Dogs live with us, watch us, and often reflect our lives back at us. When routines shift, they shift. When stress builds, they sense it. 



Scientists wanted to know just how much these changes affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/">dogs</a>, particularly during the upheaval of the pandemic. That curiosity led to one of the largest studies ever on canine behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-dog-behavior-and-health">Tracking dog behavior and health</h2>



Researchers at Virginia Tech and the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a> studied over 47,000 dogs between 2020 and 2023. 



The work was conducted as part of the Dog Aging Project, a massive effort that tracks the lives and health of dogs across the United States.



"Most importantly, with these data, we're excited to now have a starting point from which we can continue to follow changes in the behaviors of tens of thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-may-respond-to-each-other-through-blinking/">dogs</a> as they age, which will ultimately help us understand how behavior and health are linked," said Courtney Sexton, lead researcher from Virginia Tech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-changes-in-dogs">Detecting changes in dogs</h2>



Behavior in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/">dogs</a> is more than personality. A sudden change can point to illness, pain, or stress. Small shifts in aggression, fear, or trainability can signal bigger problems. 



By establishing a baseline, researchers now have a way to spot meaningful changes across time. 



The team relied on a widely used survey known as C-BARQ, in which owners reported on 14 aspects of their dogs’ behavior - from aggression to trainability. 



Researchers then organized these traits into four broad categories: Fear, Attention and Excitability, Aggression, and Trainability. This framework allowed them to track and compare behavior patterns over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strength-of-the-data">Strength of the data</h2>



The dataset was huge. It included dogs from every region of the United States. Nearly half of the dogs were mixed breeds, while the rest were single breeds. Ages ranged from puppies to seniors.



"When you have a data set this big, you really do have power in numbers," Sexton explained. "While we can't understand all the factors, when we find statistical significance, there is likely something there worth thinking about in its real-world context."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-behavior-during-the-pandemic">Dog behavior during the pandemic </h2>



The original goal was clear. Researchers wanted to see how the pandemic shaped dog behavior. People spent more time at home. Many adopted new pets, and social interactions declined.



Routines changed overnight. Did <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-evolving-to-fit-the-modern-lives-of-humans/">dogs</a> change too? Scientists hoped to uncover whether these new conditions led to lasting behavioral shifts, from training challenges to changes in aggression or fear. They wanted to know if dogs adapted or struggled alongside humans.



The data showed that dogs remained surprisingly consistent from 2020 through 2023. "We saw that certain factors, such as a dog's life stage, sex, and size had some influence on their behavior," Sexton said.



"Interestingly, we found that throughout the COVID-19 pandemic time period, there were not substantial changes in dogs' overall behavioral profiles from year to year despite what we might have expected given the changes in environment and routines that many were experiencing at that time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pandemic-puppy-struggles">Pandemic puppy struggles</h2>



One behavior did shift: trainability. Dogs enrolled in 2020 scored higher than those added in later years. Scores dropped in 2021, 2022, and 2023. 



Researchers think the dip reflects “pandemic puppy” struggles. New owners often lacked time or access to training. Dogs had fewer chances to socialize. Stress in households added to the mix.



By 2023, trainability scores started to climb back toward earlier levels. That rebound suggests that as people regained stable routines, dogs did too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-gender-breed-and-size">The role of gender, breed, and size</h2>



The study also revealed differences tied to breed and body size. Mixed-breed dogs scored higher on fear, attention-seeking, and aggression than purebred dogs. Shelter backgrounds and early trauma may play a role.



Small dogs were more fearful, more aggressive, and less trainable than larger dogs. 



Puppies needed more attention, were less fearful and less aggressive, but also harder to train. Males were more aggressive and less trainable than females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-owners-bounced-back">Dogs and owners bounced back</h2>



Owners in 2020 reported more aggression than those in 2023. That drop may reflect less household stress and more opportunities for dogs to interact as restrictions lifted.



“What was interesting was that the difference in reported trainability between the first year and the last year was the smallest of any in the averages,” Sexton noted. 



“It’s a small statistical significance but could show that dogs, or their owners, are bouncing back.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-dog-behavior">Future research on dog behavior</h2>



This is only the beginning. <a href="https://dogagingproject.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Dog Aging Project</a> will keep tracking these dogs as they grow older. Researchers want to see how location, health, and age shape behavior over time. 



The ultimate goal is to connect behavior with health so owners can better care for their pets.



Dogs adapted through the pandemic. They struggled in some ways, especially with training, but showed remarkable resilience. Their story mirrors ours. 



As life changed, dogs adjusted, and as routines returned, they found steadier ground. This study now offers the first large-scale baseline of canine behavior - a reference point that will guide both researchers and dog owners for years to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0330257" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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How the pandemic changed dog behavior over 3 years

Dogs live with us, watch us, and often reflect our lives back at us. When routines shift, they shift. When stress builds, they sense it. Scientists wanted to know just how much these changes affect dogs, particularly during the upheaval of the pandemic. That curiosity led to one of the largest studies ever on canine behavior. Tracking dog behavior and health Researchers at Virginia Tech and the University of Washington studied over 47,000 dogs between 2020 and 2023. The work was conducted as part of the Dog...

Tuna and swordfish hunt far beyond the surface. They dive deep into the ocean’s twilight zone - a layer of dark, cold water about 800 meters below the surface - to feed. Until now, no one really knew how important this zone was to their survival.



In new research from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), scientists show that this deep layer isn't just a snack stop. It’s a major food source. 



The study shows that three big <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> - bigeye tuna, yellowfin tuna, and swordfish - obtain more than half their diet from the twilight zone. That’s a surprising dependence on such a hidden region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-the-ocean-s-twilight-zone">Importance of the ocean's twilight zone</h2>



This finding could change how we think about both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-fish-species-are-the-big-catch-of-the-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish conservation</a> and commercial fishing. If fishing expands into the twilight zone, it may risk the food supply of valuable surface-dwelling predators.



“There is increasing interest in commercial fishing in the ocean’s twilight zone,” said Ciara Willis, the study’s lead author.



“If we start heavily fishing that layer of the ocean, our study suggests that could have profound implications for tuna and swordfish, which are very reliant on the twilight zone and are highly valuable existing fisheries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-twilight-zone">What is the twilight zone?</h2>



The twilight zone - or mesopelagic layer - lies between 200 and 1,000 meters (656 to 3,281 feet) deep. It’s sandwiched between the sunlit upper waters and the dark, midnight zone below. Despite its lack of sunlight, the twilight zone teems with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-freshwater-fish-toward-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life</a>.



“This is a really understudied region of the ocean, and it’s filled with all these fantastic, weird animals,” said Willis.



Its biomass could reach 10 billion tons - far outweighing what swims near the surface. The surface ocean, Willis noted, is “a thin soup,” offering little to big predators. The twilight zone, by contrast, presents “the deep ocean buffet,” full of dense pockets of fish and squid.



Every night, twilight creatures migrate upward to eat, then return before daylight. Bigeye tuna dive frequently during the day, while yellowfin dive less often. Swordfish follow the nightly up-and-down movement of prey.



“We’ve known for a long time that these fish and many other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-diversity-has-changed-dramatically-on-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> feed on twilight zone prey,” said Willis. “But the extent to which they rely on this deep-sea food web for their forage has been unclear.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-clues-in-fish-tissue">Finding clues in fish tissue</h2>



Stomach content analysis only offers a snapshot. Willis wanted to know what these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bleaching-effect-coral-loss-threatens-fisheries-and-livelihoods/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> had eaten over months. She and her team worked with fishermen in New Jersey and Florida to collect tissue samples from commercial catches.



They focused on essential amino acids - building blocks of protein that come from the base of the food chain. These amino acids carry a unique carbon signature, depending on whether they originate from phytoplankton in the sunlit zone or microbes in the deep.



“One of the hypotheses we had was that we’d be able to distinguish the carbon isotopic signature of the shallow ocean, which would logically be more phytoplankton-based, versus the deep ocean, which is more microbially based,” said Willis.



By analyzing these carbon signatures, the team could estimate whether a fish had been feeding more on shallow or deep-sea organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-diet-of-predators">Deep diet of predators</h2>



The researchers studied tissue from over 120 fish. They found that 50 to 60 percent of their diet came from ocean's twilight zone sources. Bigeye tuna showed the most consistent deep-sea reliance. Swordfish and yellowfin tuna were more varied.



“We saw the bigeye tuna were far and away the most consistent in where they got their food from,” noted Willis.



“Whereas the swordfish and yellowfin tuna were more variable. That means if you start having big-scale fishing in the twilight zone, the bigeye tuna might be the ones who are most at risk from food web effects.”



The concern isn’t just about catching the predators. It’s about removing their prey. Many twilight zone fish aren’t eaten by people but are used in fishmeal and fish oil. This commercial demand could strip a crucial food source from valuable predator species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-of-deep-sea-fishing">Threats of deep sea fishing</h2>



“If predatory fish like tunas have 50 percent reliance on twilight zone food webs, and we start heavily fishing that region, that could lead to uncertainty around the profitability of tuna fisheries,” said Willis.



“So we need to be very cautious about impacts on the twilight zone and the larger ocean ecosystem.”



The twilight zone holds secrets vital to ocean life. Any plan to harvest from it must consider the deep, invisible links that bind predators to prey.



This research was part of the&nbsp;Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution's <a href="https://twilightzone.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Twilight Zone Project</a>, supported by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.audaciousproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Audacious Project</a>&nbsp;at TED. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/icesjms/article/82/3/fsaf028/8090274" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICES Journal of Marine Science</a>. 



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Deep ocean buffet: Big fish are surprisingly reliant on the twilight zone

Tuna and swordfish hunt far beyond the surface. They dive...

On a breezy spring morning, a birch tree sways quietly in the forest. Its leaves, soft and green, shimmer under the sun. But look closer - at the very tip of one leaf sits a creature smaller than a grain of rice. It is motionless, but this caterpillar is not resting. It is guarding its kingdom.



Researchers recently revealed that these barely visible hatchlings of the two-lined hooktip moth (Falcaria bilineata) are among the world’s smallest territorial animals. 



These neonate warty birch <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-and-caterpillars-have-a-great-working-protection-relationship-until-it-isnt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillars</a> may not roar or bite, but they have their own language - a rhythm of vibrations. And they use it to hold their ground.



“We had noticed that tiny warty birch caterpillars produced vibrations,” said Jayne Yack of <a href="https://carleton.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Carleton University</a>, who first observed this behavior in 2008.



That discovery opened a door into a hidden world of buzzing boundaries, leaf-top wars, and high-stakes survival - all played out on a stage smaller than your thumbnail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-caterpillars-build-a-territory">Where caterpillars build a territory</h2>



When the eggs of the warty birch caterpillar hatch, the tiny neonates - only 1 to 2 mm (0.04 to 0.08 inches) long - begin their journey across the leaf.



They don’t settle in the middle or near the stem. Instead, they crawl toward the tip. In a controlled lab setup, the researchers found that nearly 90% of these caterpillars selected the leaf tip within 24 hours of hatching.



This spot becomes their home. Each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-inherit-food-preferences-through-their-blood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillar</a> lays down a silk mat, feeds around it, and stays put. They avoid the very end of the tip, which remains green and untouched. 



Feeding scars mark the borders of the caterpillar's territory. This feeding area stretches about 11 mm from the tip, but the actual defended zone - the core area of movement - is much smaller, around 8 mm².



Despite their size, these hatchlings don’t share. They live alone, and their behavior reveals that they are actively defending this micro territory from intruders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-caterpillars-defend-their-territory">How caterpillars defend their territory</h2>



Unlike larger animals, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillar-noses-can-lead-to-safer-ways-to-protect-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillars</a> can’t bark, charge, or fight. Instead, they communicate through vibrations. Their signaling language includes two main sounds: buzz scrapes and drums.



A drum is a sharp strike against the leaf with the front of the body. Buzz scrapes are more complex, involving simultaneous body shaking and rear-end scraping using specialized oar-like hairs.



These signals occur in rapid bursts called bouts. A single bout contains about five signals and lasts just over two seconds. Caterpillars produce these signals while stationary or when another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caterpillars-can-stop-their-bleeding-in-seconds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">caterpillar</a> comes close.



“The sounds produced by these caterpillars are not audible to humans, so we had to use specialized equipment to pick up the vibrations,” said Yack. Using laser vibrometry and macro video, the researchers recorded these silent broadcasts.



These vibrations are not accidental. They are messages - warnings, claims of ownership, and possibly even decoys meant to confuse or threaten.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clashes-without-contact">Clashes without contact</h2>



The team at Carleton University conducted 18 staged encounters between resident caterpillars and newcomers. The results painted a vivid picture of non-violent conflict resolution.



Before an intruder arrived, residents signaled rarely - about 1.6 times per minute. But once another caterpillar appeared on the same leaf, the rate jumped to almost seven signals per minute.



If the intruder crossed into the defended territory, the resident’s signaling exploded to over 24 signals per minute.



Sometimes, the intruder fled without contest. Other times, the resident, after a period of frantic buzzing, launched itself off the leaf tip while hanging from a silk thread - a behavior known as “lifelining.” This escape was always triggered by physical contact. The resident never jumped when alone.



Even with these dramatic scenes, no trial ended with both caterpillars sharing space. In 71% of cases, the original resident remained the victor, reclaiming their leaf tip once the intruder left or was driven away by vibrations alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advantages-of-the-leaf-tip">Advantages of the leaf tip</h2>



The choice of location isn’t random. The leaf tip may offer better nutrition. Young leaves, especially the tips, often contain fewer plant defenses like trichomes. For fragile hatchlings, a tender patch of food could be the difference between growth and starvation.



But nutrition might not be the only reason. The tip of the leaf could serve as a perfect escape platform. Predators - like spiders or beetles - typically approach from the base of the leaf. Sitting at the tip gives the caterpillar more time to detect the threat and jump.



There’s also a mechanical advantage. Studies suggest that leaf tips vibrate more intensely than other parts. By signaling from the tip, the caterpillar’s buzzes may travel farther or feel stronger. 



This might make a tiny resident seem bigger and more threatening than it is, especially to other insects or predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caterpillars-send-constant-warning-signals">Caterpillars send constant warning signals </h2>



In some cases, the caterpillar signals even when no rival is on the leaf. This could serve as a general warning - an announcement that the space is occupied.



Researchers propose that such signals might help caterpillars space themselves out on a single tree branch. Instead of fighting, they vibrate. It’s a low-risk way of keeping personal space in a crowded environment.



Intriguingly, these signals might not just deter fellow caterpillars. Their complex structure - made of buzzes, scrapes, and beats - resembles the vibratory displays of some jumping spiders.



These displays often mimic dangerous threats. It’s possible that the caterpillars are copying these patterns to confuse or scare away would-be predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-quiet-warnings">Power of quiet warnings</h2>



This study may be the first to show a hatchling insect using complex vibratory signals to defend a tiny space. 



Unlike most insects that fight or bite to hold territory, these caterpillars rely on pure communication. Their soft bodies would not survive physical aggression. Instead, they buzz, scrape, and, if needed, dangle away from danger.



What seems like a quiet leaf to us is actually a tense battlefield - an arena of invisible signals and tactical retreats.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/228/7/jeb249796/367459/Buzzing-boundaries-tiny-caterpillars-vibrate-to" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



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These incredibly tiny caterpillars defend the world's smallest territory

On a breezy spring morning, a birch tree sways quietly...

Every evening, as the sun dips below the horizon, thousands of bats surge out of caves and take to the skies. For those who have watched it up close, the spectacle is unforgettable - dark wings blur together in motion that is so dense, it can seem fluid.



Yet amidst this chaos, one mystery remains: how do they all manage to avoid collisions? Despite emerging in massive numbers from tight spaces, bats almost never crash. 



“The bats don’t run into each other,” noted Aya Goldshtein from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a>. “Even in colonies of hundreds of thousands of bats all flying out of a small opening.”



Goldshtein, along with colleagues Omer Mazar and Yossi Yovel, explored this question in a new study that was led by scientists from Tel Aviv University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mystery-of-mid-air-traffic-control">The mystery of mid-air traffic control</h2>



Bats rely heavily on echolocation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-have-acoustic-mental-maps-to-navigate-total-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">navigate</a>. They emit high-frequency calls and interpret the returning echoes to “see” the world around them. 



But when thousands of bats are calling at the same time, those signals should interfere with each other. This phenomenon, known as “jamming,” should make it nearly impossible to distinguish useful echoes from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bats-navigate-noisy-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noise</a>.



It’s like trying to have a conversation at a crowded party where everyone is shouting at once - a problem that researchers refer to as the “cocktail party nightmare.” 



And yet, despite the chaos, accidents between bats are almost nonexistent. "You’re almost excited when you witness one,” said Goldshtein.



Past studies offered a few clues. In the lab, scientists noticed that bats flying in small groups shifted their call frequencies slightly. This seemed to help avoid jamming, but didn’t fully explain how large colonies manage to avoid mid-air collisions, night after night.



According to Yovel, the missing piece was a real-world perspective. "No one had looked at this situation from the point of view of an individual bat during emergence. How can we understand a behavior if we don’t study it in action?” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-bats-as-they-navigate">Tracking bats as they navigate</h2>



To address this, the team collected data directly from wild bats as they emerged from a cave in Israel’s Hula Valley. 



Using a mix of high-resolution location tracking, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-use-death-metal-growls-to-extend-their-vocal-range/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultrasonic</a> recording, and computer modeling, the researchers recreated the experience of a single bat as it navigated the crowd.



Over the course of two years, they tagged multiple greater mouse-tailed bats with tiny trackers that recorded their position every second. 



Some trackers included microphones to record echolocation calls and ambient sound from the bat’s perspective. All data collection took place on the same nights that the bats were released.



One challenge remained. The tagged bats were released just outside the cave, so the team lacked data from the exact moment the bats exited the cave - where crowding is at its peak.



To fill in this gap, Mazar developed a computer model that simulated the initial emergence. The simulation drew on the real tracking and audio data to map each bat’s path for two kilometers across the landscape.



“The simulation allows us to verify our assumptions of how bats solve this complex task during emergence,” said Mazar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-bats-beat-the-noise">How bats beat the noise</h2>



What the team found was surprising. In the first seconds after exiting the cave, 94 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-share-social-information-through-echolocation-calls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">echolocation calls</a> were jammed.



But by five seconds in, that number dropped significantly. The bats weren’t just spreading out - they were also adjusting how they echolocated.



First, they moved out of the densest part of the group, giving themselves more space while still staying within the broader colony. Second, they changed their calls to be shorter, softer, and at higher frequencies.



This shift in behavior raised another question. Wouldn’t increasing the number of calls just add to the noise? Not necessarily, said the team - especially when you look at it from the bat’s perspective.



“Imagine you’re a bat flying through a cluttered space. The most important object you need to know about is the bat directly in front. So you should echolocate in such a way that gives you the most detailed information about only that bat," explained Mazar.



"Sure, you might miss most of the information available because of jamming, but it doesn’t matter because you only need enough detail to avoid crashing into that bat.”



In other words, bats aren’t trying to hear everything. They’re focused on gathering just enough information to make it safely past the bat that is right ahead of them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bats-adapt-to-avoid-crashes">Bats adapt to avoid crashes</h2>



The researchers believe the key to these findings was observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-advice-leave-bats-alone-if-we-want-to-prevent-future-pandemics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats in their natural environment</a> - not in the lab.



“Theoretical and lab studies of the past have allowed us to imagine the possibilities,” said Goldshtein. “But only by putting ourselves, as close as possible, into the shoes of an animal will we ever be able to understand the challenges they face and what they do to solve them.”



This study shows how bats overcome intense auditory clutter and avoid crashes with fine-tuned behavior, which they adapt in real-time.



It’s not about cutting through all the noise - it’s about focusing on just enough of the right noise to stay safe.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2407810122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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How bats navigate rush hour without crashing into each other

Every evening, as the sun dips below the horizon, thousands...

Every year, humpback whales in the southeastern Pacific make a long and difficult journey. They travel up to 10,000 kilometers from Central and South America to their feeding grounds in Antarctica.



But how do they know when it's time to leave? According to new research, these whales rely on both real-time changes in their environment and long-term memories of past ocean conditions to time their migrations.



The study, led by scientists from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a>, used eight years of satellite tracking data collected between 2009 and 2016. The team tracked 42 humpback whales tagged near Costa Rica, Panama, and Ecuador.



By following the whales' movements southward to Antarctica, the researchers hoped to understand what cues triggered their annual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-increasingly-disrupting-whale-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whales-use-memory-to-time-their-journey">Whales use memory to time their journey</h2>



The study revealed that whales respond to local cues such as sea surface temperature and food availability.



But they don’t rely solely on current conditions. They also seem to remember when food was most abundant in the Southern Ocean during previous years.



That memory, combined with what’s happening around them, helps them decide when to go.



“They seem to know that changes happening in their immediate environment are linked to conditions thousands of kilometers away,” said Professor Virginie Millien. “This allows them to fine-tune their migration, so they arrive just as their food supply peaks.”



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whale-reproduction-is-linked-to-krill-abundance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Krill</a>, a small crustacean, is the whales’ main food source in Antarctica. Each year, krill populations bloom during a specific seasonal window. 



For centuries, whales have timed their migration to match this pattern. But that rhythm is now being disrupted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-whales-keep-up-with-climate-change">Can whales keep up with climate change?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/krill-face-a-double-whammy-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warmer oceans</a> and changes in sea ice are beginning to shift the timing of the krill bloom. Even though whales are adjusting their departures, climate change may be moving too fast for them to keep up.



“We don't know how long they'll be able to keep up,” said Millien. “Every year since 2016 has been the warmest on record, and that pattern is speeding up. At some point, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-whales-memories-feeding-sites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory-based</a> strategy may no longer work.”



The study also revealed notable differences in how males and females migrate. Male humpbacks tend to travel more quickly and take direct paths. 



In contrast, females - especially those with calves - stick to the coast. Their route is slower but possibly safer, giving their young time to rest and stay away from predators.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delicate-balance-of-marine-ecosystems">Delicate balance of marine ecosystems </h2>



These findings have important implications for conservation. As ship traffic increases along coastal routes, so do the dangers whales face.



Collisions with vessels and disturbances to their migration corridors can have serious effects on whale populations.



“This research provides the data needed to inform conservation efforts,” said Hector Guzman of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. “It's not just about protecting whales; it's about preserving the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.”



The researchers emphasize the need to safeguard migration routes and feeding zones, especially as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-a-warming-climate-will-change-the-humpback-whales-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate continues to shift</a>. Protecting these areas doesn’t just benefit whales - it supports the entire marine food web.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-whales-matter-more-than-ever">Why whales matter more than ever</h2>



Whales are amazing animals that help keep oceans and seas healthy. As they move, whales consume food and excrete waste - assisting with the distribution of nutrients in the water body.



This enables the growth of phytoplankton and other microscopic plants which take in carbon dioxide and give out oxygen. Thus, whales make a direct contribution to the food webs of the ocean and the climate on land.



Their existence also boosts biodiversity, creating new feeding opportunities for other marine creatures that depend on nutrient-rich zones. 



If whale populations are decimated, the productivity of the ocean will decline. As waters undergo more drastic changes, the survival of humpback whales is crucial.



Observations of humpback whales provide researchers with insights into the limits of ecosystem resilience and the measures needed to prevent collapse. From this perspective, protecting whales becomes a priority, along with assessing the overall health and stability of the oceans.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-87489-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Whales in hot water: Will climate change disrupt their migration?

Every year, humpback whales in the southeastern Pacific make a...

Butterflies have always captured human imagination. Their delicate wings, bright patterns, and graceful flight inspire poetry, art, and science. Beyond their beauty, butterflies play vital roles in ecosystems as pollinators and as part of complex food webs. But a new climate warning has emerged. 



A Yale-led global study suggests their mountain homes — long thought to be safe havens — are becoming death zones. Climate change, once a distant threat, is now closing in fast.



The study, published in Nature Ecology and Evolution, provides the first global analysis of butterfly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-genome-has-barely-changed-after-250-million-years-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> and climate risk. It exposes a crisis unfolding in silence, high in the world’s mountain ranges. 



And it paints a troubling picture not only for butterflies but for insect life as a whole.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reverse-butterfly-effect">The reverse butterfly effect</h2>



The phrase “butterfly effect” describes how a small action, like a butterfly flapping its wings, can lead to large consequences — like a hurricane across the world. This study shows something more haunting: a global storm threatening <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-mate-preferences-shift-with-slight-brain-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a> themselves.



According to the researchers, mountain habitats that once offered protection may now become population traps. These zones are warming fast. 



With nowhere higher to go, butterflies may run out of suitable conditions. Species adapted to cooler, narrow temperature bands will suffer most.



Even more concerning, the study points to a critical data gap. While scientists have long tracked changes in birds, mammals, and plants, insects - though far more numerous - have been overlooked in global biodiversity models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-butterfly-data-reveals-climate-danger">Global butterfly data reveals climate danger</h2>



To understand how butterflies might respond to climate change, Yale ecologist Walter Jetz and entomologist Stefan Pinkert led a team of researchers. They compiled phylogenetic and geographic data for over 12,000 butterfly species around the globe. 



​Jetz directs the&nbsp;<a href="https://bgc.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale Center for Biodiversity and Global Change</a>, while Pinkert, now at the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uni-marburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Marburg</a>&nbsp;in Germany, previously worked at Yale as a postdoctoral associate.​



Their work revealed that two-thirds of butterfly species live in tropical and subtropical mountains. These regions hold 3.5 times more butterfly hotspots than lowlands. 



But this concentration also increases risk. Mountains are warming quickly, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-country-without-butterflies-rapid-decline-in-u-s-populations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> that evolved in specific temperature zones may not adapt in time.



The study predicts that 64% of the thermal niche space used by tropical butterflies will disappear by 2070. As climate zones shift upward and shrink, many butterflies will lose their homes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-puts-butterflies-at-risk">Climate change puts butterflies at risk</h2>



Jetz explained the danger with both urgency and admiration.



“The diversity, elegance, and sheer beauty of butterflies impassion people worldwide. Co-evolved with host plants, butterflies form an integral part of an ecologically functioning web of life," said Jetz.



“Unfortunately, our first global assessment of butterfly diversity and threats finds that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>’ fascinating diversification into higher-elevation environments might now spell their demise, with potentially thousands of species committed to extinction from global warming this century.”



Pinkert shares this concern, especially as someone who has spent years studying insects. 



“As an entomologist, I am committed to informing the public about the distribution of insect diversity and targeted ways to protect it. Our results are insightful from an ecological point of view but unfortunately also very alarming,” noted Pinkert.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-expose-a-conservation-blind-spot">Butterflies expose a conservation blind spot</h2>



The findings reveal a sharp contrast between butterflies and other well-known animals. Conservation plans today often rely on patterns seen in birds or mammals. 



But insects show very different responses. Their diversity and rarity do not follow the same geographic rules. As a result, current protection strategies might miss critical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect</a> habitats.



The authors note that, until now, no global assessment of climate threats for any insect group existed. Butterflies offer the first test case — and the results demand a rethink. 



Butterflies are far more than pretty wings. They act as indicators of environmental health. Their decline signals deeper ecological instability.



Pinkert emphasized the scale of the project. “This research was made possible by many years of mobilizing various global data and newly developed integrative approaches, all aimed at filling this critical information gap for at least one insect taxon,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-explore-climate-threat-to-butterflies">Explore climate threat to butterflies</h2>



While the results are stark, the researchers still see a path forward. Protection of key butterfly habitats, especially in the tropics, must become a priority. 



Connecting these areas with migratory corridors can help species survive shifting climates. This strategy will require better insect data, broader conservation planning, and faster emissions cuts.



Jetz points to a global tool already in use — the Map of Life, a database he directs that tracks species distributions worldwide.



“A reduction of carbon emissions, combined with proactive identification and preservation of key butterfly habitats and migratory corridors, will be key to ensuring that much of butterfly diversity survives to benefit future generations,” Jetz said.



The study’s co-authors include Nina Farwig of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uni-marburg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Marburg</a>&nbsp;and Akito Kawahara of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>. Support came from the&nbsp;Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.moore.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, and the&nbsp;<a href="https://eowilsonfoundation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E.O. Wilson Biodiversity Foundation</a>.



To view the findings and explore butterfly distributions in more depth, visit the <a href="https://mol.org">Map of Life</a>. As butterflies face mounting pressure, the need to act has never been clearer. 



Their quiet struggle on mountain peaks is not just a story about insects. It’s a signal to humanity that time is running out.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-025-02664-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Butterfly effect in reverse: Climate change turns havens into traps

Butterflies have always captured human imagination. Their delicate wings, bright...

For decades, tool use was seen as the hallmark of human evolution. Later, researchers began to notice this skill in chimpanzees, crows, and even sea otters. But one group remained conspicuously absent from this conversation - fish.



They were thought to be too simple, too instinct-driven, and too limited in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive ability</a>. That belief no longer holds.



A new study has revealed something remarkable: several wrasse species have been observed using hard surfaces to break open prey. 



These behaviors don’t just challenge assumptions - they expand the very definition of what it means to be intelligent.



Dr. Juliette Tariel-Adam, the study’s lead author from Macquarie University, has spent years watching these small but clever reef fish. Her team tracked and recorded behaviors that were previously dismissed or unnoticed.



"Tool use is typically associated with humans, but this behavior is proof that fish are far cleverer than they get credit for," said Dr. Tariel-Adam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-use-tools-to-smash-prey">Fish use tools to smash prey</h2>



Wrasses are colorful reef fish found in warm oceans across the world. In this study, several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-evolve-rapidly-by-switching-between-simple-and-complex-teeth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> were observed picking up crabs, mollusks, and brittle stars in their mouths and striking them against rocks or coral heads. 



This behavior is known as “anvil use,” a form of tool use that allows the fish to access prey they otherwise couldn’t consume.



The wrasses showed clear intentionality. They didn’t just drop their prey. They positioned it, swung their bodies with force, and adjusted their angles between strikes. They seemed to know what they were doing. This wasn’t random behavior - it was targeted, practiced, and often successful.



The study documented 16 new observations across five species within the New World Halichoeres group. Three of those species had never been seen using tools before. Two others were suspected to use tools, but now video evidence confirms this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-use-across-oceans">Tool use across oceans</h2>



These discoveries were made possible by a community <a href="https://fishtooluse.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">science initiative</a> called Fish Tool Use. 



Through social media outreach, emails, and public engagement, the research team gathered videos and reports from divers and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-fish-coelacanth-presumed-extinct-for-60-million-years-before-rediscovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> enthusiasts. 



The observations came from Brazil, Colombia, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and beyond.



All five species observed belong to a closely related group in the Labridae family, the second most species-rich group of marine fish. 



The team believes this behavior may have evolved in a common ancestor and persisted across related species.



Alternatively, anvil use may have emerged multiple times independently - a question that future research may help to answer.



"With these newly discovered tool-using species, it becomes clear that many species of wrasses use tools that we previously didn't know about," said Dr. Tariel-Adam.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-of-fish-tool-use">Flexibility of fish tool use</h2>



One surprise in the study was the absence of laterality. In primates and crows, tool use often involves a dominant hand or claw. 



Wrasses, however, appeared to use both sides of their bodies equally. In video analyses, they struck with either side depending on their position in the water.



This flexibility might offer an advantage. While lateralized tool use can be efficient, it also limits an animal’s options when environment or position changes. 



Wrasses, on the other hand, can exploit anvils in any orientation, giving them a broader range of usable surfaces.



In addition, wrasses used many different types of anvils. Rocks, coral heads, rubble, even a live conch shell - all served the same purpose. They did not show strict preferences. They adapted to what was around them.



This suggests not only cognitive flexibility but a level of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-deep-sea-fish-survive-the-crushing-depths-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental awareness</a> as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-and-competition-on-the-reef">Food and competition on the reef</h2>



Using tools to break open hard prey is not without its costs. The action requires energy, especially when it involves several powerful strikes. 



Videos show the fish sometimes lose their grip or need to readjust by spitting out and re-securing their prey. Despite this, the behavior is consistently successful.



Sometimes, other fish circle the scene. In 12 of 19 observations, nearby fish either attempted to steal food or got chased away. In one case, a juvenile wrasse stole a brittle star from an adult just after it had broken off a piece. Tool use brings not only food, but attention - and not always the good kind.



Still, the benefits seem to outweigh the risks. Access to shelled prey means more food options and better nutrition. 



For smaller wrasses, who might not have the jaw strength to crack shells without help, this strategy opens a new dietary path. It allows them to eat prey that would otherwise be unavailable to them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-puzzle-of-tool-use">Evolutionary puzzle of tool use</h2>



The study’s results open a new chapter in animal cognition. Fish now join a growing list of tool-using animals that includes primates, parrots, octopuses, wasps, and crabs. But why have only some species developed this behavior?



Tool use is likely influenced by ecological pressures - scarce food, competition, or environmental structure. In the case of wrasses, their diverse habitats, sharp learning skills, and wide range of prey may all play a role. Yet, the exact reasons remain unclear.



Professor Culum Brown, senior author of the study and head of Macquarie University’s Fish Lab, believes this behavior sheds light on the broader story of intelligence in the animal world. 



"They demonstrate flexible and dexterous tool use, expanding our understanding of tool use evolution in the animal kingdom," noted Professor Brown.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The researchers want to see more. Most documented tool use events are still opportunistic. Controlled studies - where prey is offered in experimental settings - could bring new insights.



The team hopes to receive more submissions from the public, helping them fill the gaps in geography and species data.



Those interested can contribute through Fish Tool Use, where divers and marine observers are encouraged to share footage or descriptions of wrasse behavior. With more data, scientists can explore whether anvil use is common across the family or limited to just a few clever species.



For now, wrasses have made one thing clear: we’ve underestimated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-vessels-most-industrial-fishing-activity-is-not-publicly-tracked/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a>. Not only are they smart, but they’re capable of innovation, planning, and creative problem-solving. 



Tool use may no longer be the preserve of a few gifted animals. It may be far more widespread - if we only care to look.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-025-02633-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coral Reefs</a>.



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Some clever fish use tools to crack open prey

For decades, tool use was seen as the hallmark of...

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange fossil called&nbsp;Prototaxites. Even its appearance was unusual. It stood up to 8 meters tall, and resembled a towering tree with no leaves.



These curious lifeforms appeared during the late Silurian period, around 400 million years ago. Found among early ferns and horsetails, they lacked branches and looked nothing like modern trees.



In 1859, Canadian geologist John William Dawson thought these fossils were decaying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/palm-tree-fossils-found-in-the-arctic-rewrite-earths-climate-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> trunks. He named them "first conifer," a name that stuck even as confusion deepened. 



The mystery has only grown as modern science has applied new tools, yet the answers remained elusive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-was-prototaxites-a-fungus">Was Prototaxites a fungus?</h2>



For decades, the idea that Prototaxites was a fungus gained support. 



In 2001, paleontologist Francis Hueber proposed it was a giant terrestrial fungus, based on anatomical features like the presence of tubular structures. 



Later, in 2017, researchers identified what they believed were fruiting bodies in the fossil, linking it to Ascomycota, a modern fungal group.



But there was a problem - these supposed reproductive parts had never been shown to connect with the vegetative body. That raised concerns. 



Could these fragments have belonged to an entirely different organism? Without direct evidence, the fungal identity of Prototaxites remained guesswork.



Despite ongoing debate, the fungus theory persisted. That is, until a team led by researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Edinburgh</a> took a closer look. 



They re-examined Prototaxites taiti, a species preserved in Scotland’s Rhynie chert, which is one of the best <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-oasis-provided-refuge-for-plants-during-earths-worst-extinction-event/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> deposits from the early Devonian period. Their findings call everything we thought we knew into question.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-largest-organism-of-the-devonian-landscape">Largest organism of the Devonian landscape</h2>



The team focused on an exceptionally well-preserved fossil labeled NSC.36. This fossil showed a cross-section of P. taiti and revealed medullary spots - dark, circular features - spread throughout its body.



The sample of rock that was used for analysis was roughly cylindrical, 5.6 cm (2.2 inches) wide and nearly 7 cm (2.8 inches) long, but incomplete. This suggests the original organism was much larger, likely a towering figure in its environment.



At the microscopic level, the researchers discovered three distinct types of tubes running lengthwise through the fossil. 



Type 1 tubes were thin, septate, and branched. Type 2 tubes were wider, with smooth double walls and no internal cross-walls. Type 3 tubes were thickest, and featured ring-like thickenings that do not match any known fungal type. These structures appeared interwoven, forming a dense, interconnected network inside the fossil.



Interestingly, these anatomical features resembled some aspects of fungi - but not enough to confirm a match. The third tube type, with its annular thickenings, doesn’t appear in any known fungal group, which raised immediate doubts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-medullary-spots-with-no-equal">Strange medullary spots with no equal</h2>



Using confocal laser scanning microscopy and 3D imaging, the team examined the medullary spots in detail. These regions contained all three tube types and added even finer ones, some just 1 micron in diameter. The branching patterns inside were complex and lacked the clear order seen in today's fungal systems.



In modern fungi, branching follows a hierarchy - generative hyphae give rise to other types in a predictable pattern. But in P. taiti, the branching had no clear direction or sequence. Tubes connected in all directions, forming a chaotic mesh.



“There are no structures analogous to medullary spots in extant fungi,” the researchers noted.



They also rejected the idea that these spots resembled fruiting bodies of ascomycetes. Even though some scientists once thought the spots hinted at spore production, no organic connection exists between these spots and any supposed reproductive structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-lacked-fungal-or-plant-traits">Prototaxites lacked fungal or plant traits</h2>



Next, the team analyzed the fossil’s molecular makeup using FTIR spectroscopy. 



They compared P. taiti with fungi, plants, animals, and bacteria from the same deposit. All these fossils had undergone the same fossilization process, which allowed for reliable side-by-side comparison.



The results were striking. The fossil lacked any trace of chitin or chitosan, which are essential compounds found in fungal cell walls. Even perylene - a chemical marker of ascomycete fungi - was absent in P. taiti, though present in the surrounding substratum.



Instead, P. taiti’s cells contained aromatic and phenolic compounds resembling fossilized lignin. Lignin is found in land plants, but this version differed chemically. It was something entirely distinct - resembling lignin, yet not plant-like.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-machine-learning-confirms-its-isolation">Machine learning confirms its isolation</h2>



To test the molecular data further, the team used machine learning models. These models were trained to distinguish organisms based on their molecular fingerprints. 



The results were clear. The models identified P. taiti as something different from fungi, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, bacteria, or plants - with over 90% accuracy.



"We conclude that the morphology and molecular fingerprint of P. taiti is clearly distinct from that of the fungi and other organisms preserved alongside it in the [Devonian deposit], and we suggest that it is best considered a member of a previously undescribed, entirely extinct group of eukaryotes," the authors note.



With no known taxonomic group sharing its combination of anatomy, chemistry, and lifestyle, Prototaxites stands apart. It was a eukaryote - meaning it had complex cells with nuclei - but that’s where the similarities end.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-a-plant-fungus-or-animal">Not a plant, fungus, or animal</h2>



The researchers tested every possible affiliation. Could it be an alga? No, P. taiti lacked the necessary photosynthetic structures and was chemically dissimilar. Could it be an early land plant? Again, the absence of vascular tissues and other plant traits ruled that out.



How about lichen? Not possible without a photobiont. Oomycetes? The molecular composition didn’t match. Even animals were ruled out. Metazoans do not have tube-like structures with cell walls, and P. taiti clearly did.



In the end, the team’s classification table showed the same result for every group: rejected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prototaxites-evolution-s-lost-experiment">Prototaxites: Evolution’s lost experiment</h2>



Prototaxites might be the last known member of its kind. It formed massive vertical structures from underground networks. It likely absorbed nutrients from decaying matter, much like modern saprotrophs. Yet it was not a fungus, not a plant, and not an animal.



"Based on this investigation we are unable to assign Prototaxites to any extant lineage, reinforcing its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">uniqueness</a>," the authors concluded.



And that may be all we ever know. With no modern descendants and no living relatives, Prototaxites exists only as a fossil - part of a long-vanished branch of life. It reminds us that evolution is full of strange ideas, some of which thrived briefly before disappearing forever.



The ancient world was full of life unlike anything we see today. Prototaxites was one of its boldest experiments - and perhaps, one of its most fascinating failures.



The study is published in the pre-print server <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2025.03.14.643340v1.full.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



Image Credit: CC BY-SA 4.0



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Giant, mysterious organisms discovered are impossible to categorize

For over 165 years, scientists have puzzled over a strange...

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges can also drive species diversity, illuminating how Earth’s geological processes shape the evolution of life. 



The work marks a breakthrough in understanding why mountainous areas are hotbeds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-species-diversity-shaped-by-climate-change-for-21000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species diversity</a> and how tectonic activities may have guided the evolutionary paths of certain groups of organisms over millions of years. The study was co-authored by researchers at <a href="https://www.iu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indiana University</a> (IU).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-mountains-and-new-species">Rising mountains and new species</h2>



Long recognized as biological treasure troves, mountain regions often hold surprising numbers of plant and animal species. Yet, it has been difficult to tease out whether high biodiversity naturally accompanies the rugged terrain or if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mountains</a>’ geological formation directly promotes new evolutionary processes.



According to this new study, the mere act of mountains rising can create conditions that give birth to new species. Shifting landscapes open up new habitats and geographically isolate populations, encouraging the emergence of new, distinct species - a process known as allopatric speciation.&nbsp;



Among smaller animals such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modern-day-plague-rodents-fleas-and-their-impact-on-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rodents</a>, the team found a strong correlation between how quickly and how high mountains lift up and the degree of species diversification.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-with-virtual-worlds">A closer look with virtual worlds</h2>



The research team, which includes Eyal Marder of the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a> (a former IU postdoctoral fellow) and Brian Yanites, an associate professor of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences at IU, used advanced computer models to simulate how species might evolve in response to rising terrain over very long timescales.



They based their work on “Adascape,” a specialized model that allows for virtual representations of the Earth’s surface and how it changes. Then, they coupled it with programs that populate these landscapes with model species and track how they adapt and migrate as mountains slowly take shape.&nbsp;



The result was a synthetic view of how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> might proceed in response to upheavals that can last tens of millions of years.



One of the more compelling revelations from these simulations is that certain mountainous areas can act like “cradles” of new biodiversity. A species of rodent-like mammals in the model, for instance, split into multiple distinct species as soon as the mountains rose and created different environmental niches.&nbsp;



Over time, some of these new species even migrated into adjacent lowlands, matching patterns paleontologists often see in fossil deposits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-to-the-fossil-record">Connecting to the fossil record</h2>



Past geologic intervals have left behind a record of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> booms that, until now, were not well explained. The authors propose that at least some of these booms may correlate with upticks in tectonic activity.&nbsp;



For example, the researchers suggest that a known spike in fossil diversity about 15 million years ago in the western United States might be linked to local mountain building in the Basin and Range region, which shaped both animal evolution and the formation of sedimentary basins.



“This study gives us new insights into how Earth’s physical processes influence the diversity of life,” Marder said. “It also highlights how ongoing geological changes could continue to impact biodiversity in the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-hidden-role-of-mountains">The hidden role of mountains</h2>



Previous theories had proposed that mountains simply serve as a stage on which evolution plays out. In contrast, this research indicates that landscapes in flux can actively spark or redirect the evolutionary process.&nbsp;



“We often think of landscapes as passive backdrops for evolution, but this study shows that they are active participants in shaping biodiversity,” Yanites said.



Mountain-building pushes populations up or isolates them in valleys, subjecting organisms to different climates, food sources, and environmental pressures.&nbsp;



Over time, these constraints spawn new species. The link between tectonics and evolution grows even stronger when one considers that mountain ridges can capture moisture and alter local climates, further driving organisms to adapt or relocate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



Beyond helping explain the past, these findings may also help conservationists decide how and where to protect species. Mountains remain sensitive to climate change; as conditions shift, those living at high elevations may have nowhere left to migrate.&nbsp;



Understanding which areas are most critical for speciation could focus conservation efforts on safeguarding genetic diversity hotspots.



By revealing how rising mountains foster new species, this study may also guide reevaluation of existing protected zones. If certain ridge systems are particularly crucial for generating biodiversity, setting them aside or expanding current reserves might become a priority.&nbsp;



This knowledge could likewise apply to other dynamic environments - like tectonically active rifts or volcanic zones - which might also harbor outsized roles in biological innovation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-uplift-and-species-evolution">Mountain uplift and species evolution</h2>



Moving forward, the authors aim to extend their computer modeling to different regions and sets of organisms, matching simulated results more closely with fossil records and genetic data. This interdisciplinary approach can refine projections about how topography influences evolution today and in the future.



According to the scientists, it’s not just about where species are now but about how a place changed over time, and how that might have sparked speciation or extinctions. This link between landscapes and life is something we’re just beginning to fully appreciate.



By establishing a clear, data-driven link between tectonic uplift and the evolution of new species, the study offers a novel perspective on Earth’s living tapestry - and on the power of the planet’s deep geological machinery to shape life across the ages.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adp7290" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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How rising mountains give birth to new species

A new study shows that the forces creating mountain ranges...

A tiny fossil with an unusually well-preserved interior is rewriting what we know about ancient life. Discovered 25 years ago and affectionately named "Sue," the fossil is unlike most others from its time.



Instead of showing off a tough outer shell like other arthropods, this creature gives a rare peek inside - offering a glimpse at muscles, tendons, and guts from the Ordovician period, 444 million years ago.



The fossil, now officially named Keurbos susanae, was found in South Africa's Soom Shale, a rock layer north of Cape Town that was formed after a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mass-extinction-event-was-caused-by-ocean-deoxygenation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">massive global extinction event</a>. 



During that time, a freezing climate wiped out about 85% of Earth’s species. Somehow, a few marine creatures survived in this basin, and Sue was among them.



This unusual fossil was recently studied by scientists from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keurbos-susanae-fossil-is-all-guts">Keurbos susanae fossil is all guts</h2>



“Sue is an inside-out, legless, headless wonder,” said Professor Sarah Gabbott from the University of Leicester’s School of Geography, Geology and the Environment. 



“Remarkably, her insides are a mineralized time-capsule: muscles, sinews, tendons and even guts all preserved in unimaginable detail. And yet her durable carapace, legs and head are missing - no douubt lost to decay over 440 million years ago."



Sue stands out because her internal features are fossilized, rather than her external shell. This is rare. 



Most fossilized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-fossil-sheds-light-on-arthropod-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a> - members of a group that includes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-closer-to-unlocking-the-secrets-of-spider-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a>, lobsters, and millipedes - preserve hard body parts like exoskeletons. In Sue’s case, the soft tissues were sealed away by unique conditions on the ancient sea floor.



The lack of oxygen, combined with toxic hydrogen sulfide in the sediments, likely helped create an environment where her soft tissues were not decomposed, but could remain intact.



Scientists believe a strange chemical process was involved in preserving her this way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-still-a-mystery-in-the-family-tree">Still a mystery in the family tree</h2>



While researchers are confident Sue was a primitive marine arthropod, exactly where she fits into the evolutionary story is still unclear.



“We are now sure she was a primitive marine arthropod but her precise evolutionary relationships remain frustratingly elusive,” Professor Gabbott explained.



Her unique preservation makes it hard to match her with other known species from the time. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="University of Leicester" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/Sue-fossil_Keurbos-susanae_Credit-ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="The fossil Keurbos susanae - or Sue - in the rock. Discovered by Professor Sarah Gabbott. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1963799"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The fossil Keurbos susanae - or Sue - in the rock. Discovered by Professor Sarah Gabbott. Click to enlarge. Credit: University of Leicester</figcaption></figure>



Most comparable fossils only show hard outer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-shells-can-help-predict-the-impacts-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shells</a> or limbs, offering little internal detail for comparison. With no modern equivalent and no other specimens like her, Sue remains a puzzle. 



No other fossils with the same level of detail have turned up in over two decades of searching. And the original quarry where Sue was found - a small roadside site - has all but vanished.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personal-tribute-25-years-in-the-making">Personal tribute, 25 years in the making</h2>



“This has been an ultramarathon of a research effort,” said Professor Gabbott. “In a large part, because this fossil is just so beautifully preserved, there's so much anatomy there that needs interpreting."



She spent years studying every layer of the fossil, hoping to one day find another with more complete features like a head or legs. But as time passed, she realized this might be a once-in-a-lifetime find.



“I'd always hoped to find new specimens but it seems after 25 years of searching this fossil is vanishingly rare - so I can hang on no longer,” she said.



And so she named the fossil Keurbos susanae, or Sue, after her mother.



“Especially as, recently, my mom said to me, 'Sarah if you are going to name this fossil after me, you'd better get on and do it before I am in the ground and fossilized myself,'" she shared.



"I tell my mom in jest that I named the fossil Sue after her because she is a well-preserved specimen. But, in truth, I named her Sue because my mom always said I should follow a career that makes me happy - whatever that may be. For me, that is digging rocks, finding fossils and then trying to figure out how they lived, what they tell us about ancient life and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution on Earth</a>."



Sue may not have her head or legs, but her legacy - both scientific and personal - is unforgettable.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/spp2.70004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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444-million-year-old fossil named 'Sue' has a story to tell

A tiny fossil with an unusually well-preserved interior is rewriting...

What does it take to truly understand evolution? For centuries, scientists studied bones in museums and fossils in stone. But in recent decades, a quiet shift has been underway. 



A group of dedicated researchers has started tracking life as it changes - not over millennia, but through real-time observation. At the heart of this movement is a growing collection of long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-itself-found-to-be-evolving-as-life-constantly-learns-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary studies</a>, some spanning generations, others stretching across continents.



Now, a new review article published in the journal Nature pulls these threads together for the first time. Led by scientists from Georgia Tech, the study explores how these extensive research programs are capturing evolution’s most elusive processes. The findings reveal more than biological data - they offer a window into life’s unfolding story.



"Evolution isn't just about change over millions of years in fossils - it's happening all around us, right now," said lead author James Stroud, an assistant professor in the <a href="https://biosciences.gatech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Biological Sciences</a> at Georgia Tech.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-long-term-research-matters">Why long-term research matters</h2>



Understanding evolution isn't just about snapshots. It’s about watching a process play out, one generation after another. Many evolutionary events unfold too slowly or unpredictably to catch in a brief study. This is where long-term research comes in. 



By investing time - sometimes decades - scientists can observe what shorter experiments might miss entirely.



"However, to understand evolution, we need to watch it <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unfold in real time</a>, often over many generations. Long-term studies allow us to do that by giving us a front-row seat to evolution in action," explained Stroud.



This is the first major review to examine the role of long-term evolutionary studies in such depth. It highlights not only their scientific value but also their potential to answer questions that once seemed unapproachable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-islands-to-petri-dishes">From islands to petri dishes</h2>



The review explores case studies from both the wild and the lab. One example comes from the Galápagos Islands, where researchers have spent forty years studying Darwin’s finches. 



These iconic songbirds provided direct evidence of speciation - when a new species formed through hybridization.



In the lab, scientists observed 75,000 generations of bacteria evolve. Over time, these microbes developed new metabolic abilities that no one had predicted at the start. 



These events might seem extraordinary, but they were not accidents. They were only visible because of the patient design and extended timeline of each study.



"These remarkable evolutionary events were only caught because of the long-term nature of the research programs," said Stroud. "Even if short-term studies captured similar events, their evolutionary significance would be hard to assess without the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">historical context</a> that long-term research provides."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-results-in-evolution">Unexpected results in evolution</h2>



One thing long-term studies teach us: nature rarely <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-ice-age-cycles-are-predictable-but-humans-may-change-that/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">follows our expectations</a>. Surprising discoveries often emerge years after a study begins. 



This unpredictability makes such work especially valuable. Long-term experiments serve as both a test of hypotheses and a source of entirely new questions.



"The most fascinating results from long-term evolution studies are often completely unexpected - they're serendipitous discoveries that couldn't have been predicted at the start," said co-author Professor Will Ratcliff, co-director of the Interdisciplinary Ph.D. in Quantitative Biosciences at <a href="https://www.gatech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Tech</a>.



Ratcliff also points to a practical truth that often goes unnoticed. "While we can accelerate many aspects of scientific research today, evolution still moves at its own pace. There's no technological shortcut for watching species adapt across generations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-evolution-reacts-to-climate-shifts-nbsp">How evolution reacts to climate shifts&nbsp;</h2>



The Nature paper also reflects on how long-term studies have captured changes driven by the planet itself. One area of growing concern is phenology - the timing of biological events like flowering or migration.



As the climate warms, many species shift their schedules. But how much of that change is temporary flexibility, and how much is actual evolution?



Long-term studies provide the answer. They allow researchers to see whether traits are inherited, and whether those changes persist. Without enough time, it’s nearly impossible to tell the difference between momentary adaptation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lasting change</a>.



A recent case showed how both phenotypic plasticity and adaptive evolution influence the timing of flowering in plants. Such insights matter, especially in a world where ecosystems face rapid and unpredictable shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decade-long-evolution-experiments">Decade-long evolution experiments</h2>



Stroud and Ratcliff do more than study other people’s work. They run their own long-term experiments as part of Georgia Tech’s evolutionary biology community. These projects not only inform the review - they reflect its central message.



In South Florida, Stroud oversees a project known informally as “Lizard Island.” Over the last ten years, he and his team have monitored a tiny island’s lizard population - about 1,000 individuals from five species.



By watching how these animals compete, coexist, and sometimes change, his group uncovers how species evolve and hold their identity under pressure.



Meanwhile, Ratcliff’s work focuses on a deeper evolutionary shift: the origin of complex life. His Multicellularity Long Term Evolution Experiment (MuLTEE) observes snowflake yeast as they evolve into multicellular forms. 



Running for more than 9,000 generations already, this project may continue for 25 more years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revealing-life-s-transitions">Revealing life’s transitions</h2>



One of Ratcliff’s most important findings is that becoming multicellular might not be as hard as once believed. 



That single-celled organisms can evolve cooperation, division of labor, and complexity - all within an observable timeframe - challenges long-standing views.



These results make long-term projects not just informative but essential. Some evolutionary transitions were thought to be rare or nearly impossible. But with time as an ally, researchers are discovering that nature may have more flexibility than expected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-in-a-time-of-speed">Science in a time of speed</h2>



Despite their value, long-term studies face growing challenges. Today’s academic culture often rewards fast results. Funding cycles rarely last more than a few years. Publishing systems favor novel discoveries over incremental work. This creates an environment where slow research becomes harder to sustain.



Yet, the most powerful findings about life’s processes often take time. Stroud and Ratcliff argue that the scientific community must protect and support these efforts. 



In the review, they point out how many breakthroughs happened only because researchers kept going - even when immediate outcomes weren’t clear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-present-predicting-future">Understanding present, predicting future</h2>



Stroud believes that this work has never been more urgent. "The world is rapidly changing, which poses unprecedented challenges to Earth's biodiversity," he noted. "It has never been more important to understand how organisms adapt to changing environments over time."



"Long-term studies provide our best window into achieving this. We can document, in real time, both short-term and long-term evolutionary responses of species to changes in their environment, like climate change and habitat modification."



This review doesn’t just celebrate what has already been learned. It points toward the future. Understanding evolution isn’t only about looking back. It’s about predicting what comes next - and that takes time, patience, and a commitment to seeing the whole picture.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08597-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Evolution isn’t just ancient history, it’s happening right now

What does it take to truly understand evolution? For centuries,...

Evolution drives all biological change. It shapes every lifeform we know, including birds. Charles Darwin laid its foundation with natural selection, explaining how organisms adapt and survive through generations.



Recent advances in genetics and bioinformatics have pushed our understanding far beyond Darwin’s notebooks. One question still haunts the scientific world: What really drives <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolution-itself-found-to-be-evolving-as-life-constantly-learns-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">novelty</a> in evolution? 



A new study by researchers at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> offers a fresh approach and some surprising answers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-evolution-tick">What makes evolution tick</h2>



DNA changes lie at the center of evolution. These changes fuel the dazzling variety of life around us. Sometimes, they produce traits that surprise us. Other times, they lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mutations</a> behind deadly viruses.



That’s why understanding DNA’s shifting patterns isn’t just scientific curiosity. It matters for protecting ecosystems. It matters for predicting health threats.



"Basically, we showcase a method to extract information from genomes and reveal the forces driving biological novelty with unprecedented detail," said David Duchene, a professor in the Department of Public Health at the University of Copenhagen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-as-evolution-s-case-study">Birds as evolution’s case study</h2>



The team used birds as their main study group. Why birds? They’re the most diverse group of vertebrates - 10,000 species strong.



"We used birds as our study subject. With 10,000 known species, they are the most diverse class of vertebrates and uniquely suited for exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-chapter-in-human-evolution-revealed-through-genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary phenomena</a>. With our method, we were able to identify key factors that influence how these bird lineages and their thousands of genes evolve," explained Duchene.



Their method identified four key evolutionary factors: clutch size, gene biochemistry, chromosome size, and leg length. Duchene says these results break the idea that one trait, like flying or singing, steers a group’s evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-depends-on-many-traits">Bird evolution depends on many traits</h2>



"Our study tells us that you will find much nuance as to the drivers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutions-many-solutions-nature-finds-multiple-paths-to-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">novelty</a> once you look at multiple lineages and genes in detail. The biochemistry, chromosomes, and various aspects of lifestyle all play distinct roles in bringing about novelty," said Duchene.



It’s not one factor but many. The research shows how each piece, from gene makeup to physical traits, helps shape the tree of life. This view gives experts a better toolkit for tracking changes across different organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-the-next-pandemic">Clues to the next pandemic</h2>



The findings stretch beyond birds, offering deeper insight into evolution across many forms of life.



The method could help scientists track how diseases evolve. It could help understand how plants respond to climate change. And it could point to what we risk losing in our current biodiversity crisis.



According to Duchene, the findings can be applied to a variety of contexts, such as understanding how diseases adapt to human demographics or climate conditions.



"The same principles that help us decode the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-model-esm3-creates-new-protein-that-simulates-500-million-years-of-biological-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> of birds could also be used to investigate the genetic changes driving everything from pandemics to species adaptation in shifting ecosystems," said Duchene.



"This method could tell us: What is special about what we are losing in the current biodiversity crisis? What exactly made those animals so novel and unique, and what have they taught us about evolution such that we might want to preserve them?" 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-evolution-and-the-study-of-life">Bird evolution and the study of life</h2>



Every extinct species takes with it a chapter of evolution’s story. Understanding why those species were unique helps us grasp the full scale of what’s being lost. 



It also shows us what we must protect - not just for the sake of nature, but for future discoveries about life itself.



With this new approach, scientists can now map the drivers of evolution more clearly than ever before. The tools used to decode bird diversity may soon help us understand the rise of new diseases or the disappearance of key species. 



The study invites a shift in thinking - from seeing evolution as a slow and distant process to recognizing it as something dynamic and ongoing.



Nature still holds many secrets. But thanks to this work from the University of Copenhagen, we are one step closer to understanding how life continues to surprise, survive, and evolve.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08777-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Decoding evolution: How birds can help us prevent pandemics

Evolution drives all biological change. It shapes every lifeform we...

Amphibians are in crisis. Climate change, pollution, and habitat loss are stripping their ecosystems. But something even more silent is killing them - disease. From frogs to tadpoles, the losses and disrupted growth are staggering.



Since the 1970s, about 200 amphibian species have vanished. Today, 34% of the 7,296 known species face extinction, according to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>).



One fast-moving culprit is ranavirus. This genus of viruses spreads quickly among fish, reptiles, and amphibians. The virus can devastate species that lack any built-in defense. But a recent study in Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science offers a glimpse of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-2025-protecting-natures-tiny-guardians/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibian resilience</a>.



“Here we show that in response to ranavirus, wood frog tadpoles change their growth, development, and resource allocation. This may help tadpoles tolerate the energetic demands of infection or escape risky environments to avoid infection entirely,” said Logan Billet, a PhD student at <a href="https://www.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> and the study’s first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deadly-virus-is-wiping-out-frogs">A deadly virus is wiping out frogs</h2>



Ranavirus has caused 40 to 60% of amphibian die-offs in the US. 



Once infected, larvae become lethargic, stop eating, swim abnormally, and bleed internally. Outbreaks often end in total pond die-offs. And with warming temperatures, these outbreaks may increase.



The researchers decided to focus on one species: the wood frog (Rana sylvatica). This species breeds explosively in temporary snowmelt ponds. The team observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-lead-the-way-in-developing-new-antibiotics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> from 2021 to 2023 in Connecticut forests. They tracked their survival, growth, and the virus’s impact.



They monitored 47 ponds: 35 remained virus-free, 7 had infections but low death rates, and 5 experienced full-blown die-offs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tadpoles-grow-faster-around-ranavirus">Tadpoles grow faster around ranavirus</h2>



From mid-April to July, scientists collected tadpoles regularly. They euthanized up to 20 from each pond for lab analysis. They tested 1,583 livers for ranavirus and measured the length and developmental stage of 4,299 tadpoles.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-on-water-cricket-frogs-redefine-aquatic-locomotion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amphibians</a> grow flexibly. Size and developmental stage do not always go hand in hand. A tadpole might be small yet advanced in development or vice versa. This plasticity makes their responses interesting to study.



The results showed that tadpoles in ponds later hit by die-offs grew faster during their first month. They also developed quicker - about 0.38 stages ahead of others. But once mortality began, growth collapsed. In the end, they were smaller and less developed than their healthy counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quick-growth-may-help-tadpoles-survive">Quick growth may help tadpoles survive</h2>



Interestingly, tadpoles in infected ponds that avoided full die-offs showed similar trends. They grew faster and reached stages 1.7 Gosner points ahead of those in clean ponds.



The data points to a clear pattern. Tadpoles exposed to ranavirus grow and develop faster - at least in the early days. This may be their way of dodging death by jumping ahead in their life cycle.



Study senior author Dr. David Skelly is a professor at the <a href="https://peabody.yale.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peabody Museum</a> and Billet’s doctoral supervisor.



“Accelerating growth and resource allocation early on may allow tadpoles to improve their physical condition, and thus the strength of their immunity, in anticipation of infection. They might also metamorphose and move onto land earlier, potentially reducing their exposure to ranavirus,” said Dr. Skelly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-unique-survival-strategy">A unique survival strategy</h2>



These early responses may help explain why some outbreaks kill only a portion of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/missing-frog-species-alsodes-vittatus-resurfaces-after-130-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



“These responses are likely to give tadpoles a survival advantage. We hypothesize they are the reason why mortality wasn’t always 100%, but only partial in some outbreaks in our study," said Billet.



“What we don’t yet know is how tadpoles detect ranavirus in their environment, for example through chemical or visual cues, and how effective these responses improve survival or tolerance of infection. Controlled experiments will be important to address these questions."



The study opens a new window into amphibian survival in the face of disease. These creatures, from adult frogs to fragile tadpoles, are adjusting their growth in real time to a rapidly changing world. But their limits remain unknown.



As human-driven changes reshape the planet, the quiet struggles in our forest ponds may soon speak volumes about the future of biodiversity. The story of the wood <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-amphibians-survived-earths-deadliest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frog</a> and its fight against ranavirus is just one chapter. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/amphibian-and-reptile-science/articles/10.3389/famrs.2025.1529060/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Amphibian and Reptile Science</a>.



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Tadpoles speed up their growth to outsmart a deadly virus

Amphibians are in crisis. Climate change, pollution, and habitat loss...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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