The origin of reptiles on Earth has been pushed back by an astonishing 40 million years. Fossilized tracks unearthed in Australia provide compelling evidence that reptile-like animals existed far earlier than previously thought. 



This finding challenges long-held assumptions about the evolution of tetrapods, the group that includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.



A team led by John Long, a professor at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, discovered fossilized tracks of an amniote with clawed feet, dating to approximately 350 million years ago.



The tracks, found in the Mansfield district of northern Victoria, indicate that amniotes – a group that includes reptiles – were present in the Carboniferous period, much earlier than established <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">records</a> in the Northern Hemisphere.



“Once we identified this, we realised this is the oldest evidence in the world of reptile-like animals walking around on land – and it pushes their evolution back by 35-to-40 million years older than the previous records in the Northern Hemisphere,” said Professor Long.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-clawed-reptile-tracks-in-gondwana">First clawed reptile tracks in Gondwana</h2>



The track-bearing slab, discovered in Taungurung Country, belonged to the Snowy Plains Formation. 



The animal that left these tracks likely resembled a small, stumpy Goanna-like creature. With its clawed feet, this primitive sauropsid walked across what was once part of the ancient southern supercontinent, Gondwana.



“The implications of this discovery for the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-shifts-the-origin-of-lizards-back-35-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of tetrapods are profound,” noted Professor Long. The finding suggests that stem-tetrapod and stem-amniote lineages began evolving in the Devonian period, much earlier than previously thought.



The rapid evolution of tetrapods during this period, combined with an incomplete fossil record, has obscured the true timeline of their emergence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-evolution-timeline-shifts-nbsp">Reptile evolution timeline shifts&nbsp;</h2>



The fossil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plesiosaur-fossil-contains-soft-tissue-preserved-for-183-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">record</a> of crown-group amniotes, which includes modern reptiles, birds, and mammals, was previously thought to begin in the Late Carboniferous, around 318 million years ago. 



Earlier estimates placed the emergence of crown-group tetrapods at 334 million years ago, with the oldest trackways dating back 353 million years.



However, the newly discovered Australian tracks, securely dated to the early Tournaisian, push the origin of crown-group amniotes back by 35 to 40 million years. This revised timeline suggests that tetrapod evolution proceeded faster and earlier than previously thought.



“We now present new trackway data from Australia that falsify this widely accepted timeline,” said Professor Long. The implications extend beyond the Australian site, challenging assumptions about the broader evolutionary history of tetrapods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-slab-holds-oldest-reptile-tracks">Fossil slab holds oldest reptile tracks</h2>



The sandstone slab, measuring about 50 cm across, carries the oldest known clawed footprints. The slab was discovered by two amateur palaeontologists, Craig Eury and John Eason, who initially thought the tracks belonged to early amphibians.



“When I saw this specimen for the first time, I was very surprised. After just a few seconds, I noticed that there were clearly preserved claw marks,” said Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki of <a href="https://www.uu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Uppsala University</a>, co-author of the study.



According to Niedźwiedzki, claws are a distinct feature of early amniotes, almost never seen in other tetrapod groups. This characteristic suggests the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-marine-reptile-ichthyotitan-severnensis-discovered-by-11-year-old-girl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a> that left these tracks was a primitive reptile, marking the earliest known evidence of clawed feet among tetrapods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-tracks-in-australia-and-poland">Reptile tracks in Australia and Poland</h2>



In addition to the Australian tracks, similar trackways have been identified in Silesia, Poland. These tracks, dated to the mid-Serpukhovian to early Bashkirian, are slightly younger than the Australian finds but also display claw impressions.



The Polish tracks extend the known range of Notalacerta into the early Carboniferous. This suggests that amniotes were present across both Gondwana and Euramerica much earlier than previously thought.



The Snowy Plains Formation likely dates to the early Tournaisian, approximately 358.9 to 354 million years ago. This pushes the origin of crown-group amniotes back significantly, indicating that tetrapods evolved more rapidly than previously estimated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-reveal-faster-reptile-evolution">Fossils reveal faster reptile evolution</h2>



To refine the evolutionary timeline, researchers combined fossil evidence with DNA analysis. Molecular data provide valuable insights into the relative timing of evolutionary events, particularly when the fossil record is incomplete.



“It’s all about the relative length of different branches in the tree,” said Per Ahlberg of Uppsala University. “This method helps us pinpoint evolutionary phases with a poor fossil record.”



By overlaying DNA branch lengths onto known fossil dates, the team estimated the age of the tetrapod crown-group node to be in the Devonian, contemporaneous with transitional 'fishapods' like Tiktaalik. This finding suggests that tetrapods diversified earlier and faster than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-previous-theories">Challenging previous theories</h2>



The Snowy Plains Formation trackway slab is more than just a piece of stone. It represents a pivotal moment in the history of life on Earth, a moment when reptiles first set clawed feet on land.



“A single track-bearing slab, which one person can lift, calls into question everything we thought we knew about when modern tetrapods evolved,” said Per Ahlberg. The slab, found in Taungurung Country, is now housed in Museums Victoria.



The tracks show a consistent foot morphology, with five slender digits splayed out in a fan shape. Claws are present on four digits, with the fifth digit carrying a shorter claw. 



The trackmaker’s hip-to-shoulder distance suggests a body length of approximately 80 cm, similar to that of a modern water monitor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-search-for-evidence-in-gondwana">Search for evidence in Gondwana</h2>



Mansfield, Victoria, has long been a hotspot for fossil discoveries. Since 1980, researchers have uncovered fossilized fish and sharks in the area, but finding terrestrial vertebrate tracks had remained elusive.



“The Mansfield area has produced many famous fossils, beginning with spectacular fossil fishes found 120 years ago, and ancient sharks. But the holy grail that we were always looking for was evidence of land animals,” explained Professor Long.



The Snowy Plains Formation trackways provide crucial evidence that reptiles and other amniotes were already present in Gondwana during the early Carboniferous. This challenges previous theories that placed the origin of amniotes solely in the Northern Hemisphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reptile-evolution-a-broader-timeline">Reptile evolution: A broader timeline</h2>



The discovery of clawed tracks from the early Carboniferous has profound implications for the timeline of tetrapod evolution. It suggests that the tetrapod crown-group node must be located deep within the Devonian, not the Carboniferous as previously thought.



The findings also reveal that tetrapod evolution was a more rapid and complex process than previously recognized. The appearance of clawed amniotes in both Gondwana and Euramerica indicates that these groups may have evolved in parallel across different regions.



“This discovery rewrites this part of evolutionary history,” said Dr. Jillian Garvey of La Trobe University. “It indicates there is so much that has happened in Australia and Gondwana that we are still yet to uncover.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-fossil-research">The future of fossil research </h2>



While the Australian tracks provide valuable insights, they also raise new questions about the evolutionary history of reptiles. The fossil record in Gondwana remains incomplete, and future discoveries may further alter our understanding of when and where reptiles first emerged.



“The most interesting discoveries are yet to come and that there is still much to be found in the field,” said Grzegorz Niedźwiedzki. “These footprints from Australia are just one example of this.”



The Snowy Plains Formation slab stands as a powerful reminder that even a single piece of rock can reshape our understanding of the past. 



As researchers continue to search the Devonian and Carboniferous formations of Gondwana, the story of reptile evolution may undergo even more dramatic revisions.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08884-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Marcin Ambrozik.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Animal evolution theory turned upside down by new fossil discovery

The origin of reptiles on Earth has been pushed back by an astonishing 40 million years. Fossilized tracks unearthed in Australia provide compelling evidence that reptile-like animals existed far earlier than previously thought. This finding challenges long-held assumptions about the evolution of tetrapods, the group that includes amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. A team led by John Long, a professor at Flinders University, discovered fossilized tracks of an amniote with clawed feet, dating to approximately 350 million years ago. The tracks, found in the Mansfield district of...

Have you ever wondered what our ancient ancestors looked like? Scientists have reconstructed the face of an ancient ape species called Pierolapithecus catalaunicus, giving us a fresh glimpse into the story of human and great ape evolution.



Leading this fascinating research is Kelsey Pugh, a research associate in the American Museum of Natural History's Division of Anthropology and a lecturer at Brooklyn College.



Pugh and her team have pieced together the skull of this remarkable species, which roamed the Earth about 12 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-pierolapithecus-catalaunicus">Searching for Pierolapithecus catalaunicus</h2>



Discovered in northeastern Spain and first described back in 2004, Pierolapithecus catalaunicus belonged to a group of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/homo-floresiensis-hobbits-flores-human-ancestors-smaller-than-imagined/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">now-extinct apes</a> that lived in Europe between 15 and 7 million years ago. 



This was a time when primates were diversifying and evolving into new species, each with unique characteristics.



What makes Pierolapithecus catalaunicus so special is the condition of the fossil. Researchers have both the cranium and a partial skeleton of the same individual -- a rare treasure in the world of paleontology. 



Such comprehensive evidence allows scientists to explore more thoroughly how this species fits into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-preferred-mosaic-landscapes-with-diverse-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary puzzle</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-connecting-the-dots">Connecting the dots</h2>



The significance of Pierolapithecus catalaunicus goes beyond its well-preserved bones. It plays a key role in understanding the "mosaic nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-found-in-china-belong-to-a-previously-unknown-human-ancestor/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominid evolution</a>." 



Since hominids include both great apes and humans, studying this ancient ape helps scientists trace the evolutionary steps that led to modern species like us.



"Features of the skull and teeth are extremely important in resolving the evolutionary relationships of fossil species," said Pugh. 



"When we find this material in association with bones of the rest of the skeleton, it gives us the opportunity to not only accurately place the species on the hominid family tree, but also to learn more about the biology of the animal in terms of, for example, how it was moving around its environment," Pugh explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pierolapithecus-catalaunicus-the-upright-ape">Pierolapithecus catalaunicus: The upright ape</h2>



Previous studies suggest that Pierolapithecus had an upright body structure that came before adaptations allowing hominids to move through tree branches. However, its exact place in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-humans-almost-went-extinct-as-population-declined-to-1280-individuals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary history</a> is still up in the air.



"One of the persistent issues in studies of ape and human evolution is that the fossil record is fragmentary, and many specimens are incompletely preserved and distorted," said study co-author Ashley Hammond. 



"This makes it difficult to reach a consensus on the evolutionary relationships of key fossil apes that are essential to understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ape and human evolution</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-technology-at-work">Modern technology at work</h2>



To tackle this challenge, the researchers used CT scans to reconstruct the cranium of Pierolapithecus catalaunicus. This allowed them to compare it with other primate species and model how key features of ape facial structure <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolved over time</a>.



The study found that Pierolapithecus shares facial features with both fossilized and living great apes. At the same time, it has distinct characteristics not seen in other Middle Miocene apes. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Pierolapithecus-catalaunicus_skull-reconstruction_AMNH_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Pierolapithecus-catalaunicus_skull-reconstruction_AMNH_1s.webp" alt="From left, the Pierolapithecus cranium shortly after discovery, after initial preparation, and after virtual reconstruction. Credit: David Alba (left), Salvador Moyà-Solà (middle), Kelsey Pugh (right)." class="wp-image-1945535"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">From left, the Pierolapithecus cranium shortly after discovery, after initial preparation, and after virtual reconstruction. Credit: David Alba (left), Salvador Moyà-Solà (middle), Kelsey Pugh (right).</figcaption></figure>



These findings suggest that Pierolapithecus catalaunicus may be one of the earliest members of the great ape and human family.



"An interesting output of the evolutionary modeling in the study is that the cranium of Pierolapithecus is closer in shape and size to the ancestor from which living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-humans-lose-their-tails/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">great apes and humans evolved</a>," said study co-author Sergio Almécija. 



"On the other hand, gibbons and siamangs -- the 'lesser apes' -- seem to be secondarily derived in relation to size reduction."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle-of-pierolapithecus-catalaunicus">Lifestyle of Pierolapithecus catalaunicus</h2>



This ancient primate is believed to have weighed between 30 and 50 pounds. It had features similar to modern great apes, suggesting a possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragon-man-skull-sheds-new-light-on-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">common ancestor</a>. 



Its wide, flat ribcage, stiff lower spine, and unique wrist features point to climbing abilities, indicating a transition from earlier tree-dwelling primates to one that could move both in trees and on the ground.



The skeletal structure shows that Pierolapithecus catalaunicus had a shortened and wide trunk, along with mobile shoulder joints. 



This suggests it was good at climbing and swinging through trees -- a movement known as brachiation. However, its robust finger bones hint that it also spent significant time interacting with the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facing-the-facts">Facing the facts</h2>



Its facial structure is also revealing. With forward-facing eyes, a short snout, and small canines, it differs from primates that eat only fruit, suggesting it had a varied diet. 



These features paint a picture of an adaptable creature that lived both in the trees and on the ground.



Pierolapithecus shakes up previous ideas about evolution. Its existence hints that key hominid traits may have developed earlier than scientists once thought. 



While it might not be a direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestor of humans</a>, it provides a clearer picture of the lineage that led to great apes and humans, highlighting traits that evolved as primates adapted to changing environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-pierolapithecus-catalaunicus-matters">Why Pierolapithecus catalaunicus matters</h2>



The discovery underscores that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-hotspots-may-skew-our-view-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominid evolution</a> isn't a straight line but a branching tree with many extinct relatives. 



Each new fossil find, like Pierolapithecus, adds another piece to the puzzle, helping us understand where we come from and perhaps where we're headed.



Unfortunately, the site where Pierolapithecus was found faces threats from illegal excavations and vandalism. 



Preservationists and scientists are calling for stronger protections to safeguard this invaluable window into our past. 



As we continue to study Pierolapithecus, it's crucial to protect these archaeological sites to keep our shared history intact.



So, what does all this mean for us? 



Discoveries like Pierolapithecus catalaunicus help bridge gaps in our understanding of primate evolution. They highlight the complexity of the human evolutionary tree and the intricate journey that has shaped life on Earth.



-----



The study is a collaborative effort involving scientists from the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Museum of Natural History</a>, <a href="https://www.brooklyn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brooklyn College</a>, and the <a href="https://www.icp.cat/index.php/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Catalan Institute of Paleontology</a> Miquel Crusafont. Their work sheds new light on a pivotal chapter in our evolutionary history.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2218778120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pierolapithecus: Recreating the face of an ancient human ancestor

Have you ever wondered what our ancient ancestors looked like?...

The unique light environment of the Earth's polar regions creates conditions that foster the formation of circumpolar hybrid zones around both the North and South Poles, according to a new study.&nbsp;



These extreme conditions synchronize the reproductive phenology of various species, forcing them into a shorter window for reproduction, which may sustain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-biodiversity-will-get-a-boost-from-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> in the long term.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-light-influences-biodiversity">Polar light influences biodiversity</h2>



In a recent research article, Professor Kari Saikkonen from the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>, Finland, and his colleagues presented a new theory on how the polar light environment influences biodiversity over millions of years. 



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2024.08.002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Earth</a>, explores the role of the unique light cycles near the poles in shaping long-term biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-cycles-of-polar-light">Extreme cycles of polar light</h2>



Daylight patterns on Earth vary significantly depending on latitude. At the Equator, day and night are nearly equal year-round, with only minor seasonal variation in day length as one moves away from the Equator.&nbsp;



However, closer to the poles, there is substantial seasonality, resulting in phenomena like the “midnight sun,” where there is 24-hour daylight in the summer, and the “polar night,” where the sun does not rise for months during the winter in regions within the Arctic and Antarctic circles.



“At the center of our theory is the hypothesis that the extreme light environment of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-polar-regions-changing-fundamental-alarming-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar regions</a> creates hybrid zones in both polar regions,” Saikkonen said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-changes-in-day-length-nbsp">Seasonal changes in day length&nbsp;</h2>



Unlike temperature, which can vary unpredictably with local and global climate, day length is a stable environmental factor that changes consistently with latitude.&nbsp;



Many organisms, especially photosynthetic ones like plants and some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-seabed-bacteria-play-a-crucial-role-in-sustaining-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbes</a>, have adapted to using seasonal changes in day length as signals to time their reproduction.



Since many organisms rely on light as a cue, the polar light environment increases the likelihood that closely related plant species will flower simultaneously. 



This creates opportunities for hybridization, where organisms reproduce with individuals from a different species or variety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-light-and-hybridization">Polar light and hybridization </h2>



Saikkonen noted that although <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hybridization-reduces-vulnerability-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hybridization</a> is common in almost all groups of organisms, its role as a force for sustaining biodiversity has not been fully understood. 



“Hybridization may also involve backcrossing, where hybrid individuals mate with members of the original species. This allows genes to be transferred between species, creating new adaptive gene combinations suited to different environmental conditions,” explained Saikkonen.



At lower latitudes, where day length changes only slightly between seasons, the timing of reproduction among distinct populations or subspecies is less likely to overlap, and thus hybridization is less common.&nbsp;



However, in polar regions, the unique light cycles may promote more frequent hybridization, leading to new biodiversity over long geological periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-biodiversity-nbsp">Evolution of biodiversity&nbsp;</h2>



“Species' range shifts across latitudes during the Earth's cooler and warmer cycles cause recurrent isolation and contact among species. This results in mixing and differentiation of species, leading to new biodiversity over long periods of time,” said Saikkonen.



Microbes have played a crucial role in the evolution of biodiversity since the origin of life, and they continue to have a significant impact on maintaining and promoting global biodiversity.



“Microbes are ubiquitous, and mounting evidence reveals their high adaptive potential due to their short life cycle. Many microbes are light-sensitive and affect the well-being of virtually all plants and animals. Since all plants and animals have diverse microbiota, they should be treated as a whole,” Saikkonen said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polar-regions-are-warming-rapidly">Polar regions are warming rapidly</h2>



In their study, the experts hypothesize that photosensitive microbes may play a role in helping plants adapt to the extreme light conditions of polar regions.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-arctic-climate-change-is-much-more-difficult-since-russia-invaded-ukraine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> and biodiversity loss are among the greatest global threats to ecosystems today. The polar regions, in particular, are warming at a much faster rate than the global average - up to 2–4 times faster.



“Climate models predict that Arctic sea ice will melt by the end of this century. Over the same period, Antarctica's ice-free area will increase from approximately 2% today to almost 25%,” said Saikkonen.



The melting of the western Antarctic glaciers alone could cause sea levels to rise by five meters, threatening 10% of the world's population and many of the world's coastal ecosystems over the next decades or centuries.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-driven-biodiversity-loss">Climate-driven biodiversity loss</h2>



The researchers argue that the conventional species-focused approach to biodiversity must expand to include the genetic diversity of organisms and the importance of microbial associates in plants and animals.



“We propose that biodiversity can, in the long term, recover after disturbances and mass extinctions, but ecosystems will restructure as novel species assemblages,” said Saikkonen.



“This calls for increased attention to the importance of ensuring sufficient genetic diversity, species diversity, and species interaction potential to support future diversification and ecosystem functions and services. Tackling climate change-driven biodiversity loss is crucial.”



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Polar light sustains biodiversity over millions of years 

The unique light environment of the Earth's polar regions creates...

Humans aren't the only animals affected by the increasing proliferation of artificial light at night (ALAN). Recent studies found that light pollution, especially the blue spectrum, dramatically impacts fish behavior, even influencing their offspring.



Our planet at night, once a canvas of star-studded obsidian, has been illuminated to such lengths that darkness seems a thing of the past. 



This phenomenon, dubbed as ALAN, is the primary culprit for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-increases-the-risk-of-alzheimers-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global light pollution</a>. The constant glow from street-lights, buildings and our personal devices create a world that never truly sees nightfall. 



It's no wonder then that our sleep schedules are in disarray, and it turns out, so are the zebrafish's.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anxious-fish-and-unnatural-light">Anxious fish and unnatural light</h2>



The team of scientific scholars from the <a href="https://www.hbu.cas.cz/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Hydrobiology</a> Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Max Planck <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Animal Behavior</a>, led by Wei Wei Li, delved into how ALAN affects the behavior of zebrafish.



They found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-light-increases-risk-of-bird-collisions-with-buildings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">constant exposure to light</a> resulted in the zebrafish displaying anxiety-like behaviors -- they swam less, spent more time near the aquarium walls, and congregated in closer groups.



The team discovered that while all wavelengths of light induced these changes, the blue spectrum triggered the most immediate and intense responses. 



These findings might make you reconsider your next late-night Netflix binge. After all, it's not only your sleep that's getting compromised.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-impact-of-alan">Negative impact of ALAN</h2>



Wei Wei Li brings to our attention an unsettling fact -- the impact of ALAN isn't exclusive to us humans. 



The illumination levels used in their study were similar to the amount of light filtering into animal habitats from our outdoor sources.



“Sleep is one of the main processes of animals that is disrupted by ALAN, so we were curious to know what that means for their ability to navigate their lives. In other words, what does it mean for their behavior?” explains Wei Wei Li.



“The light levels that we used in our study matched what is already shining into the homes of animals at night through the many sources we place outdoors. And we found extremely strong and clear negative effects on the behavior of fish and their offspring after only a few bright nights.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blue-light-and-fish-offspring">Blue light and fish offspring</h2>



It's no secret that blue light disrupts the human sleep cycle. But the research team wanted to uncover whether different wavelengths affected fish behavior differently. 



After exposing female zebrafish to various light regimes for eight nights, they recorded behaviors such as decreased swimming and wall-hugging. 



The impact of blue light, however, was discernible much sooner - after just five nights of exposure.



"This is consistent with what is known in humans, that exposure to the blue light of our electronic displays has the biggest effect on our sleep and possibly other physiological cycles," co-author Aneesh Bose observes. 



While the study did not aim to uncover a mechanism, the authors speculate that the observed behavioral patterns could stem from sleep deprivation.



“The fish could pull a few all-nighters, but after too many nights of disrupted sleep it eventually caught up to them,” explains Bose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-effects-linger">Effects linger</h2>



The effects of ALAN appear to be more than just fleeting. The study found that these behavioral changes in zebrafish didn't cease with the individual but extended to their offspring. 



"We found that light pollution disrupted the natural behavior of fish, and this disruption may have fitness and performance consequences," Ming Duan from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> elaborates.



While we can't entirely eliminate artificial light, we can certainly be more mindful of its repercussions. It's not just about turning off the lights when not in use but also about reconsidering the type of light we emit near animal habitats. 



"The best thing we can do is minimize the use of blue wavelength light sources where animals are trying to sleep," Duan suggests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-fish-from-light-pollution">Saving fish from light pollution</h2>



What we have been lights-out about is how the light we cast influences more than just our sleep patterns. 



From anxiety-like behaviors to progeny impact, the findings of this study shine a light (pun intended) on the unintended consequences of our illuminated existence. 



It's high time we dimmed our luminescent lifestyles <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-moths-develop-smaller-wings-survive-light-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">for a brighter future</a>, for us and our aquatic pals.



So, the next time you leave a light on, remember -- it's not just you, but also your finned neighbors who might be kept awake.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969724064921?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Light at night permanently changes fish behavior and harms offspring

Humans aren't the only animals affected by the increasing proliferation...

Close-up,Muzzle,Of,A,Dwarf,Liberian,Hippo,,Portrait.,,,A

The extinction of dwarf elephants and hippos during the Late Pleistocene remains one of the most intriguing prehistoric mysteries.



In the sprawling Mediterranean landscape of Cyprus, these were the only two species of megafauna to inhabit the island. 



The 500-kg dwarf elephant (Palaeoloxodon cypriotes, approximately 1,102 lbs) and the 130-kg dwarf hippo (Phanourios minor, approximately 287 lbs) roamed the island, but their presence was short-lived.



Both species mysteriously disappeared around the time humans arrived roughly 14,000 years ago.&nbsp;



This rapid extinction has long puzzled scholars, as previous theories argued that the introduction of a small human population on Cyprus couldn’t have caused such swift extinctions.&nbsp;



However, recent research, led by Professor Corey Bradshaw from <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>, suggests a different story, offering new insights into this prehistoric puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-dwarf-elephant-extinction">New perspective on dwarf elephant extinction</h2>



The study, funded by the European Regional Development Fund and the Republic of Cyprus through the Research and Innovation Foundation for <a href="https://www.ucy.ac.cy/migrate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project MIGRATE</a>, found that Paleolithic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-hunter-gatherer-ancestors-did-much-more-gathering-than-hunting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunter-gatherers</a> likely played a pivotal role in the extinction of these dwarf species. 



Through mathematical models that combine paleontological and archaeological data, the research team examined how human hunting practices, diet composition, and prey selection could have driven the dwarf elephants and hippos to extinction in less than 1,000 years.



“Our results provide strong evidence that Paleolithic peoples in Cyprus were at least partially responsible for megafauna extinctions during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Late Pleistocene</a> and early Holocene,” explains lead author Professor Corey Bradshaw. 



“The main determinant of extinction risk for both species was the proportion of edible meat they provided to the first people on the island,” he adds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unveiling-the-role-of-hunter-gatherers">Unveiling the role of hunter-gatherers</h2>



Using data-driven approaches, the research team, including Drs. Theodora Moutsiou, Christian Reepmeyer, Frédérik Saltré, and Stefani Crabtree, analyzed the impact of human populations ranging from 3,000 to 7,000 individuals.&nbsp;



The findings show that even relatively small groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hunter-gatherers</a> could have hunted the island’s megafauna to extinction within a short timeframe. 



This challenges the earlier belief that such extinctions would have required a much larger human presence.



“Cyprus is the perfect location to test our models because the island offers an ideal set of conditions to examine whether the arrival of populations of humans ultimately led to the extinction of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-the-disappearance-of-north-americas-megafauna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">megafauna species</a>,” says Dr. Theodora Moutsiou. 



“The island’s insular environment provides a window back in time through our data, enabling us to better understand how human activities can disrupt ecosystems and drive species to extinction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chronology-of-dwarf-elephant-extinction">Chronology of dwarf elephant extinction</h2>



The study’s predictions align with the documented chronology of megafauna extinctions in paleontological records, further supporting the theory that human arrival marked a turning point for the island’s ecosystems. 



Previous findings by Professor Bradshaw, Dr. Moutsiou, and collaborators have also shown that large groups of humans may have arrived on Cyprus in two to three main migration waves, further contributing to the rapid disappearance of these remarkable animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-induced-extinctions">Human-induced extinctions</h2>



This research not only provides insights into the specific case of Cyprus but also highlights broader patterns of human-driven extinctions across the globe.&nbsp;



During the Late Pleistocene, as hunter-gatherer populations spread, many islands and isolated ecosystems experienced the extinction of their native megafauna.&nbsp;



Similar events unfolded in regions like Madagascar and New Zealand, where human arrival led to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-were-likely-the-leading-cause-of-megafauna-extinctions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rapid disappearance</a> of unique species that had previously thrived without human predators.



The extinction of Cyprus' megafauna illustrates how even small human populations can drastically affect biodiversity.&nbsp;



Understanding these past events is critical for informing modern conservation strategies, helping to prevent today’s endangered species from facing similar outcomes.



Additionally, the study emphasizes the significance of islands as vital locations for examining extinction patterns beyond dwarf elephants. Isolated environments like Cyprus provide a controlled system where human impacts on ecosystems can be closely observed.&nbsp;



These findings highlight the need for careful conservation efforts to maintain the balance of species survival in such fragile ecosystems as human activity continues to expand.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.0967" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Extinction of dwarf elephants and hippos directly linked to humans

The extinction of dwarf elephants and hippos during the Late...

Tracking data has revealed the remarkable migrations undertaken by cranes, with some migratory routes covering more than 6,400 kilometers round trip.&nbsp;



These journeys involved overcoming substantial natural barriers, such as the Alps, the Himalayas, the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Mediterranean Sea.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-the-movement-of-cranes-nbsp">Monitoring the movement of cranes&nbsp;</h2>



Researchers used miniature GPS tracking devices to monitor the movements of 104 cranes across Africa, Asia, and Europe. These devices featured unique solar-powered GPS leg bands, developed by scientists from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB).&nbsp;



In addition to the tracking data, the researchers developed a statistical framework to analyze how the cranes’ movements were influenced by environmental factors, such as the presence of crops, water bodies, temperature, and vegetation cover.



“Animals have to satisfy their own needs with what they can get from their environment, but both of these are changing constantly,” said lead author Scott Yanco, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://umich.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Michigan</a>.&nbsp;



“This creates an intriguing optimization problem that we wanted to know if cranes were solving through long-distance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agriculture-bird-migrations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-challenges-faced-by-cranes-nbsp">Environmental challenges faced by cranes&nbsp;</h2>



The study found that all four crane species faced vastly different environmental conditions throughout the year, and that these conditions were synchronized with key life events.&nbsp;



The stark contrasts in temperature or resource availability between their wintering grounds and summer breeding grounds were particularly notable.&nbsp;



For some cranes, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-migration-is-influenced-by-social-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migrations</a> themselves involved drastic shifts in environmental conditions. For instance, the demoiselle cranes had to contend with significant temperature fluctuations as they migrated across the Tibetan plateau.



“We suspect this all has to do with different biological needs during these different times of the year,” added Yanco, who conducted the research while at the <a href="https://bgc.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale Center for Biodiversity and Global Change</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-areas-with-abundant-resources-nbsp">Finding areas with abundant resources&nbsp;</h2>



Yanco pointed out that common cranes clearly prioritized agricultural areas during the late summer, a time that aligns with raising juveniles and preparing for fall migration.&nbsp;



“This is exactly when we would expect them to want easy access to food,” Yanco explained.



For other species, accessing food came with trade-offs. The black-necked cranes, for example, had to balance between safe roosting habitats and areas with abundant resources.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-competing-needs-of-cranes">The competing needs of cranes</h2>



“Amazingly, the balance between these competing needs changed over the year depending on what the birds were doing,” Yanco said. During migration, they chose safer roosting sites, while during breeding, they prioritized abundant food sources.



“This type of shifting emphasis depending on what cranes need at any given time is what we were expecting to see,” said senior author Ivan Pokrovsky, a postdoctoral researcher at MPI-AB.&nbsp;



“But we were blown away by how well the cranes used movement to resolve trade-offs among competing needs and to access certain environments during key periods of the year.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-conservation-efforts">Wildlife conservation efforts</h2>



Understanding how animals interact with their environment not only offers a more nuanced view of how they survive in complex ecosystems but is also essential for informing conservation and management strategies in the face of the twin crises of climate change and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity loss</a>.&nbsp;



The study's framework provides a statistical tool to better understand the intricate relationships between animals and their environments, which can be widely applied to wildlife conservation efforts.



“When we know how animals use certain environmental conditions, we can make better predictions about how species might respond to human-caused global change and develop more effective interventions that ensure we preserve the conditions species need to survive,” Pokrovsky concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-cranes">More about cranes</h2>



Cranes are highly social and often travel in large flocks during migration. They are also vocal birds, using a variety of calls that can be heard from miles away, which helps them communicate with other members of their flock.&nbsp;



Cranes are omnivores, feeding on a diverse diet that includes plants, seeds, small animals, and insects. Some species of cranes are endangered, largely due to habitat loss and environmental changes.&nbsp;



For example, the Siberian crane is critically endangered. Ongoing conservation efforts aim to protect its breeding grounds in Russia and wintering habitats in China and India.



Cranes have deep cultural significance in many parts of the world. In Japan and China, they are symbols of longevity, peace, and good fortune, and they are prominently featured in folklore and art.&nbsp;



The whooping crane, native to North America, is a symbol of conservation success, having recovered from the brink of extinction due to extensive preservation efforts.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2316827121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

How do cranes meet their needs in complex environments?

Tracking data has revealed the remarkable migrations undertaken by cranes,...

In a constantly changing world, animals, including humans, must adapt quickly to their environment and make decisions that lead to the best possible outcomes.&nbsp;



Typically, this type of learning occurs through direct experience, where animals rely on past experiences involving the same choices when faced with a decision between two specific options.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-experience-and-knowledge">Balancing experience and knowledge</h2>



However, animals with more advanced brains, such as apes and monkeys, are capable of inferring the outcome of a decision based on their knowledge of similar past situations, even if they have not directly experienced those particular options before.&nbsp;



This means that decision-making often involves a balance between experience-based strategies and knowledge-based strategies. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visually-striking-primate-features-ease-tension-and-reduce-conflict/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primates</a>, the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is responsible for managing this balance. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-brain-s-role-in-decision-making-nbsp">The brain’s role in decision-making&nbsp;</h2>



The orbitofrontal cortex not only plays a direct role in decision-making but also helps to “update” the internal values primates use to evaluate the potential benefits of any given option.&nbsp;



Moreover, the OFC is essential for assessing options that an individual has not directly experienced.&nbsp;



Despite this understanding, the precise roles of the OFC in decision-making and whether these roles rely on separate neuronal pathways have remained unclear and difficult to study.



Fortunately, a research team from Japan has made significant progress in shedding light on this issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-selectively-activating-neuronal-pathways-nbsp">Selectively activating neuronal pathways&nbsp;</h2>



The team was led by Kei Oyama and Takafumi Minamimoto from the <a href="https://www.qst.go.jp/site/qst-english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology</a>. 



The researchers used a cutting-edge approach they previously developed to selectively activate and deactivate different neuronal pathways originating from the OFC in monkeys during specially designed behavioral tasks. This innovative method allowed the experts to uncover the independent functions of these pathways.



In these behavioral experiments, macaque monkeys were presented with two images to choose from, and depending on their choice, they received a predetermined amount of juice as a reward. The monkeys quickly learned to associate specific images with the amount of juice they would receive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-capacity-to-learn-from-experience-nbsp">Capacity to learn from experience&nbsp;</h2>



To further test the monkeys' decision-making abilities, the researchers periodically changed the set of images presented and reversed the reward values, meaning the worst options became the best and vice versa.&nbsp;



These tasks assessed the monkeys’ capacity to learn from experience (via trial and error) and to handle familiar situations (via knowledge-based inference).



As the monkeys performed these tasks, the researchers employed a genetically introduced chemical switch called a chemogenetic receptor, which could turn specific OFC neurons on or off upon the administration of a drug.&nbsp;



Using computed tomography, positron emission tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging to guide their procedures, the team locally injected a drug to temporarily silence distinct neuronal pathways originating from the OFC.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specific-functions-of-the-neuronal-pathways-nbsp">Specific functions of the neuronal pathways&nbsp;</h2>



By observing changes in the monkeys' performance, the researchers determined the specific functions of these pathways.&nbsp;



The experts discovered that the OFC pathway connecting to the caudate nucleus is critical for experience-based adaptation, while the pathway linking to the mediodorsal thalamus plays a key role in knowledge-based adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-decision-making-in-humans">Understanding decision-making in humans</h2>



Given that monkey brains are remarkably similar to human brains in structure, the study's findings hold important implications for understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-cells-communicate-to-support-decision-making/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human behavior</a>.



“One key implication of our work is that it could help explain why individuals approach the same situation in different ways. Some people may rely more on trial-and-error, while others prefer a more systematic approach based on prior knowledge,” Minamimoto explained.



“These differences in thinking styles, or 'thought patterns,' might be linked to how each person's brain activates these specific circuits, and understanding these variations could help us develop personalized strategies for improving decision-making and problem-solving skills for those who might struggle with one particular type of thinking.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding the specific roles of brain structures also has significant implications for the study of neuropathologies and psychiatric disorders.



“Our findings could contribute to new treatments for mental and neurological disorders like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocd-disconnect-knowledge-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obsessive-compulsive disorder</a>, where patients have difficulty adapting to changing situations,” said Oyama.



“By targeting the specific brain circuits involved in these two strategies, we may be able to create more effective therapies that help restore balanced thinking.”



Furthermore, the research has potential applications in the fields of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-boosts-creativity-but-reduces-variety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial intelligence</a> and robotics, where insights into brain circuits could inspire the development of more adaptable systems capable of switching between different problem-solving methods depending on the situation.



Although the brain remains one of the most complex puzzles in the known universe, studies like this represent important progress toward a deeper understanding of how it operates, both in humans and other animals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-50505-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Optimal decision-making is a balance of experience and knowledge

In a constantly changing world, animals, including humans, must adapt...

Ants have many fascinating things to teach us. Most recently, scientists discovered that ants employ safeguards such as "social distancing" measures to protect their colonies from diseases.



In a recent paper presented by a group of passionate biologists, they shared their discovery of how black garden ants create and implement this impressive strategy to keep their nests, and consequently their colonies, safe from infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-s-immune-system">Ant's immune system</h2>



Previous research has indicated that certain animals adapt their behavior to cut down the spread of infections. 



For instance, we humans, to prevent an infection from spreading like wildfire, might isolate parts of our homes or establish quarantine zones in hospitals. 



But it appears we're not the only species to alter our surroundings for the sake of health. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/larger-ant-colonies-drove-the-evolution-of-worker-castes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Our tiny friends</a>, the black garden ants, have a similar strategy up their sleeve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ant-tunnels-prevent-spread-of-diseases">Ant tunnels prevent spread of diseases</h2>



The research team, from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, embarked on a field trip to collect black garden ants and created 20 colonies in their lab. Once the ants had a day to get used to their new setting, another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-fill-a-150-year-gap-in-biodiversity-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group of ants</a> was added to their colonies.



Here's the catch -- half of the newly added ants were infected with a fungus. Observations were made through cameras and micro-CT scanners to study the ant's behavior and to analyze the structure of the ant tunnels.



It was interesting to see that ants in the colonies where infected ants were introduced started digging new tunnels more quickly. 



After six days, there was a notable increase in the distance between the tunnels in the infected nests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-disease-survival-strategy">Ants' disease survival strategy</h2>



The ants displayed strategic maneuvering as well. The queen, food, and brooding area were placed in a less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-are-shifting-to-new-habitats-to-cope-with-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">central location</a>. 



Also, the infected ants were seen spending most of their time on the surface of the colony, limiting their interaction with healthy ants.



Why all these changes? Well, they are preventive measures. These ants alter their nests to prevent the spread of the infecting fungus, shielding the colony from the potential threat.



To better understand this intriguing behavior, our Bristol scientists conducted disease transmission simulations. This accelerated the spread of disease in the simulated environment.



They discovered that the ants' techniques helped minimize the fungal load in the colony and significantly improved its chances of survival.



With a practical approach, the ants teach us more about their species and disease prevention methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-humans-can-learn-from-ants">How humans can learn from ants</h2>



The implications of these findings extend beyond the fascinating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-ants-have-dual-roles-as-builders-and-decomposers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world of ants</a> and offer valuable insights for human practices. 



By observing and understanding the strategic behaviors employed by black garden ants, we can draw parallels to enhance our disease prevention strategies. 



The idea of dynamically adjusting environments to limit the spread of diseases could inform future architectural designs or public health policies, focusing on creating adaptable spaces that mitigate infection risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-ant-intelligence">New perspective on ant intelligence</h2>



This research not only enhances our understanding of wildlife's response to disease but also challenges our perceptions of intelligence. 



Historically, intelligence has often been attributed to problem-solving abilities in humans or larger mammals. 



However, the ingenuity displayed by these ants in response to environmental threats suggests a complex understanding and capability within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect kingdom</a>. 



Through their meticulous methods, ants demonstrate a level of collective intelligence that continues to intrigue scientists and challenges us to reconsider the hierarchical view of intelligence in the animal world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relevance-to-humans">Relevance to humans</h2>



How does this impact us as humans?



It's a compelling discovery about the complexity of ant behavior and their survival from diseases. This research could provide a fresh perspective on how we manage the spread of diseases in our societies. 



It may also shed light on the importance of adapting our surroundings to contain the spread of infections.



This exciting development is sure to pave the way for more interesting revelations about the ingenious survival strategies in the animal kingdom. We owe it all to the diligent team at the University of Bristol for this insightful contribution.



So, the next time you spot a colony of ants in your garden, remember, they're not just tiny creatures scurrying around. They are miniature engineers and crafty survivalists, diligently working to ensure the wellbeing of their community.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.08.30.610481v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioRxiv</a>.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Ants use a type of 'social distancing' to prevent spread of diseases

Ants have many fascinating things to teach us. Most recently,...

Experts in South Africa have identified an outbreak of rabies in seals. This marks the first time the virus has been found to spread among marine mammals.



Rabies, which affects land mammals and is capable of human transmission, is known for its near 100% fatality rate post symptoms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rabies-in-seals">Rabies in seals</h2>



Rabies typically spreads via saliva, either through bites or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">simply grooming</a>. The most common hosts have been raccoons, coyotes, foxes, jackals, and domestic dogs. So, it was a shock when this deadly virus was found among Cape fur seals along South Africa's coast.



In the early 1980s, there was an isolated case where a ringed seal in Norway's Svalbard islands was found to have rabies.



But, unlike the recent outbreak in South Africa, there was no evidence of the disease spreading further among those seals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unusual-aggressiveness-in-seals">Unusual aggressiveness in seals</h2>



Dr. Lesley van Helden, a <a href="https://www.westerncape.gov.za/directories/facilities/1084" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">state veterinarian</a>, revealed that at least 24 Cape fur seals were either found dead or had to be euthanized due to rabies.



However, this discovery wouldn't have come to light without the help of a dog that got bitten by a seal on a Cape Town beach, leading to the testing of 135 seal carcasses collected since 2021. With 20 more samples collected and tested, more positives emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-was-rabies-passed-to-seals">How was rabies passed to seals?</h2>



The experts are still scratching their heads, trying to figure out how the rabies was passed to the seals, and if the disease is spreading among their large colonies.



Greg Hofmeyr, a marine biologist, admits that "it's all very, very new" and that they are looking at a lot of unknowns. But where does that leave us?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-the-origin-of-the-outbreak">Uncovering the origin of the outbreak </h2>



Approximately 2 million seals migrate between South Africa, Namibia, and Angola along Africa's coast. Van Helden suspects that the seals might have contracted rabies from jackals in Namibia. 



Interestingly, the genetic makeup of the rabies virus found in the seals showed a close match with the rabies in black-backed jackals in Namibia.



The virus isn't just established in the seals - it's also being transmitted between them through bites. So, the high density of seals, particularly in Cape Town, is alarming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-rabies-in-seals">Controlling rabies in seals</h2>



Seals, who happen to be quite the celebrities in Cape Town harbors, have been excessively aggressive over the last three years and responsible for more attacks on people. 



Although no human cases of rabies have been recorded, the increase in seal attacks prompted city authorities to start a vaccination program for seals.



While the situation is under careful scrutiny by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the long-term transmission dynamics can't be predicted. 



Not to mention, the success of the seal vaccination program is based on a presumption about its effectiveness since it has never been tested. There are also logistical questions about how to vaccinate seals along a coast that spans more than 3,500 kilometers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



Now that rabies has been discovered in Cape fur seals, a comprehensive approach to monitoring and research is needed.



Experts are advocating for increased surveillance within seal populations and cross-border collaborations with Namibia and Angola to understand the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-flu-is-killing-thousands-of-seals-and-sea-lions-globally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">larger geographical impact</a>.



Research efforts are also concentrating on developing diagnostic tools that can rapidly and accurately assess the presence of rabies in marine mammals. 



Scientists hope that adaptive management practices will arise from these studies, contributing to a framework that ensures the safety of both seals and humans alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-occurrence-of-rabies-in-seals">Occurrence of rabies in seals</h2>



While the occurrence of rabies in seals represents uncharted territory, it is a vivid reminder of the complexities of disease ecology at the intersection of wildlife and human environments. 



The movement of rabies into marine mammal populations signals an urgent need for interdisciplinary research and a re-evaluation of existing wildlife disease frameworks. 



The challenge now is for the scientific community to unravel the mysteries of this outbreak and devise strategies to prevent future incidences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-outbreak">Broader implications of the outbreak</h2>



This unprecedented situation highlights the delicate balance of ecosystems and the unforeseen ways in which human actions, environmental changes, and wildlife health are intertwined.



As investigations continue, the hope is for collaborative efforts to yield insights that will preserve the health of both marine ecosystems and our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rabies-infected-vampire-bats-may-extend-their-habitat-into-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communities</a>.



Hofmeyr noted that some other seal species come into contact with Cape fur seals and then travel to other parts of the world, which poses a concern for further spread.



"The chances of that happening are very low, but the implications of that if it does happen are very important," said Hofmeyr.



"The chances of that happening are very low, but the implications of that if it does happen are very important," said seal researcher Hofmeyr.



-----



Like what you read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and Earth.com.



-----

Rabies is spreading among marine animals for the first time

Experts in South Africa have identified an outbreak of rabies...

Skin-secreted adhesives, or glues, are highly effective defense mechanisms that have evolved independently in a small number of amphibians.&nbsp;



From an ecological perspective, this rapidly solidifying material - essentially a sticky slime - hinders predators long enough for the prey to escape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glue-in-the-animal-kingdom-nbsp">Glue in the animal kingdom&nbsp;</h2>



But what makes some skin secretions stickier than others, and why has this trait evolved multiple times throughout amphibian history?



Adhesives, or materials that help stick things together, are ubiquitous. In everyday life, people use sticky notes or reliable rolls of tape. But what about glue in the animal kingdom? How is it used, and how does it work?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-use-of-biological-adhesives-nbsp">The use of biological adhesives&nbsp;</h2>



In the context of glue-producing organisms, the term “biological adhesives” is used. These are naturally secreted materials found in a wide variety of species, with many playing vital roles in the organism’s survival.



The uses of these biological adhesives are as diverse as the animals producing them, including substrate attachment (as seen in sessile marine organisms like mussels, barnacles, and tubeworms), locomotion (such as the movement of starfish across the ocean floor), and prey capture (as demonstrated by spiders’ silk).



The broad taxonomic distribution of adhesive materials across several anciently diverged lineages reflects their immense utility and adaptive value.



Notably, many examples of biological adhesives come from invertebrates. But what about species more familiar to humans, such as tetrapods?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antipredator-adaptation-among-amphibians-nbsp">Antipredator adaptation among amphibians&nbsp;</h2>



Herpetologists often recount stories about encountering frogs that excrete large amounts of slime, which rapidly becomes sticky, much like superglue. Hands stick together, the frog sticks to the hands - a very sticky situation.&nbsp;



Though these stories are often anecdotal, literature on this phenomenon is relatively scarce. However, the lack of research does not make the accounts any less true.



Skin-secreted chemicals are the most widespread form of antipredator adaptation among <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, and in a few species, this mechanism manifests as glue. 



When stressed, the amphibian discharges a viscous fluid from its back that quickly solidifies into a sticky mass, functioning as a powerful defense tool.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deterring-predators-with-glue">Deterring predators with glue</h2>



The glue incapacitates <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conspicuous-frogs-have-big-brains-to-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>, often snakes, by clogging their mouths and preventing them from swallowing the amphibian. The predator eventually abandons its attack due to the high energetic cost of overcoming the glue.



While most biochemical research has focused on toxic skin secretions, such as poisons, the study of glue remains limited. One reason for this gap may be that glue is a rare feature in frogs, evolving sporadically in species that are distantly related on the evolutionary tree.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glue-as-a-defense-mechanism-nbsp">Glue as a defense mechanism&nbsp;</h2>



Frog glue has been discovered in different parts of the world, yet its absence in most species, including close relatives, is notable.&nbsp;



For instance, a glue-producing frog in Madagascar may not share the island with other glue-producing amphibians from different lineages. Instead, similar sticky secretions are found in frogs distributed across regions like Australia or South America.



A recent study, published in <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-49917-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, explored how glue as a defense mechanism evolved in some frogs but not others. This investigation focused on the tomato frog, Dyscophus guineti, which is endemic to Madagascar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-frog-glue-stick">What makes frog glue stick?</h2>



The researchers integrated functional, molecular, and evolutionary analyses to understand what makes frog glue stick. They identified two key proteins that interact within the glue to sustain its adhesive and cohesive strength.&nbsp;



One protein, PRIT (a large glycoprotein), has a glue-specific role and contains copies of an evolutionarily conserved domain found in many extracellular proteins.&nbsp;



The second protein is a smaller, glycan-binding member of the galectin family, which is ubiquitous across many animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structural-flexibility-of-frog-clue">Structural flexibility of frog clue</h2>



The findings align with previous studies highlighting the importance of glycoproteins and glycan-binding proteins in other animal glues, though their interactions and mechanisms of action had remained unresolved until recently.



Structural models showed that while PRIT’s conserved domains are well-defined, the intervening regions are structurally heterogeneous, in contrast to most non-adhesive proteins, which are rigid and well-structured.&nbsp;



This structural flexibility allows frog glue to adapt to different surfaces, such as the oral epithelia of a predator. When pressure is applied - like a predator's bite - the fluid slime quickly transitions into a tough adhesive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-basis-of-frog-clue">Genetic basis of frog clue</h2>



Frog glue shares a similarity with common sticky tape in that both are pressure-sensitive, requiring compressive force to activate their sticking power.



With the glue proteins identified, the study explored the genetic and structural changes that led to the evolution of glue in distantly related frog lineages.&nbsp;



Interestingly, neither PRIT nor galectins are unique to D. guineti, or frogs in general. These proteins are present in all animals, including humans.&nbsp;



However, the architecture of the PRIT gene evolved early in amphibian ancestors, meaning glue genes existed before the glue itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parallel-evolution-of-frog-glue">Parallel evolution of frog glue</h2>



Another glue-producing frog, the Mozambique rain frog (Breviceps mossambicus), also encodes a PRIT gene. Despite diverging around 100 million years ago, both Dyscophus and Breviceps descended from a poisonous ancestor, with their skin secretions evolving independently into glues.



The study also found that shifting gene expression contributed to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-type-of-parallel-evolution-found-in-island-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parallel evolution</a> of frog glue. PRITs and galectins exhibited elevated expression levels in both glue-producing species, suggesting that regulatory changes played a crucial role in the evolution of this adhesive trait.



Unlike other glue-producing animals that evolved unique adhesion methods, these highly diverged frog lineages repeatedly recruited the same pre-existing genes by enhancing their expression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



The research represents the first detailed analysis of a vertebrate defense glue, expanding the understanding of these unique adaptations and paving the way for the development of new adhesive technologies.



The effectiveness of animal slimes as surgical sealants has already been demonstrated using slug defensive glue. Now, with insights into how frog glue functions, there is potential to develop new biological adhesives for medical applications, including rapid-acting surgical sealants.



Frog glue derivatives could one day become as essential in medical practices as sticky tape is in everyday households.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Some frogs secrete ‘glue’ to stop predators in their tracks

Skin-secreted adhesives, or glues, are highly effective defense mechanisms that...

Bumblebees, like humans, are prone to memory errors, sometimes getting confused about details or mixing up features from different events.



In a fascinating study, researchers discovered that our buzzing friends make the same memory conjunction errors as we do, shedding new light on animal cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bumblebee-study">The bumblebee study</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.stir.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Stirling</a> set out to explore the cognitive capabilities of bumblebees, focusing specifically on their memory systems.



In the study, wild bumblebees were presented with a unique task involving brightly colored objects soaked in sucrose, the bees' favorite sweet treat. After interacting with these objects, the bees were then tested with four new objects.



One object was identical to what they had seen before, another combined features from the original objects, one had only a single matching feature, and the last was entirely unfamiliar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-episodic-memory-in-bumblebees">Episodic memory in bumblebees</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eurasian-jays-possess-the-ability-of-mental-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Episodic memory</a>, the ability to recall specific events from the past, is a function often associated with humans and other mammals. 



However, the bumblebees in this study demonstrated a surprising capacity for episodic-like memory. When given the chance to choose, the bees often successfully identified the original object associated with the sucrose. 



Yet, they made <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-form-false-memories-events-similar-human-brains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory errors</a> at times, selecting an object that was a mix of features from different stimuli.



This phenomenon, known as a memory conjunction error, closely mirrors the types of memory mistakes humans make under similar conditions. So, it turns out we have a close competitor in episodic memory, and it happens to be the bumblebee.



"In humans, the recombination processes that are crucial for memory recollection are argued to make memory prone to errors that arise from mistakenly combining elements of stored episodes," said Dr. Gema Martin-Ordas, who led the research.



"In this context, memory conjunction errors are usual forms of memory distortions, and the results presented here show evidence of bees spontaneously making memory conjunction errors."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-memory-system-of-bumblebees">Complex memory system of bumblebees</h2>



The research, conducted during the summer of 2022, involved 50 wild bumblebees. Dr. Martin-Ordas believes that the errors observed in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-create-mental-maps-to-find-their-way-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees’ memory</a> point to the presence of constructive processes in their cognitive system.



This means that bumblebees are not merely storing memories but actively reconstructing and recombining them, which can lead to errors.



"Memory error paradigms, like the one presented here, offer an interesting avenue of research to examine episodic memory from a new approach, since constructive processes can be used to combine and recombine elements of past events to imagine future ones," noted Dr. Martin-Ordas.



The findings suggest that bumblebees may possess a more complex memory system than previously believed, potentially redefining the boundaries of animal cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sophisticated-memory-processes">Sophisticated memory processes</h2>



This study not only illuminates the fascinating world of bumblebee cognition but also opens up broader discussions about the nature of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-trust-our-memories-separating-truth-from-fiction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> itself. 



The fact that bumblebees exhibit such sophisticated memory processes challenges long-held assumptions about animal intelligence. 



As researchers continue to explore this domain, we may find that the mental faculties of the animal kingdom - even in creatures as small as bumblebees - are far more intricate than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-animal-intelligence">Understanding animal intelligence</h2>



The discovery that bumblebees experience memory conjunction errors, similar to humans, raises new questions about the limits of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-monkeys-are-much-smarter-than-we-thought-they-were/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal intelligence</a>. 



Traditionally, episodic memory and constructive cognitive processes have been associated with larger-brained animals like primates, birds, and mammals. 



This research expands the scope of these cognitive abilities to insects, suggesting that complex memory processes might not be exclusive to creatures with larger, more intricate brains.



The findings have profound implications for understanding how animals navigate and interact with their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study">Broader implications of the study </h2>



Bumblebees rely on memory to efficiently forage for nectar and pollen, and their ability to recall past experiences might be crucial for survival. 



The constructive nature of their memory errors suggests that these small insects are capable of flexible, adaptive thinking that allows them to make quick decisions in complex, ever-changing environments.



As we continue to uncover the intricacies of bumblebee memory, this research may inspire further studies into how other insects and smaller creatures process information.



Such revelations could ultimately reshape our understanding of the cognitive abilities present across the animal kingdom, especially in species previously thought to have limited mental faculties.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2023.0405" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Bumblebees make the same memory mistakes as humans

Bumblebees, like humans, are prone to memory errors, sometimes getting...

It's a hard-knock life out there in the wild, where survival is the name of the game. Many prey species, like the eel, have developed a variety of life-saving tactics to escape becoming lunch for hungry predators. However, this time around, we're taking a look at a survival strategy that can only be described as truly awe-inspiring.



A new study has brought something astonishing to light. The evidence, captured in an extraordinary video, reveals the daring escape tactics of juvenile Japanese eels that have been swallowed by predatory fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eels-make-a-daring-escape">Eels make a daring escape </h2>



The fascinating discovery was made possible through the use of X-ray videography, which enabled scientists to visualize the internal goings-on of a predator's stomach. 



Contrary to instinct, the ingested <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-eels-inspire-wearable-tech-with-jelly-batteries/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eels</a> did not panic or admit defeat. They instead orchestrated a cautious, meticulous escape by backing out of the predator's stomach, starting with inserting the tips of their tails through the esophagus and gills, and then executing a swift pull.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="YRoTzhgj4L-3870029-12187" type="single"]</div>



"We have discovered a unique defensive tactic of juvenile Japanese eels using an X-ray video system: they escape from the predator's stomach by moving back up the&nbsp;digestive tract&nbsp;towards the gills after being captured by the&nbsp;predatory fish," said Yuuki Kawabata of <a href="https://www.nagasaki-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagasaki University</a> in Japan. 



"This study is the first to observe the behavioral patterns and escape processes of prey within the digestive tract of predators."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-the-eels-escape">How do the eels escape?</h2>



There's a background to this tale. Earlier, scientists including Kawabata and Yuha Hasegawa had discovered that Japanese eels can escape from the gill of their predator after being captured. What was unclear was how they pulled this off.



"The most surprising moment in this study was when we observed the first footage of eels escaping by going back up the digestive tract toward the gill of the predatory fish," said Kawabata.



"At the beginning of the experiment, we speculated that eels would escape directly from the predator's mouth to the gill. However, contrary to our expectations, witnessing the eels' desperate escape from the predator's stomach to the gills was truly astonishing for us."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-back-through-the-digestive-tract">Back through the digestive tract </h2>



The researchers decided to take a deep dive into the predator's body. They used an innovative X-ray videography tool to provide an inside view of the predatory fish, Odontobutis obscura.



This required injecting the eel with a contrast agent to enable visibility post-ingestion. The team devoted an entire year to capture solid video evidence that would unravel this unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-backyard-bugs-perform-the-fastest-backflips-on-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">escape method</a>.



The recorded videos revealed that of the 32 eels monitored, all had at least part of their bodies swallowed into the predator’s stomachs. All but four of the eels attempted to make a daring exit by retracing their path back through the digestive tract.



Ultimately, 13 of the eels managed to get their tails out through the fish gill. Of these, nine slipped away entirely, freeing themselves from the predator's gills in just about 56 seconds on average.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seeking-an-escape-route">Seeking an escape route</h2>



Intriguingly, further observation revealed that the eels did not always utilize the same escape route. Some of them were seen to circle along the stomach, seemingly exploring other ways out.



The discovery marks a first - demonstrating that the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica, can utilize a specific escape behavior from the stomach and gill of its predator. 



The researchers noted that up until now, no study has uncovered the behavioral patterns and escape routes of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-find-new-ways-to-reproduce-in-response-to-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prey</a> within a predator’s digestive tract.



The innovative X-ray methods applied in the study can now be utilized to delve deeper into predator-prey behaviors. In the future, the team hopes to learn more about the characteristics that contribute to a successful eel escape.



Who knows what other remarkable secrets of the animal kingdom await to be discovered? As always, science continues to surprise and delight us with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reef-sharks-are-abandoning-their-homes-due-to-ocean-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new revelations</a> about the world we live in.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)00926-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Watch eels cleverly escape from a predator's stomach

It's a hard-knock life out there in the wild, where...

Seabirds facing challenges of breed survival, including avian flu, have a more interesting life than we thought. The mighty sea waves aren't the only foes these valiant creatures battle.



Pirate birds of the sky - frigatebirds, skuas, and gulls - constantly ambush these birds, resorting to robbery to satiate their hunger. This odd behavior, called kleptoparasitism, has been a natural part of the avian world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deadly-form-of-avian-flu">Deadly form of avian flu</h2>



The animal kingdom is filled with thrill, but do you ever wonder about the potential downsides of such extreme survival strategies?



As it turns out, being a pirate at sea may be riskier than it seems. More often than not, these pirate birds end up contracting a deadly form of avian flu, which has caused a worldwide stir in recent years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pirate-birds-of-the-sky">Pirate birds of the sky</h2>



Picture this - you're a seabird returning from a tiresome hunt, belly full of food for your young ones. But there's a catch - you must outsmart the ever watchful pirates in the sky, who'd happily snatch your hard-earned feast away.



This is the everyday reality of seabirds. Sure, their tormentors can hunt for their food, but why bother when they can easily steal?



The lives of these seabirds are incredibly vital to the health of marine ecosystems. Seabirds are scattered across all oceans, their guano (droppings) shaping the soil and plant communities on many islands. 



However, a shocking 155 of the world's 362 seabird species are teetering on the edge of extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-faced-by-seabirds">Threats faced by seabirds</h2>



Seabirds live long lives, raising a single chick every one or two years, making recovery from population declines tediously slow.



The threats they face are numerous and grave - from invasive predators and overfishing to climate change and habitat loss. The threat that could be the final nail in the coffin for some species is disease.



According to the research, published in the journal Conservation Letters, the new strain of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avian-flu-is-now-spreading-from-mammal-to-mammal-alarming-health-officials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">avian flu virus</a> is proving to be particularly lethal, killing millions of birds worldwide.



This highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 2.3.4.4b strain is of particular concern, not only due to its swift propagation but also its ability to infect and kill marine mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pirate-birds-and-avian-flu">Pirate birds and avian flu</h2>



The research has shown that pirate birds indulging in food-stealing are at an even higher risk of contracting this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-bird-flu-manage-to-infect-mammal-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deadly flu virus</a>.



The scientists who assisted in this research have painted a grave picture. When a great skua makes a gannet regurgitate its food through harassment, the skua doesn't realize that it's not just the meal it's consuming - it's also swallowing the virus lurking in the gannet's saliva.



Swift and vast in their range, these pirate birds can quickly escalate the spread of the flu virus. The situation might lead to outbreaks in new populations or places that stand a significant distance apart.



Scientists have seen alarming evidence of this behavior, with skuas being some of the first to show H5N1 infections at various new locations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-travels-of-the-frigatebird">Travels of the frigatebird</h2>



Frigatebirds, known for their impressive red pouches, often traverse tens of thousands of kilometers (over 6,200 miles) across oceans. Their journeys, broken up by “island-hopping,” create ample opportunities for them to encounter and potentially infect other seabirds.



Although the virus is now widespread, some parts of the world remain untouched. But for how long? 



We can use infected skuas, frigatebirds, and gulls as early warning systems to alert us when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/raw-milk-may-transmit-bird-flu-virus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virus</a> arrives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-flu-outbreaks-in-seabirds">Controlling flu outbreaks in seabirds</h2>



With the rapid spread of the HPAI virus among seabird populations, urgent actions are necessary to mitigate its impact. 



Conservationists advocate for increased monitoring of seabird colonies, employing satellite tracking to understand the movements of infected birds better and preemptively manage potential hotspots. 



Additionally, conservation agencies are focusing on biosecurity measures that aim to minimize human-induced transmission and limit interactions between domestic poultry and wild birds. 



Public education plays a crucial role, raising awareness about preventing disease spread and protecting both avian and human health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-international-cooperation">Role of international cooperation</h2>



Addressing the avian flu threat requires collaboration across nations, reflecting the global nature of seabird migratory patterns. 



International organizations such as BirdLife International and the United Nations Environment Programme are working together to develop global strategies that align <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cattle-may-become-a-permanent-host-for-bird-flu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a> with disease management. 



Countries are encouraged to share data, research findings, and resources to collectively combat this pervasive threat. 



By promoting cooperation, the international community can enhance its capacity to respond effectively and work towards securing a healthier future for the planet's seabird populations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.13052" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Pirate birds who steal food are spreading a deadly flu strain

Seabirds facing challenges of breed survival, including avian flu, have...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

[sendtonews key="qas3EhyI0Y-2220951-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

[sendtonews key="MHyhtebibJ-2200368-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way