found that climate change actually played a leading role in the disappearance of North American megafauna. 

Based on a new statistical modeling approach, the study shows that a drastic decrease in temperatures around 13,000 years ago likely initiated the decline of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanishing-giants-study-reveals-shocking-decline-of-large-mammals-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">giant mammal populations</a>. 

For the last six decades, the prevailing theory was that the arrival of specialized "big-game" hunters in North America about 14,000 years ago led to the rapid decline of large mammals. 

It has also been debated that there is not enough archaeological evidence that overhunting was persistent or widespread enough to cause extinctions. Instead, dramatic climate and ecological changes may have been responsible for megafauna extinctions.

Around the time of the extinction event, there were two major climate changes, beginning with a period of abrupt warming that began around 14,700 years ago. This climate warming was followed by a cold snap around 12,900 years ago during which the Northern Hemisphere returned to near-glacial conditions. 

"A common approach has been to try to determine the timing of megafauna extinctions and to see how they align with human arrival in the Americas or some climatic event," said study co-lead author Mathew Stewart. 

"However, extinction is a process - meaning that it unfolds over some span of time - and so to understand what caused the demise of North America's megafauna, it's crucial that we understand how their populations fluctuated in the lead up to extinction. Without those long-term patterns, all we can see are rough coincidences."

Traditionally, experts have used the radiocarbon record to estimate past population sizes, but there is a level of uncertainty associated with radiocarbon dates.

"As a result, you can end up seeing trends in the data that don't really exist, making this method rather unsuitable for capturing changes in past population levels," explained study co-lead author W. Christopher Carleton.

"Using simulation studies where we know what the real patterns in the data are, we have been able to show that the new method does not have the same problems. As a result, our method is able to do a much better job capturing through-time changes in population levels using the radiocarbon record."

To investigate, the researchers applied a new statistical approach that was developed by Carleton. The results show that megafauna populations fluctuated in response to climate change.

"Megafauna populations appear to have been increasing as North American began to warm around 14,700 years ago," said Stewart. "But we then see a shift in this trend around 12,900 years ago as North America began to drastically cool, and shortly after this we begin to see the extinctions of megafauna occur."

While the findings suggest that the return to near glacial conditions was the direct cause for megafauna extinctions, human activities such as overhunting and habitat modification likely played an indirect role. 

"We must consider the ecological changes associated with these climate changes at both a continental and regional scale if we want to have a proper understanding of what drove these extinctions," explained study senior author Huw Groucutt. 

"Humans also aren't completely off the hook, as it remains possible that they played a more nuanced role in the megafauna extinctions than simple overkill models suggest."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

North America's largest mammals were a casualty of climate change

Around 10,000 years ago, the largest mammals in North America...

A major shift in atmospheric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/active-travel-can-greatly-reduce-co2-emissions-in-the-city/">CO2</a> levels may have helped dinosaurs make a 6,500-mile journey from South America to Greenland, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.earth.columbia.edu/">Earth Institute at Columbia University</a>.

A group of long-necked, herbivorous dinosaurs known as sauropodomorphs arrived in Greenland sometime between 225 and 205 million years ago. 

The new study has matched ancient magnetism patterns in rock layers at fossil sites across South America, Arizona, New Jersey, Europe, and Greenland, to determine that the dinosaurs completed this migration around 214 million years ago. At this time, all of the continents were still connected as part of the supercontinent Pangea.

Fossil records show that sauropodomorphs first appeared in Argentina and Brazil about 230 million years ago, which raises the question of why it took them so long to expand into the Northern Hemisphere.

"In principle, the dinosaurs could have walked from almost one pole to the other," explained study co-author Dennis Kent. "There was no ocean in between. There were no big mountains. And yet it took 15 million years. It's as if snails could have done it faster."

Kent estimated that if a dinosaur herd walked only one mile per day, it would take less than 20 years to make the journey between South America and Greenland.

Up until about 215 million years ago, the Triassic period had experienced extremely high levels of CO2 at around 4,000 parts per million. Between 215 and 212 million years ago, the CO2 concentration dropped by half. This would have been the same time that sauropodomorphs set out on their long journey to Greenland.

The researchers theorize that the plummeting CO2 levels and the sauropodomorph migration are linked. They suggest that the milder levels of CO2 may have helped to remove climatic barriers that had limited the sauropodomorphs to South America.

The study authors explained that on a planet supercharged with CO2, there were likely climate extremes that would have prevented the dinosaurs from migrating. "We know that with higher CO2, the dry gets drier and the wet gets wetter," said Kent.

When the CO2 levels dipped 215 to 212 million years ago, the tropical regions may have become more mild, and the arid regions could have become less dry. Certain passageways may have developed, such as along rivers or lakes, that would have helped sustain the herbivores along the way to Greenland.

"Once they arrived in Greenland, it looked like they settled in. They hung around as a long fossil record after that." 

Kent said the idea that a dip in CO2 could have helped these dinosaurs to overcome a climatic barrier is speculative but plausible, and it seems to be supported by the fossil record.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur migration was made possible by a major climate shift

A major shift in atmospheric CO2 levels may have helped...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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