Dogs live with us, watch us, and often reflect our lives back at us. When routines shift, they shift. When stress builds, they sense it. 



Scientists wanted to know just how much these changes affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/">dogs</a>, particularly during the upheaval of the pandemic. That curiosity led to one of the largest studies ever on canine behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-dog-behavior-and-health">Tracking dog behavior and health</h2>



Researchers at Virginia Tech and the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> studied over 47,000 dogs between 2020 and 2023. 



The work was conducted as part of the Dog Aging Project, a massive effort that tracks the lives and health of dogs across the United States.



"Most importantly, with these data, we're excited to now have a starting point from which we can continue to follow changes in the behaviors of tens of thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-may-respond-to-each-other-through-blinking/">dogs</a> as they age, which will ultimately help us understand how behavior and health are linked," said Courtney Sexton, lead researcher from Virginia Tech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-changes-in-dogs">Detecting changes in dogs</h2>



Behavior in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/">dogs</a> is more than personality. A sudden change can point to illness, pain, or stress. Small shifts in aggression, fear, or trainability can signal bigger problems. 



By establishing a baseline, researchers now have a way to spot meaningful changes across time. 



The team relied on a widely used survey known as C-BARQ, in which owners reported on 14 aspects of their dogs’ behavior - from aggression to trainability. 



Researchers then organized these traits into four broad categories: Fear, Attention and Excitability, Aggression, and Trainability. This framework allowed them to track and compare behavior patterns over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strength-of-the-data">Strength of the data</h2>



The dataset was huge. It included dogs from every region of the United States. Nearly half of the dogs were mixed breeds, while the rest were single breeds. Ages ranged from puppies to seniors.



"When you have a data set this big, you really do have power in numbers," Sexton explained. "While we can't understand all the factors, when we find statistical significance, there is likely something there worth thinking about in its real-world context."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-behavior-during-the-pandemic">Dog behavior during the pandemic </h2>



The original goal was clear. Researchers wanted to see how the pandemic shaped dog behavior. People spent more time at home. Many adopted new pets, and social interactions declined.



Routines changed overnight. Did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/">dogs</a> change too? Scientists hoped to uncover whether these new conditions led to lasting behavioral shifts, from training challenges to changes in aggression or fear. They wanted to know if dogs adapted or struggled alongside humans.



The data showed that dogs remained surprisingly consistent from 2020 through 2023. "We saw that certain factors, such as a dog's life stage, sex, and size had some influence on their behavior," Sexton said.



"Interestingly, we found that throughout the COVID-19 pandemic time period, there were not substantial changes in dogs' overall behavioral profiles from year to year despite what we might have expected given the changes in environment and routines that many were experiencing at that time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-puppy-struggles">Pandemic puppy struggles</h2>



One behavior did shift: trainability. Dogs enrolled in 2020 scored higher than those added in later years. Scores dropped in 2021, 2022, and 2023. 



Researchers think the dip reflects “pandemic puppy” struggles. New owners often lacked time or access to training. Dogs had fewer chances to socialize. Stress in households added to the mix.



By 2023, trainability scores started to climb back toward earlier levels. That rebound suggests that as people regained stable routines, dogs did too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-gender-breed-and-size">The role of gender, breed, and size</h2>



The study also revealed differences tied to breed and body size. Mixed-breed dogs scored higher on fear, attention-seeking, and aggression than purebred dogs. Shelter backgrounds and early trauma may play a role.



Small dogs were more fearful, more aggressive, and less trainable than larger dogs. 



Puppies needed more attention, were less fearful and less aggressive, but also harder to train. Males were more aggressive and less trainable than females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-owners-bounced-back">Dogs and owners bounced back</h2>



Owners in 2020 reported more aggression than those in 2023. That drop may reflect less household stress and more opportunities for dogs to interact as restrictions lifted.



“What was interesting was that the difference in reported trainability between the first year and the last year was the smallest of any in the averages,” Sexton noted. 



“It’s a small statistical significance but could show that dogs, or their owners, are bouncing back.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dog-behavior">Future research on dog behavior</h2>



This is only the beginning. <a href="https://dogagingproject.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Dog Aging Project</a> will keep tracking these dogs as they grow older. Researchers want to see how location, health, and age shape behavior over time. 



The ultimate goal is to connect behavior with health so owners can better care for their pets.



Dogs adapted through the pandemic. They struggled in some ways, especially with training, but showed remarkable resilience. Their story mirrors ours. 



As life changed, dogs adjusted, and as routines returned, they found steadier ground. This study now offers the first large-scale baseline of canine behavior - a reference point that will guide both researchers and dog owners for years to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0330257" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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How the pandemic changed dog behavior over 3 years

Dogs live with us, watch us, and often reflect our lives back at us. When routines shift, they shift. When stress builds, they sense it. Scientists wanted to know just how much these changes affect dogs, particularly during the upheaval of the pandemic. That curiosity led to one of the largest studies ever on canine behavior. Tracking dog behavior and health Researchers at Virginia Tech and the University of Washington studied over 47,000 dogs between 2020 and 2023. The work was conducted as part of the Dog...

It appears that poems hold more than just literary merit. They can also show how porpoise and other wildlife populations have changed over time.



The <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/species/yangtze-finless-porpoise" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yangtze Finless Porpoise</a>, a critically endangered freshwater porpoise, has captured the attention of ecologists and history buffs alike. Its story highlights how research can bridge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enduring-earth-mystery-partially-solved-artificial-intelligence-nazca-geoglyphs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural</a> heritage and conservation science.



“Art, like poetry, can really spark an emotional connection, making people realize the harmony and respect we should have between people and nature,” says Zhigang Mei of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (<a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CAS</a>), who first noticed that old poems might hold clues about where and when these porpoises lived. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-poems-documented-porpoise-habitats">Old poems documented porpoise habitats</h2>



The Yangtze river is about 3,915 miles long, flowing from the Tibetan Plateau to the East China Sea near Shanghai. It has supported trade, travel, and local livelihoods for many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-played-a-spiritual-role-in-prehistoric-cave-art/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynasties</a>, including the Tang (618–907 CE) and the Qing (1636–1912 CE).



Ancient travelers often wrote poems describing landscapes and any remarkable animals they saw. That is how 724 poems referencing the porpoise were discovered, some dating back over 1,400 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-poems-reveal-porpoise-sightings">Poems reveal porpoise sightings</h2>



These records shine a light on the Yangtze finless porpoise when cameras or formal surveys were unavailable. Some poets portrayed the porpoise as frolicking and active, indicating that it was frequently visible in large parts of the river at different points in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beauty-in-art-lifts-the-mind-and-awakens-higher-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">history</a>.



The poetic evidence correlates with other data about wildlife decline over the centuries. It also reinforces the power of integrating cultural insights with scientific methods to uncover long-term environmental changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-habitat-loss-using-ancient-poems">Mapping habitat loss using ancient poems</h2>



Based on these poems, the researchers found that the porpoise species’ <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-egyptians-may-have-seen-their-goddess-in-the-milky-way/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">historical</a> range has shrunk by at least 65%. 



The biggest losses happened in tributaries and lakes connected to the Yangtze, where dam construction has blocked the porpoises’ ability to migrate, as the poems reveal.



These developments echo the plight of other river life. Two native species, the Baiji dolphin and the Chinese paddlefish, have gone functionally <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0292" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct</a> in recent decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-poetry-filled-a-scientific-gap">How poetry filled a scientific gap</h2>



Traditional wildlife surveys usually rely on fossils, DNA, or recent data. but these sources leave a huge blind spot when it comes to mid-range historical timelines.



That's where literature helped. The poems offered insight into a period that’s typically hard to document, filling the 1,000-year gap between ancient fossils and modern science with surprisingly detailed environmental clues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-human-activities">Impacts of human activities</h2>



Hydraulic engineering projects, particularly since the 1950s, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/13/7/908" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">altered parts</a> of the Yangtze and cut off vital pathways for the porpoise. Changes in water flow and increased boat traffic also likely contributed to fewer safe habitats.



Similar habitat pressures pushed the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19470453/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese sturgeon</a> closer to reliance on artificial stocking, especially after the gezhouba dam was completed in 1988. 



The porpoise is now confined mostly to a smaller segment of the main channel, highlighting how fast things have shifted in modern times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-validating-poems-as-historical-evidence">Validating poems as historical evidence</h2>



Not every poem could be taken at face value. Some poets exaggerated animal traits for effect, while others wrote with scientific precision that mirrored firsthand observation.



To make sure their conclusions were sound, the researchers studied each poet’s life and writing style. They used this biographical context to sort realistic descriptions from imagined ones, strengthening the accuracy of their geographic mapping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-an-ancient-art-form">Insights from an ancient art form</h2>



One of the most revealing parts of this study is how it merges modern ecology with records from a different era. 



A freshwater porpoise is not something most people associate with poetry, but these poems captured vivid notes about the animal’s behavior, distribution, and local folklore.



The Qing Dynasty alone produced 477 poems mentioning the porpoise, showing how popular the topic was among traveling poets of that period. This underscores the deep bond between people and their environment in traditional Chinese culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-poetry-to-guide-porpoise-conservation">Using poetry to guide porpoise conservation </h2>



Experts now hope that protecting the porpoise means respecting the lessons of both history and science. 



The next steps include refining details from the poems to glean more about the porpoises’ social behavior, breeding grounds, and ideal habitat conditions.



These historical insights might help conservation programs address the porpoise’s remaining strongholds. They also challenge us to be mindful of how future infrastructure and urban development will affect other freshwater species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-old-texts-to-track-species">Using old texts to track species</h2>



There is growing interest in using historical documents - poems, journals, and even paintings - to spot shifts in biodiversity over millennia. 



Researchers want to understand which measures can effectively preserve species and which human activities are most damaging in the long run.



The Yangtze finless porpoise story suggests that culture, science, and poems should work together to shape a more thoughtful approach to conservation. 



Protecting a species is never just a scientific endeavor; it also involves celebrating the traditions, poems, and stories that connect people to that species.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00266-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Ancient poems tell the story of how this rare porpoise reached the brink of extinction

It appears that poems hold more than just literary merit....

Leiden,,The,Netherlands,-,April,30,,2022:,Closeup,Of,The

The idea of a sharp‑witted Tyrannosaurus rex prowling through Cretaceous forests, planning ambushes with the cunning of a primate, has stirred public fascination for years. 



A fresh debate erupted in 2023 when neuron counts - those microscopic processors in every brain - were promoted as the new yardstick for dinosaur intelligence. 



Could tallying fossilized brain cells really tell us whether T. rex was closer to a crocodile or a clever <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baboons-may-offer-clues-to-early-human-social-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">baboon</a>?



That question matters because neurons do more than fire signals; they set the stage for learning, memory, and even social complexity. 



If a seven‑ton predator had primate‑level <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-genes-to-genius-what-makes-the-human-brain-unique/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neuron numbers</a>, our picture of dinosaur life would need a radical rewrite. As it turns out, the story is more complicated - and far more intriguing - than a single metric suggests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-t-rex-brain-power-claim-stirs-debate">T. rex brain power claim stirs debate</h2>



The spark came from neuroscientist Suzana Herculano‑Houzel of <a href="https://www.vanderbilt.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vanderbilt University</a>. In a 2023 <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cne.25453" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Comparative Neurology paper</a>, she proposed that by measuring fossil skull cavities and comparing them with living birds and reptiles, researchers could estimate dinosaur neuron counts. 



Her calculations suggested that large theropods might boast totals on a par with monkeys, hinting at problem‑solving abilities, tool use, and cultural behaviors.



Popular media embraced the possibility of a “smart” tyrant lizard. Yet many specialists felt the hype skipped a few steps. 



Paleoneurologists quickly noted that reptile brains fill only part of the cranial cavity, leaving cerebrospinal fluid to occupy the rest. Misreading that gap, they warned, inflates neuron estimates and, by extension, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/optimal-decision-making-is-a-balance-of-experience-and-knowledge/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perceived intelligence</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-examining-t-rex-fossil-brains">Examining T. rex fossil brains</h2>



To test the claim, an international coalition of paleontologists, neuroanatomists, and cognitive psychologists re‑analyzed the data. 



<a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alberta</a> research associate Cristian Gutierrez‑Ibanez helped steer the effort. “There were a lot of people who thought the record needed to be set straight,” he explained.



“Particularly because it did make it into the press. You end up with this popular idea that T. rex was super smart and could use tools and have culture and you go, ‘Whoa!’”



Instead of eight separate rebuttals, the group pooled expertise. “We said there is no point in eight different things being written to say this is wrong. Why don't we just put them all together?” 



Their review, published in The Anatomical Record, swapped rough cavity volumes for high‑resolution CT scans of fossil braincases. 



The new approach pulled neuron counts sharply downward, placing T. rex in a cognitive bracket closer to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-lizards-are-saving-australian-sheep-farms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">today’s large reptiles</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-neuron-counts-aren-t-crystal-balls">Why neuron counts aren’t crystal balls</h2>



Counting cells may look objective, but brains are more than piles of neurons. Connection patterns, circuit density, and metabolic rates all influence what an animal can do with those cells. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-croc-day-embracing-the-mighty-reptile/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alligator</a> dissections illustrate the pitfalls. 



“The first time I dissected an alligator brain, I took the top of the skull off and I went, ‘Where is the brain?’” recalls University of Alberta professor Doug Wylie. 



Plenty of space sits empty inside reptile skulls, so cavity volume exaggerates brain tissue size.



Body mass muddies the water, too. “We don't know why it's true, but it is true. A larger animal needs more neurons.” 



An adult male baboon tips the scale at roughly 30 to 90 lb, while a mature T. rex weighs around 14,000 lb. Many of its neurons merely kept those massive muscles, eyes, and sensory organs running. 



With so much neural real estate devoted to basic physiology, little would remain for the advanced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-have-remarkable-spatial-memory-and-sense-of-direction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognition seen in primates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-bodies-and-t-rex-math">Brains, bodies, and T. rex math</h2>



Herculano‑Houzel had argued that high neuron counts implied warm‑blooded metabolisms in predatory dinosaurs. The rebuttal team disagrees. 



Reptile brains pack neurons more loosely than bird or mammal brains, so raw totals alone can’t reveal metabolic style. “She's focused on the neuron number, and they are too high anyway,” Wylie says.



Recent bone histology supports a middle‑ground view: many dinosaurs likely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-may-have-become-warm-blooded-180-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maintained body temperatures</a> through a blend of behavioral basking and elevated internal heat production, rather than strict cold‑bloodedness or full mammalian endothermy. That nuance highlights why single‑factor models fall short.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-was-t-rex-like">What was T. rex like?</h2>



Gutierrez‑Ibanez and colleagues suggest looking at trackways, tooth wear, growth rings, and isotope chemistry to piece together behavior. 



Evidence points to a sensorily acute predator with good vision, a powerful sense of smell, and the ability to coordinate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robopteryx-dinosaur-feather-secrets-revealed-by-a-robot-dinosaur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pack‑style hunting</a> now and then - but not the foresight to fashion tools or pass down cultural traditions. 



“We are not dissing T. rex,” Gutierrez‑Ibanez says. “We are just saying that claiming T. rex had the intelligence of a baboon and culture might be taking it too far.”



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crocodiles</a> provide a sober benchmark. They solve simple problems, show limited parental care, and learn from routine, yet they don’t build societies or share knowledge across generations. 



A Cretaceous apex hunter operating at that level would still have been formidable without needing a primate‑grade intellect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-we-go-from-here">Where do we go from here?</h2>



Neuron counting remains a valuable technique, especially when paired with modern imaging and rigorous scaling laws. But brains never work in isolation; they evolve alongside bodies, behaviors, and environments. 



The next wave of research will likely blend biomechanics, climate modeling, and even ancient DNA proteins to refine dinosaur life histories.



T. rex may not have been a reptilian Einstein, yet it ruled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/qunkasaura-pintiquiniestra-new-sauropod-dinosaur-discovered-in-spain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Cretaceous</a> ecosystems for nearly two million years - a success record most species never achieve. 



Sorting out how it did so requires many lines of evidence, and that scientific detective work is just getting started.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19328494" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Anatomical Record</a>.



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Was T. rex as smart as modern primates? Another study weighs in on the debate

The idea of a sharp‑witted Tyrannosaurus rex prowling through Cretaceous forests,...

Scientists have taken a close look at certain reef fish and found something that no one expected. These underwater inhabitants can shift their jawbones in more ways than just up and down. The fish use a quick jaw twist in order to feed more effectively.



Peter Wainwright from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a> and his colleagues discovered this unusual trait while studying the <a href="https://www.fishbase.se/summary/zanclus-cornutus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moorish idol</a> (Zanclus cornutus), a striking species known for its long dorsal fin and bold stripes. 



The experts saw swift sideways motions that differ from the typical jaw movements of most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-illuminates-fish-interactions-in-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> - a finding that might explain how certain fish became successful herbivores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-the-jaw-twist-to-feed-better">Fish use the jaw twist to feed better</h2>



High-speed video helped <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418982122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> detect a rapid shifting motion in the mouth region of this coral reef species.



Two-dimensional footage does not capture the complexity of the action, so cameras operating at hundreds of frames per second were crucial for seeing the sideways glide that is rarely seen in vertebrates.



The research team examined the mouth structures using scans and dissections, and spotted the unique anatomical elements that permit the jaws to move in multiple directions without slowing down. "I thought, holy cow, that’s not something we expected!” said Wainwright.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-movement-helps-to-scrape-algae">Jaw movement helps to scrape algae</h2>



This side-to-side movement appears to boost the way in which the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-fish-populations-are-boosted-by-ocean-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> remove bits of algae from rocks on coral reefs. 



Many reef environments feature hard surfaces where edible plant material clings stubbornly, so efficient techniques for scraping and plucking food may be especially important.



Surgeonfish, which share a close kinship with the Moorish idol, also display a version of this sliding jaw function. This capacity helps them graze on tough patches of algae, which supports their diets and possibly contributes to the dominance of certain fish species in these habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-jaw-adaptations-for-targeted-grazing">Fish jaw adaptations for targeted grazing</h2>



These mouth maneuvers seem to offer a quick way to yank food free. Fish that rely on suction feeding typically aim for items drifting in the water, but <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226413625_The_trophic_status_of_herbivorous_fishes_on_coral_reefs_II_Food_processing_modes_and_trophodynamics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grazing species</a> face different challenges when their meals grow attached to stones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-coral-reef-fish-survive-in-the-worlds-warmest-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral</a>.



Lateral jaw movement might allow them to target specific chunks of algae, while leaving the rest of the body steady. 



Staying still in choppy waters can reduce energy waste, so subtle mouth motion alone may make feeding smoother and more successful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fish-feeding-affects-coral-reef-health">How fish feeding affects coral reef health</h2>



By adopting this method, <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.0801946105" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivorous</a> fish may help regulate algal overgrowth. Large algal blooms can sometimes crowd out coral species, so hungry fish that trim back the vegetation are often vital for the health of reefs.



“For Zanclus, this adaptation seems to relate to where they feed,” said Michalis Mihalitsis, now at the <a href="https://www.uog.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Guam</a>, who worked on the study. His comment highlights the link between physical traits and the specific environmental niches that fish occupy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-evolution-and-the-jaw-twist">Fish evolution and the jaw twist</h2>



Vertebrate <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7672094/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jaws</a> have undergone countless modifications since the first fish appeared, over 400 million years ago. Each structural shift opens up new dietary options, supporting the rise of new species with unique ways of eating.



Sideways jaw movement is familiar to mammals that chew the cud, such as cows and goats. In fish, this trait is much less common, making its discovery in the Moorish idol and <a href="https://dlnr.hawaii.gov/holomua/surgeonfish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surgeonfish</a> particularly surprising.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-ahead-in-reef-research">Looking ahead in reef research</h2>



Scientists plan to explore whether other families of benthic-feeding fish also possess some degree of sideways jaw rotation. As more species are examined, other hidden techniques that have allowed various fish lineages to flourish could come to light.



Understanding fine-scale feeding approaches can reveal how fish keep reefs in balance. Each specialized adaptation for cropping algae may have influenced which species thrived in these colorful yet competitive underwater neighborhoods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jaw-adaptations-impact-fish-feeding">Jaw adaptations impact fish feeding</h2>



Researchers are starting to see the big picture of how a single trait may drive broad ecological shifts. A fish that can chomp algae in a quick and strategic manner might help shape community dynamics, protect coral structures, and boost biodiversity.



This mouth movement breakthrough raises questions about what else fish mouths can do. It also shows how delicate mechanical tweaks can transform an animal’s role in its ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-jaw-structures">Future research on jaw structures</h2>



Future work could involve close analysis of mouth ligaments, muscles, and bone joints across diverse reef species. Pinpointing the underlying genetics might allow scientists to trace how such mobility spread among related fish groups.



New knowledge might spark investigations into how environmental pressures push mouth features to evolve. As climate change affects reef conditions, fish that are able to adapt their feeding methods could prove more resilient, and help preserve vital coastal ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-jaws-reveal-ecosystem-dynamics">Fish jaws reveal ecosystem dynamics</h2>



Exploring these jaw movements offers a view into the interplay of form and function within marine life. When tiny physical details align with dietary demands, entire ecosystems may shift toward richer variety or greater stability.



Observations of how fish navigate algae-laden surfaces broaden our appreciation of the ties between animals and their habitats. Investigators plan to continue searching for morphological secrets that aid survival in the swirling waters of tropical reefs.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418982122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Fish use a 'jaw twist' to access more food on coral reefs

Scientists have taken a close look at certain reef fish...

Monk parakeets stand out for their lively chatter in city parks. They are originally from South America but have adapted well to urban environments, often roosting and breeding in large communal nests.



After watching these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecuadors-rare-red-faced-parrot-gets-a-new-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> for a while, it is hard not to notice the range of sounds they produce. They seem to greet each other with whistles, screeches, and abrupt squawks that vary from one bird to the next, and they interact across tree canopies and open lawns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parakeet-vocal-diversity-and-social-bonds">Parakeet vocal diversity and social bonds</h2>



Many people might think that parrots squawk randomly. Yet <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241717" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> discovered that an individual with more companions also has a more varied set of sounds.



“This research is a really important first step,” said Simeon Smeele from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>. He and his team studied hundreds of monk parakeets over a two-year period in Barcelona.



The experts mapped how each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-parrots-in-the-illegal-wildlife-trade-with-dna-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> connected with the others, noting which individuals spent time together and which ones nested side by side. The group found that birds living in larger social units tended to use a broader mix of call types.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-calls-in-social-settings">Female calls in social settings</h2>



One detail turned heads. Females produced more types of calls than males did.



“It really looks like there are some call types that are used uniquely in social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elusive-bird-night-parrot-pezoporus-occidentalis-thought-to-be-long-extinct-rediscovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">situations</a>. And it’s really interesting to see that females appear to produce more of these, suggesting they are the more social sex,” stated Smeele.



The data showed that these calls are not only about attracting attention. Some might help them manage interactions within the nest or signal identity among neighbors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parakeet-friends-sound-distinct">Parakeet friends sound distinct</h2>



Parrots might share nest trees, but that does not mean they mimic each other’s voices. In many species, birds within the same group often sound more alike, yet in these monk parakeets the result was flipped.



“What I find really exciting is that we were able to link what individuals say to very specific levels of sociality," said Smeele.



"For example, close friends that allowed each other to approach within pecking distance sounded less like each other, as if they were trying to sound unique in their little gang."



Such individuality may help them coordinate tasks around nest building or recognize each other’s calls in busy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/infanticide-or-adoption-why-parrots-kill-each-others-chicks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">groups</a>. It might also allow certain birds to stand apart if they are higher in the pecking order.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bigger-groups-more-vocalizations">Bigger groups, more vocalizations</h2>



Scientists have long noticed that species living in bigger teams often have more complex communication. Research on <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16866738/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carolina chickadees</a> has shown that groups of greater size can trigger richer call structures.



Monk parakeets follow a similar pattern. According to the new study, a bird nested in a big colony made a greater variety of sounds, possibly to handle the daily hubbub of communal living.



This diversity might even scale up as more parrots settle in crowded parks, resulting in a creative environment where many types of calls are shared or invented.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-parakeet-calls-further">Decoding parakeet calls further</h2>



Each call likely serves a function, whether it signals an alarm, a greeting, or a social bond. Figuring out these functions is trickier than it sounds because parakeets often chatter in large flocks.



“The next big step is to better understand what each of the sounds mean, a real mammoth task, since most of the social squawking happens in large groups with many individuals talking at the same time!” said Smeele.



Pinpointing who is calling to whom could help decode a chaotic scene that appears random but might contain important social signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-for-human-language-studies">Insights for human language studies</h2>



Parrot behavior offers an interesting peek at how complexity arises in social communication. Humans certainly lean on language for the same reason: many relationships call for many ways to express ourselves.



Experts suggest that the parakeets’ varied calls might operate much like a nuanced social toolkit. When a bird needs to defend a favorite perch or greet a nest mate, it can tweak its calls as needed.



The findings echo ideas about how social pressures in our own evolutionary past might have nudged human language toward more vocabulary and flexible ways to share information.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unresolved-questions-about-parakeets">Unresolved questions about parakeets</h2>



While the study shines a light on parrot chatter, many questions remain about how these calls arise in the nest. Scientists wonder whether younger birds learn from their parents or peers, or if they pick up new call elements whenever they meet fresh faces.



Some also want to see if parakeets in other cities behave the same way. The birds have spread widely across Europe and North America, so there may be subtle differences in how they talk in each region.



Investigations like these could reveal a chain of learning that might shape entire populations of monk parakeets over many generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-ties-shape-vocal-patterns">Social ties shape vocal patterns</h2>



Many examples in the animal kingdom show that bigger families and more interactions spur new forms of communication. 



Monk parakeets highlight how even everyday chatter can reflect deeper relationships. They show that social ties can shape the sound of voices, with friend groups forging their own acoustic style. 



Individual acoustic style might be a simple tool for sorting out personal space or forming alliances in a bustling colony.



As these bright green birds continue to thrive in city parks, they remind us that nature’s best talkers often lead the busiest social lives.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.241717" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Monk parakeets develop a unique voice to navigate social life

Monk parakeets stand out for their lively chatter in city...

Illegal wildlife trade in North Korea is a shadowy yet thriving enterprise. Beneath the state’s stringent regulatory framework, a dark undercurrent flows - one where endangered species become mere commodities. 



This silent crisis has been investigated by experts at University College London (<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>). The research reveals the stark reality of a nation where economic desperation and government complicity intertwine to ravage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>.



The study is the first in-depth examination of North Korea’s wildlife trade. Researchers interviewed defectors, including former hunters, middlemen, and buyers, exposing a network of illegal trade that stretches from the country’s dense forests to the bustling markets of China. 



The findings are chilling: endangered species are being hunted, skinned, and sold while the state profits from their suffering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-rise-of-black-markets">The rise of black markets</h2>



The collapse of North Korea’s economy in the 1990s reshaped the country’s social and economic fabric. A once-centralized distribution system crumbled, pushing citizens into the shadows of the black market. 



Food shortages forced families to fend for themselves, and in the absence of state support, wildlife became both a lifeline and a lucrative trade.



Hunting, a desperate act of survival, turned into a thriving underground economy. Deer, wild boar, and red fox became prime targets, not just for their meat but for their skins and bones. These products were not only consumed locally but also sold to middlemen, who then smuggled them across the border to China.



Dr. Joshua Elves-Powell, the study’s lead author, connects economic hardship to the surge in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-civet-day-2025-reveals-the-dark-side-of-a-luxury-coffee/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> exploitation. 



“The widespread harvesting of North Korea’s wildlife, driven by the economic limitations of the North Korean state and the shortages of food, medicine and basic goods experienced by many of its citizens, is an important threat to the biodiversity of North Korea and the wider region,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-china-s-role-in-the-wildlife-trade">China’s role in the wildlife trade</h2>



Wildlife trade in North Korea doesn’t end within its borders. China has become a voracious consumer of North Korean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-honors-success-in-clean-energy-and-wildlife-recovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> products. 



The study reveals that middlemen capitalize on economic desperation, offering substantial sums for tiger bones, bear bile, and deer antlers.



One former hunter, now a defector, described how deer antlers from large stags could fetch a price that would sustain a family for months. Some antlers, smuggled into China, were ground into medicinal powders and sold as luxury health supplements.



The study also exposes the intricate network of middlemen who facilitate this trade. These brokers navigate a labyrinth of border patrols and bribes, disguising wildlife products as everyday goods. 



Despite international sanctions, the illicit flow of animal products continues, driven by insatiable demand and unchecked corruption.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-state-sanctioned-wildlife-exploitation">State-sanctioned wildlife exploitation</h2>



North Korea’s wildlife trade laws ostensibly protect endangered species. Yet the state itself is a key player in the trade of protected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>. 



The study uncovers how government-run farms raise otters, pheasants, and Asiatic black bears, ostensibly for domestic consumption but ultimately to fuel the black market.



Bear bile farming, a practice condemned globally for its cruelty, continues unabated. North Korea began farming bears in the 1970s, a practice that later spread to China and South Korea. Despite mounting international pressure, the country persists, extracting bile to supply a market that prizes its medicinal properties.



One defector recounted how households were forced to submit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> skins to meet state quotas. Failure to comply could result in severe repercussions. Even children were tasked with raising rabbits, their skins later harvested to produce winter clothing for the military.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-medicine-drives-wildlife-exploitation">Traditional medicine drives wildlife exploitation</h2>



Traditional Korean medicine (TKM) reveres wildlife products for their supposed healing properties. In North Korea, the use of deer antlers, bear bile, and badger oil extends beyond folklore. It is an industry that thrives amid scarcity and desperation.



Participants in the study reported that deer antlers, once reserved for high-ranking officials, are now sold to the highest bidder. Smuggled antlers are processed into powders and pills, marketed as potent health supplements in China.



The trade in badger oil, used to treat ailments ranging from skin conditions to joint pain, is another thriving enterprise. Asian badgers, once common, have become targets of relentless hunting. 



One participant described how wildlife like badgers were captured, killed, and traded for their oil, the resulting product sold as a cure-all in local markets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-north-korea-s-vanishing-wildlife">North Korea’s vanishing wildlife</h2>



In North Korea, the sable is a creature of myth and memory. Once abundant in the country’s forests, this small carnivore is now all but extinct. 



The study details how sable skins, once a common sight in markets, have become so rare that traders refer to them as “ghost pelts.” The report paints a grim picture of a species driven to the brink by relentless hunting.



Sables, valued for their luxurious fur, were trapped, skinned, and smuggled into China, where their pelts fetched exorbitant prices. The trade was so lucrative that some hunters risked their lives crossing frozen rivers to transport their illegal haul.



Amur tigers and leopards face a similar fate. Their skins, bones, and claws are traded as status symbols, used in traditional medicine or displayed as trophies. One defector recounted how a single tiger pelt could fetch a price that would feed a family for a year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dark-side-of-wildlife-breeding">The dark side of wildlife breeding</h2>



Wildlife farms in North Korea are a paradox — legal yet inherently cruel. Bears are caged for bile extraction, otters are bred for their pelts, and deer are farmed for their antlers.



The study highlights how these state-run farms operate under a thin veneer of legality. While their stated purpose is to provide a sustainable source of animal products, in reality, they supply a black market that thrives on animal suffering.



Coypu, a non-native species introduced for its fur, now roams the countryside, an invasive consequence of escaped farm stock. Meanwhile, rabbits, raised under Kim Il Sung’s directives, are now a staple in state-run farms.



One defector described how children in schools were tasked with raising rabbits, their skins later collected by government officials. The meat, considered a “gift” from the state, was a rare protein source in a country where food is perpetually scarce.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-trade-threatens-biodiversity">Wildlife trade threatens biodiversity</h2>



The consequences of North Korea’s wildlife trade extend beyond its borders. Amur tigers, rebounding in parts of China, risk being poached if they cross into North Korea. 



Deer populations, already decimated, may soon disappear entirely. Dr. Elves-Powell emphasized the need for regional cooperation.



“China can counter this threat by continuing to reduce domestic demand for illegal wildlife and putting diplomatic pressure on its economically dependent neighbour to disengage from state-sanctioned illegal wildlife trade,” he stated.



China’s role is pivotal. Despite being a signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the country remains a major market for North Korean wildlife products. 



Strengthening border controls and enforcing stricter penalties for smugglers could significantly curb the flow of illicit goods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-trade-and-protection-laws">Wildlife trade and protection laws</h2>



The study concludes with urgent recommendations for North Korea and its neighbors. First, the researchers call for immediate enforcement of existing wildlife protection laws, targeting both state-run farms and private traders.



Second, they advocate for a total ban on bear bile farming, a practice that has been condemned by conservationists for decades. North Korea’s continued participation in this trade not only endangers its bear populations but also tarnishes its international reputation.



Third, the study recommends that China strengthen its efforts to curb demand for illegal wildlife products. Without a crackdown on black market networks, North Korea’s endangered species will continue to vanish, one animal at a time.



Finally, the report emphasizes the need for international pressure. Diplomatic efforts, coupled with targeted sanctions, could compel North Korea to curb its exploitation of wildlife. Yet, as long as economic desperation persists, the allure of quick profits from animal products may prove too strong to resist.



In a land where economic hardship, cultural tradition, and state control converge, North Korea’s wildlife is running out of time. The silent extinction continues, unnoticed, unchecked, and utterly devastating.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320725001399" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Conservation</a>.



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North Korea's wildlife trade targets endangered animals

Illegal wildlife trade in North Korea is a shadowy yet...

A virus doesn’t need wings to travel. It just needs a ride - and sometimes, that ride is a cage packed into the back of a truck. That’s what scientists are now suggesting about the ancestor of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that caused the COVID-19 pandemic.



New research suggests that the ancestor of this virus likely originated in Western China or Northern Laos. But it showed up nearly 2,700 kilometers away in Central China just a few years later - too far for its natural host, the horseshoe bat, to cover on its own.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-journey-of-the-covid-virus">Hidden journey of the COVID virus</h2>



The study comes from scientists at the <a href="https://medschool.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California San Diego School of Medicine</a>, working with collaborators from other institutions. 



The team concluded that the virus was likely transported by other animals involved in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-sunscreens-lose-effectiveness-and-become-harmful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife trade</a> - similar to what happened during the SARS outbreak in 2002.



Horseshoe bats are known carriers of sarbecoviruses, the virus family that includes both SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. 



These viruses don’t make bats sick, but they can jump to humans through a process called “zoonotic spillover.” It’s still debated how that spillover happens and which animals might be involved beyond bats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-evolution-of-viruses">Complex evolution of viruses</h2>



To trace the virus's path, the researchers looked at viral genomes shared online and mapped out how these viruses evolved over time. 



That task wasn’t easy. These viruses tend to recombine - shuffling their genetic material like a deck of cards when two viruses infect the same bat.



“When two different viruses infect the same bat, sometimes what comes out of that bat is an amalgam of different pieces of both viruses,” said Dr. Joel Wertheim from UC San Diego School of Medicine. 



“Recombination complicates our understanding of the evolution of these viruses because it results in different parts of the genome having different evolutionary histories.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-carrying-the-covid-virus">Bats carrying the COVID virus</h2>



To work around the recombination issue, the scientists identified parts of the virus genomes that had not recombined. These stable sections allowed them to paint a clearer picture of the virus’s evolutionary path.



The analysis showed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccine-resistant-coronavirus-discovered-in-russian-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sarbecoviruses</a>, including those related to SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2, have been circulating in Western China and Southeast Asia for a long time. As the bats moved across the landscape, the viruses moved with them - at roughly the same pace.



“Horseshoe bats have an estimated foraging area of around 2-3 kilometers and a dispersal capacity similar to the diffusion velocity we estimated for the sarbecoviruses related to SARS-CoV-2,” said Dr. Simon Dellicour from Université Libre de Bruxelles and KU Leuven.



But that wasn’t the case for the specific ancestors of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. These viruses showed up far from their point of origin, and they did it fast - less than 10 years before the outbreaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-to-the-wildlife-trade">Looking to the wildlife trade </h2>



Dr. Jonathan E. Pekar is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Edinburgh and a graduate of the UC San Diego School of Medicine.



"We show that the original SARS-CoV-1 was circulating in Western China - just one to two years before the emergence of SARS in Guangdong Province, South Central China, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-surprising-mutations-in-sars-cov-2-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SARS-CoV-2</a> in Western China or Northern Laos - just five to seven years before the emergence of COVID-19 in Wuhan,” said Dr. Pekar.



That timeline makes it highly unlikely that bats alone moved the virus such a long distance. More likely, the viruses hitched a ride through the wildlife trade - moving with infected animals sold for food or fur.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-trail-of-infected-animals">Following the trail of infected animals</h2>



This theory isn’t new. Previous research suggested that palm civets or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raccoon-dogs-may-be-a-growing-threat-to-waterbirds-in-finland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">raccoon dogs</a> helped carry SARS-CoV-1 from Yunnan Province to Guangdong Province. The latest study strengthens the idea that SARS-CoV-2 traveled in the same way.



“The viruses most closely related to the original SARS coronavirus were found in palm civets and raccoon dogs in southern China, hundreds of miles from the bat populations that were their original source,” said Dr. Michael Worobey from The University of Arizona. 



“For more than two decades the scientific community has concluded that the live-wildlife trade was how those hundreds of miles were covered. We’re seeing exactly the same pattern with SARS-CoV-2.”



The findings challenge claims that SARS-CoV-2 might have come from a lab leak.



“At the outset of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-virus-lingers-body-two-years-after-infection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19</a> pandemic, there was a concern that the distance between Wuhan and the bat virus reservoir was too extreme for a zoonotic origin,” said Dr. Wertheim. “This paper shows that it isn't unusual and is, in fact, extremely similar to the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 in 2002.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-virus-movement">Understanding virus movement</h2>



The frequency of zoonotic spillover events is rising. Wildlife trade, urban growth, and habitat loss are bringing humans and animals into closer contact than ever before. 



Scientists believe that keeping tabs on wild bat populations and tracking the viruses they carry could help us predict where the next pandemic might start.



Understanding how viruses move through the world - whether by wing or by wagon - could be a key step in keeping us safer in the years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867425003538" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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COVID virus spread too quickly for bats alone to be responsible

A virus doesn’t need wings to travel. It just needs...

Marine life, including algae, can present a kaleidoscope of color, sometimes produced by microstructures rather than pigments. This unique method, known as structural color, is a topic scientists have explored in creatures from fish to seaweeds.



Recent findings show that certain red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-algae-in-lake-erie-may-be-hiding-toxic-deadly-compounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> use structural color in ways that go beyond simple aesthetics. One researcher who has observed this phenomenon for years is Hiroshi Kawai, an expert in marine biodiversity and ecology at <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-algae-s-unexpected-color-shift">Algae’s unexpected color shift </h2>



“Being a diver, I have long been aware that some red <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-that-thrives-on-ice-plays-an-unexpected-role-in-glacier-melting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> have a much whiter appearance than their usual red when observed in water,” said Kawai. While exploring coastal waters, experts came across young shoots with a blueish tint near their tips.&nbsp;



Further sampling required specialized gear due to the algae’s fragile nature and deep location. Still, enough specimens were gathered for close inspection with advanced imaging methods.



Researchers classify Asparagopsis taxiformis in the <a href="https://marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&amp;id=146314" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bonnemaisoniales</a> order, placing it among seaweeds that show diverse structures. Its delicate branches can break under minor stress, prompting careful handling techniques.



A qualified phycologist, someone who studies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-revived-after-7000-years-beneath-the-baltic-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a>, can notice subtle traits that casual observers miss. Long hours underwater revealed more than just color variations, including the potential for chemical defenses within the tissues.



Field research in deeper zones sometimes requires special permits for scuba operations and environmental guidelines. Strict adherence to these rules ensured minimal disturbance to local ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-algae-reflect-light">How algae reflect light</h2>



Scientists observed that certain <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1529-8817.2006.00226.x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gland cells</a> in the algae contain tightly packed spheres of reflective materials, each measuring about the same size. Uniform spheres reflect light of a single color, which explains why the tips appear blue.



As the algae mature, the sphere sizes vary and scatter multiple wavelengths of color. That color shift results in a whitish tint that can mask the original red tone.



<a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/protista/rhodophyta.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhodophyta</a>, the broader group of red algae, includes species that rely on pigments like phycoerythrin. Structural color adds another layer of visual effects beyond the red shades typically seen.



Different wavelengths bounce off micro-scale structures, producing colors without relying on traditional pigments. This phenomenon has also been recorded in certain land plants and insects.



Some marine biologists stress that structural color is often more stable than pigment-based hues. Changes in water clarity or sunlight intensity can still influence how it appears to observers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-protect-algae-from-predators">Colors protect algae from predators</h2>



At the site of these color shifts, researchers found <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22404468/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">anti-herbivory chemicals</a> that may deter hungry fish. Some experts propose that the bright hue signals a warning, making the algae less appetizing to potential grazers.



Where the algae’s fruiting structures develop, the lighter tones may help it blend in. This trick could be beneficial in waters where vision-based predators roam.



The presence of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969721038444" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bromides</a> in certain algae species has been documented as a possible deterrent. Some analyses suggest these substances can interfere with fish digestion, encouraging them to seek meals elsewhere.



A shift in shading at different growth stages points to complex interactions between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> and its environment. Defensive strategies might change as the algae transitions from young shoots to fruiting bodies.



Anti-herbivory strategies in algae can vary, with some relying on tough external layers instead of chemicals. The dual approach of color and substances is less common, drawing renewed interest in laboratory studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-warming-seas">Impact of warming seas</h2>



“As warm-water fish migrate further north, they might pose a significant threat to the algae there that are not protected by such coloration,” explained Kawai. 



Global warming can shift tropical fish populations into cooler regions, increasing grazing pressure on algae not prepared for such threats. 



Such color shifts could lead to reduced numbers of red algae without these visual defenses. This raises concerns about ecosystem changes in regions previously free from tropical fish.



Rising temperatures can alter marine habitats faster than some organisms can adapt. Species with built-in protective traits might outcompete those lacking similar adaptations.



Marine ecologists suggest ongoing surveys to track how expanded grazing ranges affect underwater forests of algae. In some spots, these forests also serve as shelters for small <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emerged-zygnema-star-algae-conquer-earths-landmass/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> animals, amplifying the impact of fish movement.



Warmer conditions also affect the reproductive cycles of many algae species. Faster or altered reproductive phases can intersect with shifting fish populations, compounding the stress on these underwater communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-color-of-algae">Structural color of algae</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkaido University</a> contributed to the effort, hinting that structural color might be more prevalent in marine plants. Some brown algae were also found to display similar optical features in earlier work.



Such color patterns may serve multiple roles, from camouflage to signaling. Future studies may uncover additional strategies across other algae groups.



Chemical compounds linked to defense could attract interest from various industries. Discoveries about unusual pigments or reflective properties sometimes pave the way for new materials or pharmaceuticals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Stronger global collaboration may spur further research on deep-water algae and their hidden qualities. Closer ties between institutions also help support the extensive fieldwork required to observe these species in their natural habitats.



Collaboration between universities offers a broader perspective on how widespread algae color phenomena may be. Sharing data across continents can reveal patterns that single-site studies might overlook.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09670262.2025.2483980" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Journal of Phycology</a>.



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Red algae use color tricks to warn fish they taste bad

Marine life, including algae, can present a kaleidoscope of color,...

It has long been accepted that dinosaurs had dwindled in numbers before the asteroid hit. Many people believed they were already on their way out, based on the fact that fewer fossils turned up from that period.



<a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/earth-sciences/people/research-staff/dr-chris-dean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Christopher Dean</a> from University College London, along with an international research team, now challenges that storyline. 



Their new study indicates that dinosaurs were not fading away prior to the asteroid’s impact, and that a biased fossil record skewed the data we’ve relied on for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revisiting-old-assumptions">Revisiting old assumptions</h2>



Previous ideas about declining dinosaur populations came from simple fossil counts. Researchers saw fewer remains toward the last part of the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/dino-directory/timeline/early-cretaceous/gallery.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cretaceous</a> and interpreted that as the dinosaurs’ slow fade. That conclusion stuck around for decades.



Yet these authors suggest that many fossils went undiscovered because rock layers in certain regions are difficult to access or simply not preserved. 



They point out that the world was changing in big ways, with mountain formations and receding inland seas reshaping the land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-occupancy-modeling-approach">Occupancy modeling approach</h2>



This work centers on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/book/9780124071971/occupancy-estimation-and-modeling" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">occupancy modeling</a>, an ecological method that helps scientists estimate the presence of species, even when evidence is incomplete. 



The researchers took thousands of fossil records covering hadrosaurs, ceratopsians, ankylosaurids, and tyrannosaurids. They then calculated how likely it was to find traces of these animals across North America.



The results were surprising. Instead of confirming a genuine decline in dinosaur variety, the team found that the apparent reduction lined up with spots where fossils had a slim chance of surviving or being unearthed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-numbers-looked-off">Why the numbers looked off</h2>



The study singled out geological factors as the real culprits behind the missing dinosaur evidence. Changes in land elevation and the retreat of a shallow sea reduced places where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jaw-fossil-reveals-fruit-eating-mammal-from-the-dinosaur-age/">dinosaur</a> bones could be buried and preserved. 



Much of that land is now covered by vegetation, buildings, or other features that hide potential fossil sites.



The researchers learned that certain dinosaur groups seemed to be more easily detected than others. Some, like the duck-billed hadrosaurs, might show up better in formations we’ve explored. 



Others, like the armored ankylosaurids, often turned up less, possibly because their favored habitats didn’t fossilize so well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-extinction">Rethinking extinction</h2>



This fresh perspective also implies that dinosaurs were not globally struggling before the asteroid impact. They appear to have maintained strong populations up until a <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.208.4448.1095" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">catastrophic event</a> ended everything at once. 



If the asteroid had missed Earth, it’s possible that these creatures might have continued to do just fine for a much longer stretch of time.



By focusing on areas where remains had little chance to form fossils, the investigators highlight how easily scientists can be misled by blank spots in the data. 



The old narrative of dinosaurs in gradual decline could be more a reflection of Earth’s changing terrain than of genuine biological trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-outlook-on-extinction-risk">An outlook on extinction risk</h2>



These findings show that surviving or vanishing isn’t always tied to a group’s natural trajectory. Sometimes it’s a wild card event, like an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-that-once-threatened-earth-may-target-the-moon/">asteroid collision</a>, that seals a species’ fate. The difference between lasting millions more years and disappearing overnight might boil down to pure luck.



This insight resonates with discussions around present-day biodiversity. Many modern species could be widespread and healthy, yet vulnerable to sudden environmental disasters. Fossil records teach us that success can flip to extinction if a global-scale shock arrives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-past-and-present">Bridging past and present</h2>



Scientists are now more cautious when interpreting gaps in ancient records. The notion of consistent and smooth data through time is flawed. 



Much like detectives, paleontologists have to piece together scattered clues, aware that some bits are missing or distorted.



Occupancy modeling and related methods give researchers a sharper toolset. They can spot hidden patterns that once escaped notice, reshaping our view of iconic events such as the dinosaur die-off.



It appears that dinosaurs were thriving until the sky quite literally fell on them. The mismatch between earlier fossil counts and the true state of dino populations may indicate a biased rock record. 



By accounting for that bias, the team provides a picture of a world that was still teeming with dinosaur life right up to the final curtain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-future-fossil-research">What this means for future fossil research</h2>



This study opens the door for broader use of occupancy modeling in paleontology. By estimating how likely it is to detect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-some-animals-become-fossils-while-others-just-disappear/">fossils</a> under different conditions, scientists can now better separate real biological changes from sampling artifacts. 



That help will help sharpen the accuracy of diversity estimates across different regions and time periods.



Going forward, this approach could reshape how researchers investigate other extinction events or global biodiversity shifts. 



If similar sampling biases exist elsewhere in the fossil record, entire chapters of Earth’s history might need to be rewritten through this updated lens.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00310-0?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225003100%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Study claims that dinosaurs thrived until the asteroid hit, debunking decades of accepted beliefs

It has long been accepted that dinosaurs had dwindled in...

For decades, farming has chipped away at insect biodiversity, often in ways less obvious than bulldozing forests. Frequent mowing, pesticide use, and habitat loss converge to create a hostile landscape for countless insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



Now, a research team from the Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (<a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JMU</a>) has thrown new light on just how severe the damage really is.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insect-decline-in-farmlands">Insect decline in farmlands</h2>



In Bavaria, a team led by Professor Jörg Müller wanted to look past assumptions. From forests to farmland, the researchers studied 400 insect families. But they didn’t just count what they saw.



They used DNA metabarcoding - a technique that scans genetic material from environmental samples. Combined with precise statistical tools, this allowed the team to detect not only the insects themselves but also the hidden patterns in their decline.



The results, published in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B, revealed a stark contrast between agricultural and near-natural habitats. What they found changes the story on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> loss - and sharpens its urgency.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-and-insect-diversity">Farming and insect diversity</h2>



The researchers used Malaise traps to catch insects from a range of environments. Farmland samples, surprisingly, gave the clearest data. 



These landscapes, open and simplified, make it easier to catch and identify insect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. Yet even with this advantage, the results were grim.



After adjusting for how completely each sample captured the existing diversity, the researchers recorded a 44 percent decline in total insect species diversity on farmland. 



This isn’t a seasonal dip. It’s a structural collapse, cutting across species lines. Farmland has become less of a home for insects and more of a barrier to their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unseen-collapse-in-insects">Unseen collapse in insects</h2>



Counting species wasn’t enough. The team introduced a new method to standardize how completely each habitat’s insect community had been sampled. That meant creating fair comparisons across very different environments.



They filtered out sequencing errors, focused on real trends in species presence, and sharpened the lens on insect biodiversity. 



The method accounted for both how many different kinds of insects were present (taxonomic diversity) and how distantly related those insects were from one another (phylogenetic diversity).



What they saw was not just fewer insects - but fewer kinds of insect lineages, going back through evolutionary time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-erases-insect-history">Farming erases insect history</h2>



When insects disappear, ecosystems don’t just lose pollinators or prey. They lose deep genetic history. The JMU team found nearly a 30% reduction in evolutionary diversity in farmland <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-populations-dramatically-declining-around-the-world-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>.



This means entire branches of the insect family tree are vanishing - lineages shaped over millions of years, wiped away in a few decades. Such a loss affects ecosystem resilience, narrowing the genetic pool that might once have buffered against future environmental shifts.



"This study underscores the urgent need for biodiversity-sensitive land use. A continued decline in insect diversity could have far-reaching consequences for the health and stability of ecosystems," stated Dr. Mareike Kortmann, the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-crisis-in-agriculture">Biodiversity crisis in agriculture</h2>



Forests and semi-natural habitats still support varied insect life. They offer shade, cover, and food webs rich with interactions. Agricultural lands, in contrast, have become biodiversity hotspots in reverse. Instead of buzzing life, they teem with absence.



Dominant insect species - those you’d expect to be hardy survivors - are dropping fastest in taxonomic diversity. 



Meanwhile, rare species face a deeper erasure. Their entire evolutionary lineages are disappearing. Farmland is not just hostile to insects. It’s selectively erasing their past, present, and future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-needed-for-insects">Action needed for insects</h2>



This study introduced a powerful new toolkit for understanding insect decline and extinction. By combining genetic analysis, statistical rigor, and evolutionary context, researchers can now draw a clearer map of biodiversity loss and fragmentation.



But the view it reveals is bleak. Knowing more means little if it doesn’t drive action. The researchers call for focused conservation efforts - especially in farmlands where both common and rare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/future-of-farming-insect-waste-reshapes-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> edge closer to disappearance.



They have made the warning unmistakable. The question now: will we change course before the silence spreads?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2927" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Modern farming is causing many insect species to collapse

For decades, farming has chipped away at insect biodiversity, often...

Hummingbirds normally patrol the scarlet blooms of the western United States, sipping nectar and carrying pollen from one monkeyflower to the next.



Yet along the outer edges of that crimson range botanists once noticed something odd: scattered stands of Mimulus cardinalis and Mimulus verbenaceus (two monkeyflower species) had traded their fiery petals for butter-yellow ones.



Earlier fieldwork hinted that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-show-surprising-adept-teamwork-skills/">bumblebees</a>, not hummingbirds, seemed drawn to these rare morphs, but decades ago researchers lacked the genomic and biochemical tools to learn why.



A team led by Kelsey Byers at the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/">John Innes Center</a> has now reopened the case. In a recent study, the group combined controlled pollinator trials, floral chemistry, and comparative genetics. 



The findings reveal how color, scent, and shape interact when a plant begins shifting from one pollination strategy to another. Researchers documented an adaptive walk - evolution’s slow path from ancestral traits to new ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-prefer-a-yellow-color">Bees prefer a yellow color</h2>



Inside climate-regulated glasshouses, the researchers offered captive bumblebees paired arrays of yellow and red flowers from both species.



The insects showed a clear preference, visiting yellow twice as often as red. 



Chemical analysis then uncovered a clue: the yellow morphs emitted higher volumes of volatile compounds, a likely adaptation because bees, unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-incredible-strategy-to-survive-food-shortages/">hummingbirds</a>, rely heavily on scent when foraging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-struggle-despite-color">Bees struggle despite color</h2>



Color and fragrance alone do not guarantee reproductive success. High-speed video revealed that bees wrestled awkwardly with the tubular corollas, structures sculpted through millennia of hummingbird visitation.



Many bees tore the delicate petals while probing for nectar and often failed to brush against the floral reproductive organs, a prerequisite for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/">pollen</a> transfer. As a result, the bees’ frequent visits did not translate into efficient pollination.



The researchers interpret this mismatch as evidence that the yellow monkeyflowers represent an early stage in the switch from bird to bee service: color mutation and heightened scent have arisen first, but corolla architecture has yet to catch up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-genes-same-traits">Different genes, same traits</h2>



A long-standing question was whether the yellow trait in the two Mimulus species emerged through the same molecular pathway. The team’s genomic scans show the answer is partly yes and partly no.



Both species boosted yellow and orange carotenoid pigments by changes to the same suite of genes, a textbook example of convergent evolution. Yet other alterations - loss of red anthocyanin pigments and shifts in scent chemistry - arose through different genetic tweaks in each lineage.



“Even though these species are closely related, they have followed different paths to the same endpoint for many of their traits,” Byers said.



“We have identified ways that flowers can change and affect pollinator visitation, as well as some genetic pathways that can underlie these changes and how they have evolved in different but closely related species.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-timeline-for-trait-evolution">A timeline for trait evolution</h2>



Because floral color strongly influences pollinator choice, mutations in pigment genes may surface first during a pollinator shift. Secondary adjustments, such as boosted scent emission or re-shaped petals, could then fine-tune the interaction.



The Mimulus data support that sequence. Large-effect color mutations preceded subtler changes in odor bouquet, while corolla morphology still lags behind, leaving the bee–flower fit imperfect. 



The researchers argue that this hierarchy of changes - big steps followed by smaller refinements - may be typical whenever plants embark on new mutualisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-friendly-color-affects-farming">Bee-friendly color affects farming</h2>



Pollinator partnerships underpin terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a> and sustain many food crops. By dissecting how wild species recalibrate those relationships, scientists gain conceptual tools for conservation and agriculture.



“By understanding how traits evolve in the wild, we understand biodiversity better, and by understanding how these traits can be affected by plant genetics, we have the foundation of the ability to engineer traits to impact pollinator preference and thus crop yield,” Byers said.



Tuning color and scent may let breeders align crops with local pollinators, improving output without extra chemicals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-on-the-research-agenda">Next on the research agenda</h2>



The team plans gene-editing and transgenic experiments to verify the precise functions of the carotenoid biosynthesis genes that acted convergently and the anthocyanin regulators that diverged.



They are also surveying another yellow population of Mimulus cardinalis to see whether it repeated the same genetic tricks or invented new ones. Such comparative work will refine our picture of how predictable - or idiosyncratic - evolutionary innovation can be.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-floral-traits-still-changing">Floral traits still changing</h2>



For now the yellow monkeyflowers stand as living waypoints on an evolutionary journey not yet complete. Bumblebees like their color and perfume, but the floral entrance still suits a hovering hummingbird more than a burrowing bee.



With time and mutations, petal tubes may evolve to guide bees directly to stamens and stigmas. Should that happen, future botanists might find a fully bee-adapted Mimulus lineage where once only hummingbirds ruled - and they will have these early studies to trace how the transformation began.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57639-3">Nature Communications</a>.



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These wildflowers changed color to attract bees

Hummingbirds normally patrol the scarlet blooms of the western United...

Snow leopards roam the vast, rugged terrains of northern India, concealed by their elusive nature. A team of researchers set out to track the snow leopard population in this region across a sprawling 59,000 km² landscape.



The comprehensive study was led by Pankaj Raina, from the <a href="https://leh.nic.in/department/wildlife-department/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Wildlife Protection</a> in Ladakh. Identifying the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">secretive cats</a> demanded meticulous research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-elusive-snow-leopards">Tracking elusive snow leopards</h2>



The researchers looked for footprints, feces, and scratch marks to spot snow leopards. They also watched for brown bears and lynx and counted wild herbivores and livestock too.



Next, 956 camera traps were deployed over 8,500 km² (3,282 square miles), strategically positioned to maximize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-the-carnivores-that-eat-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leopard</a> sightings.



Artificial intelligence analyzed the captured images, identifying individual snow leopards by the unique pattern of spots on their foreheads - a method aptly termed “fingerprinting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-population-density-and-distribution">Population density and distribution</h2>



In Ladakh, researchers estimated 477 snow leopards, representing 68% of India’s total <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopard-day-2024-honoring-the-elusive-mountain-ghost/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>. Density varied, with 1 to 3 individuals per 100 km² (39 to 116 square miles). 



Hemis National Park stood out, showcasing the highest density of snow leopards globally. Surprisingly, 61% of Ladakh’s snow leopards coexisted with human communities. 



Grasslands rich in resources, areas with moderate climates, and complex terrains harbored higher leopard populations. Abundant prey with minimal human interference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-counting-snow-leopards">Counting snow leopards </h2>



Capturing these elusive creatures on camera required inventive strategies. "To photograph snow leopards' foreheads, we had to make them pose in front of our cameras," said Raina.



"This was done by spraying a small amount of perfume just below the cameras that were deployed near their favored scent marking rocks on the high ridge tops. The curious leopards lower their heads to smell the novel smell and we have our prized photos!"



The challenge didn’t end with taking photos. Identifying individuals was another story. The team used a specialized pattern recognition program.



"Fingerprinting snow leopards: A special pattern recognition software that fits a three dimensional model on the snow leopards forehead image extracts the spot patterns and stores them in a database for comparing it with other snow leopard photographs, and comes up with close matches," said the researchers.



"This reduced our work many fold and improved the accuracy of correct individual identification that is crucial for population estimation using statistical models."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaps-in-snow-leopard-research">Gaps in snow leopard research </h2>



Beyond the clever use of cameras, the study’s methodology addressed existing gaps in snow leopard research. Researchers implemented a double-sampling approach, covering areas with varying densities to form a comprehensive population estimate.



Over 26,130 images of 126 unique leopards were captured. These images became part of India’s first national photo library of snow leopards - a digital archive aimed at monitoring population changes, tracking poaching incidents, and understanding snow leopard movements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-reverence-and-ecological-realities">Cultural reverence and ecological realities</h2>



Ladakh’s snow leopard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-leopards-tracing-the-evolution-of-an-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a> thrives not only due to rugged landscapes but also due to the cultural reverence locals hold for wildlife.



"The deep-rooted reverence for wildlife among Ladakh’s communities, combined with the economic benefits from snow leopard tourism and conflict management strategies, helps sustain some of the world’s highest snow leopard densities - a model that could be adapted and upscaled across the species' range," noted the study authors. 



While Hemis National Park reported the highest densities, multi-use areas also emerged as critical habitats. These regions, characterized by higher prey density and less human disturbance, supported substantial snow leopard populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-challenges-and-adaptive-strategies">Future challenges and adaptive strategies</h2>



Despite the success, emerging threats loom. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-pose-great-threat-to-biodiversity-in-mountain-ranges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitat loss</a> due to infrastructure projects. Climate change altering prey distribution. Poaching, still a pressing concern.



Researchers advocate for scalable monitoring techniques that can be applied globally. In Ladakh, integrating local knowledge with advanced technology could serve as a blueprint for snow leopard conservation worldwide.



Ladakh’s snow leopard conservation framework weaves together traditional practices and modern science. 



As human-wildlife interactions increase, balancing conservation with community needs becomes more urgent. In Ladakh, this delicate equilibrium holds the key to sustaining one of the world’s largest snow leopard populations.



Adapting this model to other regions could redefine global snow leopard conservation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322136" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Ghost cats: Scientists used a clever trick to count snow leopards

Snow leopards roam the vast, rugged terrains of northern India,...

Imagine a world where animals, like humans, form friendships that endure for years. A world where alliances are forged not through blood ties but through acts of mutual aid. 



This world exists all across Earth, but especially with a bird species called African starlings. They engage in reciprocal "helping" behavior, a concept once thought exclusive to humans.



A new study led by Alexis Earl, a former PhD student at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Columbia University</a> in Professor Dustin Rubenstein’s lab, has cracked open the complex social world of these birds. The findings challenge long-held assumptions that kinship alone drives cooperative behavior.



Instead, the study reveals that starlings form lasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sparrows-have-fewer-friends-as-they-age-just-like-most-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">friendships</a>, built on the expectation that help given today will be returned tomorrow.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-african-starlings-more-than-family-groups">African starlings: More than family groups</h2>



African starling societies are anything but simple. These aren’t just tight-knit family groups. They’re intricate networks of related and unrelated individuals, living together, helping each other, and occasionally switching roles. 



“Starling societies are not just simple families,” Rubenstein said. “They’re much more complex, containing a mixture of related and unrelated individuals that live together, much in the way that humans do.”



The research team observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-birds-are-at-great-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> over 20 years at the Mpala Research Centre in Kenya. During 40 breeding seasons, they documented thousands of interactions among hundreds of birds. By collecting genetic data, they could trace familial ties and map out the social networks within each group.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-help-non-relatives">Birds help non-relatives</h2>



The data revealed a striking pattern. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a> weren’t just helping relatives, they were helping non-relatives too.



And not just once - over and over again. These birds were forming relationships based on reciprocity, where the expectation wasn’t immediate repayment but long-term support.



Rubenstein emphasized the significance of these findings. “Many of these birds are essentially forming friendships over time,” he said. 



But why help a non-relative when a relative is nearby? For the starlings, the answer appears to lie in building a network of allies, a safety net that extends beyond family bonds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-reversals-and-unexpected-alliances">Role reversals and unexpected alliances</h2>



Starlings don’t stick to one role. They don’t remain helpers or breeders for life. Instead, they switch roles throughout their lifetimes, a phenomenon rarely seen in cooperative breeders. 



The researchers found that individuals frequently moved between helper and breeder roles, sometimes even after raising their own offspring.



This role-switching opened the door for reciprocal helping. A bird that helped another during one breeding season might later become a breeder and receive help from that same individual. 



The study tracked 528 helper-breeder pairs, and in 142 pairs, the same two birds swapped roles and helped each other over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-friendships-form-through-reciprocal-helping">Bird friendships form through reciprocal helping</h2>



Kin selection is a well-established concept in evolutionary biology. Helping family members ensures the survival of shared genes. But the researchers observed a different kind of bond in starlings - one based on reciprocity, not kinship.



Resident males typically helped relatives. Immigrant males, however, helped both kin and non-kin. In fact, the researchers found that the helping rate for reciprocating pairs was 242 percent higher than for non-reciprocating pairs. 



Clearly, these birds were forming alliances that went beyond genetic ties.



But kinship wasn’t entirely irrelevant. Resident females rarely became breeders, so they had fewer opportunities for reciprocal helping. Immigrant females, on the other hand, often moved between helper and breeder roles, forming bonds with specific non-relatives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-long-term-data">Power of long-term data</h2>



The depth of this study lies in its duration. Twenty years of observations, over 12,000 recorded helping interactions and more than 500 individual birds. 



This long-term dataset allowed the researchers to detect subtle patterns that would have been invisible in a shorter study.



Rubenstein believes these findings have broader implications. “I think this kind of reciprocal helping behavior is likely going on in a lot of animal societies, and people just haven’t studied them long enough to be able to detect it,” he said.



Without such extensive data, the role of reciprocal helping might have remained hidden beneath the more obvious kin-based helping patterns. The study underscores the importance of sustained observation in uncovering the intricacies of animal behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-animal-social-networks">Implications for animal social networks</h2>



Why would a bird help a non-relative, even when a relative is nearby? The answer may lie in the unpredictability of life in the African savannah. Food scarcity. Predator threats. Uncertain breeding success.



In such an environment, forming bonds with non-relatives could serve as a form of insurance. Birds that help today may receive help tomorrow when conditions worsen. It’s a strategy that maximizes survival, not just for the individual but for the entire group.



The researchers observed that these reciprocal bonds sometimes lasted for years. And in some cases, they were even stronger than bonds formed through kinship. 



By maintaining these alliances, birds could increase their chances of receiving support during critical breeding periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reciprocal-helping-in-other-birds">Reciprocal helping in other birds</h2>



This phenomenon isn’t limited to African starlings. Other bird species, such as green woodhoopoes and white-fronted bee-eaters, also exhibit reciprocal helping. However, the evidence of such behavior in non-relatives is rare.



The researchers argue that reciprocal helping may be more common than previously thought. The problem is that detecting it requires long-term observation - years, even decades. And that kind of data is difficult to obtain.



In the case of African starlings, the data revealed that reciprocal helping relationships sometimes persisted for multiple breeding seasons. Birds that helped each other one year often maintained that relationship, swapping roles and continuing to support one another over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



What drives birds to choose specific partners for reciprocal helping? How do they recognize reliable allies? Are there cues - vocal signals, visual displays, prior interactions - that indicate trustworthiness?



The study raises more questions than it answers. The researchers plan to expand their observations to other species within the same environment. By doing so, they hope to determine whether reciprocal helping is a widespread strategy among cooperative breeders or a unique trait of African starlings.



Additionally, they aim to explore the impact of environmental factors on reciprocal helping. Does food scarcity strengthen these bonds? Do predator threats prompt birds to seek new allies?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-animal-cooperation">Redefining animal cooperation</h2>



The findings of this study challenge the conventional view that cooperative behavior in animals is driven solely by kin selection. While helping relatives remains a vital strategy, reciprocal helping may play an equally significant role in stabilizing social groups.



For the African starlings, reciprocal helping is a way to build alliances, secure support, and hedge against future uncertainties. It’s a strategy that mirrors human friendships - complex, enduring, and sometimes unpredictable.



“I think this kind of reciprocal helping behavior is likely going on in a lot of animal societies, and people just haven’t studied them long enough to be able to detect it,” Rubenstein said.



The study, published in Nature, provides a rare glimpse into the hidden world of animal friendships. It shows that even in the harsh and unpredictable environment of the African savannah, social bonds can form, endure, and evolve. 



And in the end, the birds that help today may just be the ones receiving help tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08958-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Birds observed exhibiting many behaviors that resemble human friendships

Imagine a world where animals, like humans, form friendships that...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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