Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

As climate patterns shift and seasons grow less predictable, trees must adapt in ways science is only beginning to understand. Beneath their bark and branches lies a powerful, invisible system: a circadian clock. 



Much like the one that governs human sleep cycles, the tree's biological clock regulates daily and seasonal activities. It tells the tree when to grow, when to bud, and when to conserve energy. 



Now, researchers at <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå University</a> have unlocked more of this inner world. Their recent study shows how genetic changes to this clock can help trees better align with the rhythm of their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-losing-the-battle-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-use-an-inner-clock-to-grow-nbsp">Trees use an inner clock to grow&nbsp;</h2>



Most earlier studies explored plant circadian rhythms under greenhouse conditions. While useful, these environments don’t capture nature’s chaos - temperature swings, shifting daylight, rainfall variation, and insect threats. 



In the wild, trees must handle all these factors while maintaining their growth and seasonal behaviors.



To tackle this, researchers at the Umeå Plant Science Centre studied 68 genetically modified Populus trees under both controlled and natural conditions. Over several years, they examined how alterations to specific clock-related genes influenced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-and-steady-tree-growth-wins-the-race-for-carbon-capture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">growth</a>, leaf senescence, and bud activity.



The team's approach combined advanced statistical modeling with experimental plant biology. Each modified tree had a distinct genetic profile targeting clock components like TOC1, LHY, GI, or EBI1.



The goal was to pinpoint how internal timing shapes external performance. The field experiments added crucial context, allowing the team to track the effects of gene modification under real-world seasonal cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circadian-clock-controls-tree-growth">Circadian clock controls tree growth</h2>



“Our study is the first to combine datasets from greenhouse and field studies to show that multiple aspects of the circadian clock system influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-trees-absorb-much-more-carbon-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> growth and the timing of life-cycle events,” said Bertold Mariën, lead author of the study.



In both greenhouse chambers and open fields, some trees with altered clock genes grew significantly taller or faster. Others delayed leaf senescence or bud set, effectively prolonging the growth period. 



These effects were most pronounced in northern Sweden, where short summers restrict tree development. The researchers observed that the clock doesn’t just set a tree’s internal rhythm - it fine-tunes how trees respond to day-length and environmental signals.



For instance, the lhy-10 and toc1-5 variants displayed faster growth in outdoor conditions, suggesting that their altered clocks helped trees maximize growth within shorter seasons. 



These core clock genes are part of a feedback loop that coordinates when cells divide, when leaves expand, and when energy is stored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-genes-helps-trees-grow-stronger">Changing genes helps trees grow stronger</h2>



“This study is a proof-of-concept that trees conditioned to a particular length of day at a certain latitude can be adapted to a new latitude, effectively extending their growing season," explained study co-author Maria E. Eriksson. 



"This is especially useful at higher latitudes like in Northern Sweden where short growing seasons limit timber production."



Among the most promising findings was the role of EBI1, a gene previously associated with stress resistance in Arabidopsis. Trees with modified EBI1 generally showed faster growth and higher chlorophyll content index (CCI), a sign of delayed leaf aging. 



These trees didn't just grow more - they remained greener for longer. That extended greening can boost photosynthesis and carbon storage.



The study also highlighted how different promoters affected growth. AtGA20ox1 trees, which overproduce gibberellins, grew quickly and developed more biomass. 



Interestingly, some trees increased growth even with a shorter growth period, showing that timing can be more important than duration. The type of genetic promoter used, and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-trees-might-be-misleading-us-about-climate-change-impact/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree’s</a> background genotype, both influenced the outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clockwork-in-leaves-and-roots">Clockwork in leaves and roots</h2>



The research also supported a shift in how we think about tree development. Traditional views focused heavily on carbon source limitation, assuming trees grow more when photosynthesis is high. 



But this study adds weight to an alternative model: growth is also limited by when internal conditions - like water pressure and hormone levels - meet the right thresholds.



The circadian clock seems to act as a gatekeeper, opening and closing growth windows in sync with environmental conditions. For example, the team found that cell division and DNA replication were gated to nighttime, when the risk of DNA damage is lower, and air humidity supports turgor pressure in cells.



Even root clocks may follow different rhythms than leaf clocks, leading to asynchronous growth. Such tissue-specific timing mechanisms further complicate models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-crops-a-path-to-feeding-the-world-and-saving-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> behavior but also offer new opportunities to improve forestry by targeting these internal dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-tree-clocks-for-better-forests">Using tree clocks for better forests</h2>



"In the future, forestry management could be improved by integrating trees’ circadian clocks and their natural growth cycles with traditional practices,” said Eriksson. "In this way, tree growth and resilience could be optimized in a changing world.”



Integrating the clock into forestry could enable smarter planting schedules, more efficient use of resources, and the development of trees suited to rapidly warming regions. But there’s more. These findings may reshape how global vegetation models are built.



“By properly incorporating our findings on the circadian clock into global vegetation models, we can improve predictions of how forests will respond to climate change,” said Mariën.



That’s because many existing models treat trees as passive responders to light and temperature. They don’t account for how internal clocks modulate those responses. Adding this layer of complexity could significantly improve how we predict carbon uptake and forest health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-timing-and-forest-management">Tree timing and forest management</h2>



This work is more than a scientific milestone - it’s a step toward a new kind of forestry. The researchers call it chronosilviculture: aligning forest management with biological timekeeping. 



Instead of forcing trees into rigid planting cycles, foresters could one day select species or cultivars with clock traits tailored to specific climates or latitudes.



By revealing how the circadian clock acts as nature’s master of ceremony, the Umeå team has given foresters and ecologists a powerful new tool. With climate change pushing ecosystems to their limits, understanding how trees grow with their natural rhythm may be the smartest way forward.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44323-025-00034-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Biological Timing and Sleep</a>.



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Timing is everything: How trees use an inner clock for smarter growth

As climate patterns shift and seasons grow less predictable, trees...

Kyoto, Japan, has experienced its share of pandemic challenges for centuries. One such outbreak struck in 869 and left an unforgettable legacy that shaped the city’s future approach to epidemics. 



In response to the deadly plague, Emperor Seiwa established the Gion Festival in an effort to appease the vengeful spirits that were believed to be responsible.



That historical memory reemerged when the beloved Gion Festival was canceled in 2020 during the COVID-19 crisis. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-on-hard-earned-lessons">Building on hard-earned lessons</h2>



Infectious disease clinician and microbiologist Dr. Miki Nagao from <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a> is leading a program that aims to fortify the city against the next big threat.



“We might not be able to stop the next pandemic,” said Dr. Nagao. She and her colleagues have focused on improving detection, analysis, and response plans to minimize the damage a new pandemic might cause.



This effort includes improving local hospital networks and establishing rapid testing systems so emerging pathogens can be tracked and contained swiftly.



Her team emphasizes the importance of a citywide pathogen surveillance network that gathers insights from nursing homes, public health labs, and hospital facilities. These data points create an early-warning system for spotting outbreaks before they cascade into full-blown crises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reinventing-kyoto-s-pandemic-monitoring">Reinventing Kyoto's pandemic monitoring</h2>



A citywide approach has already shown results. One <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/irv.12977" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> reported that a coordinated testing strategy in Kyoto’s aged-care facilities helped limit COVID-19 clusters during significant pandemic waves.



The network’s strength lies in integrating clinical data with large-scale sample analysis. Teams keep an eye on infection patterns, share findings with public health authorities, and adapt interventions quickly when new threats arise.



The initiative includes high-throughput genetic testing to pinpoint specific pathogens. This allows for an efficient response by healthcare workers, who can then target treatments and reduce exposure in vulnerable populations.



Experts also stress the need to understand communitywide behavior. Changes in social interactions, public gatherings, or medical practices all affect how diseases spread, so researchers examine these factors alongside lab data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-silent-pathogen-hazard">A silent pathogen hazard</h2>



The dangers of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) bacteria</a> add urgency to these efforts. An influential report warned that AMR could claim millions of lives worldwide by 2050.



One genetic analysis revealed that a single clade of <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/22/11/16-0519_article">Escherichia coli</a> has driven much of the global spread of this resistance. This insight underscores how a single microbial lineage can become a massive threat.



Dr. Nagao’s team looks at both global trends and local cases. They study bacteria circulating in Kyoto and cross-reference that information with international data to identify worrisome shifts in real time.



In another investigation, the researchers found that particular clones of <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/29/3/22-1060_article" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Streptococcus dysgalactiae </a>carried sets of resistance genes that made these strains harder to treat. This evidence supports the push for more robust diagnostics and localized prevention measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-diagnostics">Scaling up diagnostics</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-death-toll-of-covid-19-pandemic-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COVID-19 pandemic</a> highlighted the risks of relying on limited testing capacity. Dr. Nagao’s group recognized the need for powerful diagnostic devices that can handle large workloads while still delivering quick, accurate results.



An automated system called PCRpack was introduced to speed up tests for high-priority pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2. Its design lowers the need for extra technicians, which helps laboratories keep pace during hectic surges.



Research hospitals in Kyoto have set up these automated devices to run tests around the clock. Managers say it has prevented diagnostic bottlenecks and led to faster turnaround times for patients.



Diagnostic improvements are also vital for what experts call the 100 Days Mission. This global initiative strives to have vaccines, treatments, and reliable tests ready within 100 days of recognizing a new pandemic threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-joining-forces-for-tomorrow">Joining forces for tomorrow</h2>



Dr. Nagao’s team collaborates with medical manufacturers, health economists, and academics from various fields. Each partner contributes specialized knowledge to paint a clearer picture of how infections move through communities.



“From our perspective, both epidemic viral infections and AMR are ‘pandemic pathogens,’” said Dr. Yasufumi Matsumura, an associate professor at Kyoto University. Specialists in immunology, vaccine creation, and bioinformatics share resources, boosting the collective impact of the city’s work.



The Kyoto network runs on real-life data from patient samples, not just abstract models. It offers a clinical angle that bridges basic science and public policy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staying-ahead-of-outbreaks">Staying ahead of outbreaks</h2>



Many research teams focus on either microbiological analysis or social patterns. This project aims to link the two. Such comprehensive data can guide health campaigns, resource allocation, and targeted interventions for potential outbreaks.



To stay prepared, Dr. Nagao and her colleagues keep refining lab methods, strengthening collaborations, and watching for new pathogens around the globe. Their approach offers a blueprint for other regions that want to stay a step ahead of infectious surprises.



“Pathogens are invisible to the naked eye,” said Dr. Nagao. Her team’s greatest satisfaction comes from turning those hidden threats into detailed information that helps protect communities.



The findings are published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d42473-024-00344-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Portfolio</a>.



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Preparing for the next pandemic: Kyoto's early-warning network

Kyoto, Japan, has experienced its share of pandemic challenges for...

Grief is considered a deeply human response to loss. Across cultures, people mourn with rituals, social withdrawal, and emotional upheaval. But are we alone in our experience of grief? A new study by UCL anthropologists suggests animal grief may differ entirely.



The study, published in the journal Biology Letters, examined how rhesus macaque mothers respond to the deaths of their infants. What the researchers found could shift our understanding of animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-emotions-can-be-decoded-through-voice-recognition/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotion</a>.



While many assume that animals grieve similarly to humans, this research provides a more nuanced view. The macaque mothers did not withdraw or show signs of emotional collapse. Instead, they exhibited an unexpected and short-lived burst of activity. 



This pattern, absent of lethargy or appetite loss, may reflect a different process altogether - one that lacks the prolonged sorrow seen in human grief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restlessness-instead-of-withdrawal">Restlessness instead of withdrawal</h2>



The researchers observed 22 female rhesus macaques living on Cayo Santiago, Puerto Rico. Half had recently lost their infants, and the others served as non-bereaved controls. 



Using smartphone software to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>, the team recorded how much time each mother spent resting, grooming, feeding, and engaging in displacement behaviors such as self-scratching or pacing.



In humans, grief often leads to decreased energy and motivation. Lethargy, sleep disturbance, and withdrawal from social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chick-emotions-shed-new-light-on-animal-welfare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a> are common. 



However, the macaque mothers in this study behaved differently. In the two weeks following their infants’ deaths, bereaved females spent significantly less time resting than controls.



“Following the loss of an infant, we had expected the macaque mothers to spend more time resting, as is common among bereaved humans,” said Dr. Alecia Carter, a co-author of the study.



“What we actually observed was the opposite. The bereaved macaque mothers spent less time resting in the first two weeks after an infant’s death and there was no difference of their time spent foraging, grooming, or doing displacement behaviors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-grief-may-involve-agitation">Animal grief may involve agitation </h2>



This surprising pattern led the researchers to rethink their expectations. The idea of a two-phase grief response - protest followed by despair - is well-established in studies on mother-infant separation. 



In primates, both infants and mothers show early signs of agitation when separated, a phase known as protest. Among infants, this is sometimes followed by despair, marked by low activity and reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-emotions-evoke-different-responses-in-dogs-and-pigs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engagement</a>.



In the macaque mothers, only the protest-like phase was observed. There was no evidence of a longer despair stage. “The mothers’ period of restlessness was surprisingly short,” noted Dr. Carter. 



“But this short-term response can also be seen in primate mother-infant separation studies, which show a relatively short period of ‘maternal disturbance’ after separation from their infant.”



Rather than a full grieving process, the macaques may simply experience a short-lived behavioral disruption. This suggests that grief, as understood by humans, may not be a universal feature of mammalian life.



The absence of longer-term emotional change raises a critical question: do non-human primates truly grieve, or do they merely react to disruption?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-clear-signs-of-animal-grief">No clear signs of animal grief</h2>



Emily Johnson, the study’s lead author and a master’s student at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCL</a>, approached the research with a central question in mind. 



“Death is an inevitable part of life and how we respond to death can vary greatly, even among humans,” she said. “We wanted to explore how the behavioural response to death, the experience of grief, differs between primates and humans. Is grief a uniquely human experience?”



The researchers carefully distinguished between bereavement and grief. Bereavement refers to the state of having lost someone. 



Grief, by contrast, is the emotional and behavioral reaction to that loss. In this study, the mothers clearly experienced bereavement. But the evidence for grief, as defined by emotional withdrawal and behavioral changes, was lacking.



“Anthropologists have long questioned whether animals are capable of experiencing grief, and many pet owners will report their beloved cat or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog</a> grieves after the death of a fellow pet,” said Johnson.



“But these are reports from owners who are often themselves grieving. Grief-like behaviour, such as reduced activity, could simply be because they have lost a playmate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bereaved-mothers-rested-less">Bereaved mothers rested less</h2>



The team collected data over 93 days, capturing a total of 2,528 minutes of observation time. Each macaque mother was watched for a median of 158.7 minutes across several sessions.



The infants who died were, on average, just 9 days old. Most bereaved mothers did not carry the corpses of their infants for long. In fact, only two mothers did so, and for less than two days.



There was only one statistically significant difference between the bereaved and control groups: resting time. Bereaved mothers rested less in the first two weeks after their infants’ deaths. 



This effect disappeared in the following weeks. There were no differences in feeding, grooming, or displacement behaviors. The findings suggest that any response to loss among the macaques was immediate and short-term, not prolonged.



This lack of extended change is important. It mirrors findings from studies on baboons and other primates, which often show physiological stress after a loss but no consistent behavioural markers of grief. 



In some cases, primates may even expand their social networks post-bereavement, as seen in chacma baboons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grief-signs-may-be-missed">Grief signs may be missed</h2>



While the study offers compelling results, the authors acknowledge alternative explanations. One is that the sample size - just 11 bereaved mothers - may have been too small to detect subtle patterns. Another is that the age of the infants at death mattered. 



Since all of the infants were very young, mother-infant bonds may not have been fully established. In cattle, for example, stronger grief responses are observed when calves are removed after several days, not immediately after birth.



Individual variation may also play a role. Just as grief in humans can vary widely across individuals and cultures, the same could hold true for non-human primates. Some macaques might grieve in ways not captured by the study’s methods. 



More detailed data, including hormonal and neurological measures, might uncover hidden aspects of grief.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-direction-for-animal-mourning">New direction for animal mourning</h2>



The authors propose a shift in how researchers approach animal grief. Instead of expecting a mirror of human sorrow, scientists might look for evidence of protest-like responses and recognize that not all species - or even individuals - will enter a despair phase.



“Our findings show no behavioural markers of grief in the way humans understand it among the macaque mothers, so we recommend further study in this area and greater data collection on primates’ responses to bereavement,” said Johnson.



By recognizing protest and despair as separate stages with different expressions, future research can develop more accurate models. This framework could help distinguish true grief responses from other stress-related behaviors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-grief-may-be-brief">Animal grief may be brief</h2>



The study does not prove that macaques cannot grieve. It shows that if they do, their grief may look nothing like ours. 



The absence of lethargy or appetite loss challenges our assumptions about shared emotional landscapes between humans and other primates.



Rather than sadness, macaque mothers may respond with brief agitation and then return to normal. That may not mean they feel nothing. But it does mean we must question what grief really looks like across species - and whether our human model applies at all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0484" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Animal grief may look nothing like human sorrow

Grief is considered a deeply human response to loss. Across...

A,Wall,Painted,Scene,With,A,Harpist,And,Other,Musician

Resting for thousands of years beneath northern Oman’s arid soil, some copper cymbals have waited silently. Their metallic edges, once polished by countless hands, remained hidden until archaeologists revealed them in sunlight.



Music has long been a shared language for humanity. Even before modern instruments existed, societies found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upright-walking-may-have-sparked-human-creativity-and-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creative ways</a> to celebrate, mourn, and mark important occasions through sound. 



After studying historical patterns and artifacts, researchers grew curious about how melodies shaped Bronze Age cultures in the Arabian Gulf.



<a href="https://squ.elsevierpure.com/en/persons/khaled-douglas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Khaled Douglas</a> from <a href="https://www.squ.edu.om" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sultan Qaboos University</a> in Oman led a team of researchers that uncovered a special pair of copper cymbals in northern Oman. 



They were carefully stacked one on top of the other, buried beneath layers of plaster and stone in what appears to have been a ritual building. “These copper alloy cymbals are the first of their kind to have been found in good archaeological contexts in Oman and are from a particularly early context that questions some of the assumptions on their origin and development,” said Professor Douglas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bronze-age-oman-s-musical-roots">Bronze Age Oman’s musical roots</h2>



Oman’s <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvcm4ffm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umm an-Nar</a> culture flourished around the third millennium BC. Trade networks connected this region to distant lands, especially the <a href="https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780759101722" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Indus Valley civilization</a>, which thrived in what is now Pakistan and northwestern India.



The presence of copper resources in Oman attracted merchants who carried goods across seas and deserts. Archaeologists suggest these interactions sparked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-has-the-power-to-change-the-mood-of-our-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural</a> exchanges that went well beyond the the trade of goods, silver or spices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-moved-with-ancient-trade">Music moved with ancient trade</h2>



Scholars often focus on the economic reasons behind trading routes, such as the exchange of pottery or beads. A deeper look reveals that intangible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/similar-patterns-music-language-found-across-all-cultures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elements</a> like music also traveled with traders, forging personal connections on top of commercial ties.



“The Early Bronze Age (Umm-an-Nar period) has already shown rich evidence of interregional contact. However, the exact nature of these contacts is still a matter of study and debate,” stated Professor <a href="https://squ.elsevierpure.com/en/persons/nasser-al-jahwari" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nasser Al-Jahwari</a> from <a href="https://www.squ.edu.om/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sultan Qaboos University</a>.



Contact between the Arabian Peninsula and other Bronze Age civilizations supported the spread of customs, beliefs, and creative forms.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cymbals-survived-thousands-of-years">Cymbals survived thousands of years</h2>



Percussive instruments often vanish from the historical record because metal corrodes and wood decays. That is why finding an intact set of cymbals, precisely dated to the Bronze Age, has raised excitement.



In many archaeological sites, only a few stray pieces of metal remain. In this case, the cymbals lay in a context that hinted at ritual or cultural gatherings. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/music_cross-cultural_early-Arabia_cymbals_credit-Al-Rahbi_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/music_cross-cultural_early-Arabia_cymbals_credit-Al-Rahbi_1s.webp" alt="Copper cymbals in situ after removing part of the fill layer. They are on top of each other, perfectly aligned. Credit: Y. Al Rahbi" class="wp-image-1965841"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Copper cymbals in situ after removing part of the fill layer. They are on top of each other, perfectly aligned. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Y. Al Rahbi</figcaption></figure>



Researchers suspect these instruments could have been struck in ceremonies that united people from different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-humans-used-conch-shell-sounds-to-organize-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">backgrounds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-significance-of-music">Social significance of music</h2>



For ancient communities, music was more than art. It likely supported communal dancing and unified groups from diverse origins, especially in thriving trade hubs. 



Omani sites show a lively mix of pottery styles and architectural features, suggesting that people mingled, intermarried, and shared festivities.



“Discovery of the Dahwa cymbals encourages the view that already during the late third millennium BC, music, chanting and communal dancing set the tone for mediating contact between various communities in this region for the millennia to follow,” concluded the study's authors at the end of their analysis.



The discovery of these cymbals indicates that musical activities might have played a powerful role in shaping local identities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-music-across-the-desert-and-sea">Music across the desert and sea</h2>



The cymbals found at Dahwa add to growing evidence that sound-based rituals played a vital role in community identity across south-east Arabia, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley. 



Their design resembles examples unearthed at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, suggesting that certain instrument shapes and functions were widely recognized and possibly shared between regions that were separated by hundreds of miles.



Rather than being isolated traditions, these instruments point to an early, shared musical culture that crossed boundaries. 



The discovery supports the idea that songs, rhythms, and instruments helped ease interactions between groups that traded, worshipped, and likely celebrated together - making music a practical tool for diplomacy, not just expression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cymbals-show-music-s-long-legacy">Cymbals show music’s long legacy</h2>



Artifacts such as cymbals serve as silent witnesses to past customs. They reveal how people forged connections beyond mere commerce and remind us that art and ritual often transcend language.



Ancient travelers crossing seas might have carried beliefs, instruments, and songs. Those intangible elements likely established common ground among groups who spoke different tongues and wore different clothes.



The copper cymbals from Oman speak volumes about ancient societies. They show that music can bring people together across distances, reinforcing trade partnerships and enriching local celebrations.



The study was published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity/article/bronze-age-cymbals-from-dahwa-indus-musical-traditions-in-oman/E220CA775BD582724D0826C1E9FA4D6E" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antiquity</a>.



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Discovery of ancient cymbals suggests that music connected Arabian cultures

Resting for thousands of years beneath northern Oman’s arid soil,...

The deep sea is Earth’s largest habitat, yet remains one of its least explored. In this silent, dark realm, marine animals live in isolation, beyond the reach of most research tools.



Among the many elusive creatures in these waters, squids and octopuses - collectively known as cephalopods - stand out for their intelligence, agility, and ecological importance. 



Studying them has always posed a major challenge since traditional tools fail in these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dolphin-day-2025-honoring-the-oceans-most-playful-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lightless depths</a> where cephalopods roam, hunt, and can vanish without a trace.



Recent research led by marine ecologist WU Qianqian at <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> may change that. Using cutting-edge molecular tools, her team has developed a new way to detect cephalopods from the faintest traces of their DNA left behind in seawater.



This approach promises to transform how scientists explore life in the deep sea, offering a clearer picture of its biodiversity and the role of these animals in marine ecosystems in general.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-players-in-the-ocean-s-web">Key players in the ocean’s web</h2>



Cephalopods are more than just fascinating creatures - they are essential links in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biologging-animals-are-recording-human-impact-on-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> food web. “Cephalopods play an important role in marine ecosystems, contributing to the distribution of energy and nutrients in the food web,” noted WU Qianqian.



Cephalopods serve both as hunters and as prey. While young, they are eaten by fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. As adults, they prey on crustaceans, fish, and sometimes even other cephalopods. 



Their mobility allows cephalopods to connect distant ecosystems, swimming from shallow coastal waters to the ocean’s depths.



Despite their importance, most cephalopods remain poorly understood. Many live in the deep sea, where light barely penetrates and traditional survey methods such as net captures fail. 



These animals can evade traps, change color, and squeeze into impossible spaces. Researchers needed a better way to find and study them without disturbing their world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-marine-animals-using-dna">Tracking marine animals using DNA</h2>



Environmental DNA, or eDNA, refers to genetic material that organisms release into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-animals-swim-at-the-perfect-depth-to-save-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surroundings</a> through skin, waste, mucus, or decaying tissue.



By collecting water samples and analyzing the DNA they contain, scientists can infer what species are present - even if the animals themselves remain unseen.



In their new study, Wu’s team designed universal primers targeting mitochondrial 16S rRNA genes - genetic regions that are useful for identifying species.



These primers, named Cep16S_D and Cep16S_O, were created specifically to detect squids (Decapodiformes) and octopuses (Octopodiformes). 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dna-metabarcoding_ocean_fishing-for-cephalopods_illustration_credit-Wu-Qianqian_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dna-metabarcoding_ocean_fishing-for-cephalopods_illustration_credit-Wu-Qianqian_1s.webp" alt="In the technique known as &quot;environmental DNA metabarcoding,&quot; probes are designed to target specific DNA fragments, similar to how anglers use specific bait to catch a particular species. The challenge is creating probes that are specific enough to just the group one tries to detect, but also general enough to catch anything within that group. Credit: Wu Qianqian" class="wp-image-1965833"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In the technique known as "environmental DNA metabarcoding," probes are designed to target specific DNA fragments, similar to how anglers use specific bait to catch a particular species. The challenge is creating probes that are specific enough to just the group one tries to detect, but also general enough to catch anything within that group. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Wu Qianqian</figcaption></figure>



They allow researchers to perform eDNA metabarcoding, a technique that amplifies and reads many species’ DNA from a single sample.



“For this, our lab, which is renowned for its environmental DNA research, worked together with researchers from the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.jamstec.go.jp/e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMSTEC</a>) who have developed a system for collecting large amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea</a> samples,” said Wu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detecting-cephalopods-of-all-sizes">Detecting cephalopods of all sizes </h2>



Creating these primers was no simple task. Wu’s team had to balance specificity and breadth. 



The primers needed to detect all cephalopods while avoiding unrelated organisms. They also needed to perform reliably in both lab settings and the complex chemical environment of deep-sea water.



In tests, the primers showed high sensitivity and could identify species from a wide range of sizes. From small species like Heteroteuthis dagamensis to giants like the elusive Architeuthis dux, the primers succeeded across various water depths. 



This success marks a major step forward, especially because earlier primers often failed to detect certain taxa or produced results that lacked resolution.



A key factor in the team's success was the use of longer DNA segments. While longer fragments usually degrade faster, the cold conditions of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-like-marine-life-found-on-underwater-mountains-includes-100-new-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep sea</a> slow this process. Longer DNA pieces provide better taxonomic resolution, which means scientists can identify species more precisely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uncovering-hidden-biodiversity">Uncovering hidden biodiversity </h2>



The research reveals the technique’s strength in field applications. Wu and her colleagues analyzed samples collected from near the ocean surface all the way down to 2,000 meters.



The new primers helped detect cephalopod species that had not previously been identified in Japanese waters. This shows that the method can uncover hidden biodiversity and correct gaps in our knowledge of regional marine life.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dna-metabarcoding_ocean_machine_fishing-cephalopods_credit-Kobe-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/dna-metabarcoding_ocean_machine_fishing-cephalopods_credit-Kobe-University_1s.webp" alt="&quot;For this research, our lab, which is renowned for its environmental DNA research, worked together with researchers from the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) who have developed a system for collecting large amounts of deep-sea samples,&quot; says Kobe University marine ecologist Wu Qianqian. Credit: Wu Qianqian" class="wp-image-1965835"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">"For this research, our lab, which is renowned for its environmental DNA research, worked together with researchers from the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC) who have developed a system for collecting large amounts of deep-sea samples," says Kobe University marine ecologist Wu Qianqian. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Wu Qianqian</figcaption></figure>



One surprising pattern emerged: octopus DNA was found only in the deepest samples. From mock community tests, the researchers confirmed that the primers themselves worked correctly. 



That suggested the result wasn’t an error, but a clue about octopus behavior. These animals are ground-dwelling and solitary, making them less likely to leave traces in midwater or shallow areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-reveals-marine-animal-behavior">DNA reveals marine animal behavior </h2>



The ability to detect marine animals through DNA is only one benefit of this approach. Wu believes it can also reveal how cephalopods live.



“In future studies, we need to nevertheless revise our sampling strategy to account for life history and behavioral patterns of different cephalopods,” she said.



Environmental DNA can indirectly reflect how species move and interact with their habitat. Since octopuses tend to avoid open water, their limited DNA traces in shallow samples suggest a mostly benthic, hidden lifestyle. 



Squids, in contrast, are more likely to roam and leave detectable trails.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-foundation-for-future-ocean-research">A foundation for future ocean research</h2>



Even with strong primers and high-quality data, one challenge remains: the reference databases. Species misidentification can occur when available DNA sequences are incorrect or incomplete. 



“We need to resolve issues with misidentification of species due to errors in the DNA databases, and for this we intend to strengthen the collaboration between molecular biologists and taxonomists,” Wu said.



She noted that this technique has far-reaching impact. “Nevertheless, our technique is expected to open new possibilities for deep-sea cephalopod research and to serve as a foundation for marine life conservation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-for-marine-animal-detection">Tools for marine animal detection</h2>



By combining eDNA metabarcoding with precise primer design, Wu and her colleagues have created a sensitive, non-invasive method for tracking cephalopods. 



Their work lays the groundwork for future studies into marine biodiversity, population shifts, and ecosystem health.



In a world where human impact on the ocean grows every year, these DNA tools are vital for detection of marine animals. 



They help scientists listen to the quiet signals of life below, and to map the rhythms of creatures we’ve barely begun to understand.



-----



This project involved collaboration between scientists at Kobe University, <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>, the <a href="https://omnh.jp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka Museum of Natural History</a>, the <a href="https://www.chiba-muse.or.jp/NATURAL/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Natural History Museum and Institute</a> in Chiba, JAMSTEC, and the <a href="https://churashima.okinawa/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okinawa Churashima Foundation</a>.



Funding came from Japan’s <a href="https://www.env.go.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ministry of Environment</a>, including support for deep-sea research cruises as part of a marine protected area monitoring project.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0141113625001515?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Environmental Research</a>.



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'DNA fishing' helps scientists survey marine life in the deep ocean

The deep sea is Earth’s largest habitat, yet remains one...

Stone,Houses,In,The,Countryside,Of,Lebanon

Today, we live in a world where the gap between rich and poor seems to grow wider every year. But while economic inequality feels like a defining feature of modern life, a sweeping new archaeological study suggests it hasn't always been this way - and more importantly, it doesn't have to be.



Researchers who analyzed more than 50,000 ancient homes across six continents found that wealth inequality, while widespread throughout history, is not a guaranteed outcome of human development.



The study used house size as a proxy for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/income-inequality-and-carbon-emissions-have-a-complicated-relationship/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wealth</a> and compared the distribution of house sizes at over 1,000 archaeological sites, stretching back 10,000 years. 



What the researchers uncovered offers a fresh and much more nuanced perspective on how inequality has ebbed and flowed through human history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-into-the-past">Digging into the past</h2>



Study lead author Gary Feinman is a curator of Mesoamerican, Central American, and East Asian Anthropology at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Field Museum</a> in Chicago.



“This paper is part of a larger study in which over 50,000 houses have been analyzed to use differentials in house sizes as a metric for wealth inequality over time, on six continents,” said Feinman.



“This is an unprecedented data set in archaeology, and it allows us to empirically and systematically look at patterns of inequality over time.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tool-to-assess-wealth-inequality">Tool to assess wealth inequality </h2>



The team used the size of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-buildings-used-passive-cooling-methods-to-reduce-heat-with-out-air-conditioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient homes</a> as a consistent and measurable indicator of wealth. This allowed them to calculate Gini coefficients - a standard economic tool for assessing inequality, where 0 represents perfect equality and 1 represents maximum inequality - for over 1,000 ancient communities.



These coefficients were then compared across time, geography, population size, and types of political organization. The results defy the long-held assumption that inequality steadily grows as societies become more complex or as their populations increase. 



“While there is not one unilinear sequence of change in wealth inequality over time, there are interpretable patterns and trends that cross-cut time and space. What we see is not just noise or chaos,” Feinman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-myth-of-economic-inequality">The myth of economic inequality</h2>



For centuries, historians and economists have assumed that the rise of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-and-agriculture-are-locked-in-a-destructive-feedback-loop/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agriculture</a>, the development of formal leadership, or the emergence of large population centers would naturally lead to greater inequality. 



Ancient Greece and Rome, or medieval Europe, have often been treated as stand-ins for the human past as a whole. But this study throws that assumption into question.



“There are a lot of things that have been presumed for centuries - for example, that inequality rises inevitably,” Feinman explained. 



"The traditional thinking expects that once you get larger societies with formal leaders, or once you have farming, inequality is going to go way up. These ideas have been held for hundreds of years, and what we find is that it’s more complicated than that.”



High levels of economic inequality, the researchers argue, are not a built-in feature of civilization. They are outcomes that depend on decisions people make, systems of governance they build, and social structures they maintain or resist.



“There are factors that may make it easier to happen or increase to high degrees but these factors can be leveled off or modified by different human decisions and institutions,” Feinman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-house-size-clues-to-ancient-wealth">House size: Clues to ancient wealth</h2>



You might wonder how the size of ancient homes can reveal so much about wealth. Archaeologists have long known that bigger homes are often linked to more elaborate construction, sturdier materials, and special architectural features - all signs of greater resources and social standing.



“Variability in the sizes of houses may not be the full extent of wealth differences, but it's a consistent indicator of the degree of economic inequality that can be applied across time and space,” Feinman said.



“I know from my own archaeological fieldwork in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, that almost always, the larger the house, the more elaborate the house, with special features and thicker walls.”



By comparing house sizes across such a massive sample, the team could track inequality at different stages of societal development. Some communities showed steep differences in wealth. Others, even large or politically complex ones, had surprisingly low levels of inequality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-s-about-structure-not-population-size">It’s about structure, not population size</h2>



One of the most important takeaways from the study is that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-population-decline-predicted-what-earth-will-be-like-with-less-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population size</a> or technological advancement alone doesn’t determine how unequal a society will be. Instead, the research highlights the role of governance, cooperation, and social norms.



“The measure of inequality we found in these sites is quite variable, which suggests that there’s not one homogenized pattern,” Feinman explained. “In other words, contrary to traditional scholarly thinking, there’s no one-size-fits-all explanation for why societies become economically unequal.”



At some points in history, communities developed systems that helped mute or manage inequality. In other places, those leveling mechanisms may have broken down or never developed. 



What made the difference, according to the researchers, were decisions made by people - through cooperation, leadership, and collective choices about how to structure society. 



“Human choice and governance and cooperation have played a role in damping down inequality at certain times and places. And that is what accounts for this variability in time and space,” Feinman noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-the-past-and-the-future">Rethinking the past and the future</h2>



This study doesn't just reshape how we think about the past - it also has implications for how we view the present. 



As debates about rising wealth gaps, housing crises, and the concentration of economic power continue around the world, this archaeological perspective offers a valuable counterpoint to fatalism.



“If inequality isn't inevitable when human aggregations get larger and governmental structures get more hierarchical, then there is a suite of implications for how we view the present and how we look at the past,” Feinman said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inequality-is-not-inevitable">Inequality is not inevitable </h2>



Yes, there are moments in history when population booms or new technologies created the conditions for inequality to rise. But that rise wasn’t automatic. People had options. And they still do.



“The often-expressed views that certain economic, demographic, or technological conditions or factors make great wealth disparities inevitable simply are not borne out by our global past,” Feinman argued. 



In other words, history shows us that inequality can be shaped, resisted, or redirected - depending on how we choose to govern, collaborate, and structure our societies.



As we grapple with inequality today, the homes of the past may serve as a quiet but powerful reminder: our present isn’t predetermined. The architecture of a more equitable future is, in part, ours to design.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2400698121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Wealth inequality began shaping human societies 10,000 years ago

Today, we live in a world where the gap between...

Fire was a lifeline for humans during the Ice Age. It cooked their food, lit up their nights, kept them warm, and helped them shape tools. But oddly enough, archaeologists have long struggled to find clear evidence of fire use during the coldest phase of the Ice Age in Europe.



However, new research led by the <a href="https://www.ualg.pt/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Algarve</a> and the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> is helping to fill that gap. It reveals how Homo sapiens used fire during the Ice Age’s coldest period, between 26,500 and 19,000 years ago.



Using a combination of advanced techniques, the researchers were able to reconstruct what ancient fireplaces looked like, what they burned, and how fire helped <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early humans</a> survive some of the harshest climates our species has ever faced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-essential-tool-for-survival">Essential tool for survival</h2>



For decades, researchers agreed fire was indispensable for Ice Age communities. It wasn’t just a way to stay warm - it was central to daily life. 



“Fire was not just about keeping warm; it was also essential for cooking, making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tools</a>, and for social gatherings,” said Philip R. Nigst, an archaeologist at the University of Vienna and a lead author of the study.



But if fire was so critical, why is there so little physical evidence of it from this period? According to the research team, that puzzle is exactly what makes their recent discovery so exciting.



“We know that fire was widespread before and after this period, but there is little evidence from the height of the Ice Age,” said William Murphree, co-lead author of the study and geoarchaeologist at the University of Algarve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-into-ice-age-hearths">Digging into Ice Age hearths</h2>



The team focused their analysis on three hearths found at a prehistoric site in Ukraine. These weren’t massive fire pits but rather simple, flat constructions, easily overlooked without the right tools and techniques. 



They used microstratigraphic analysis, micromorphology, and colorimetric analysis to study soil layers, structure, and burn-related color changes. These methods confirmed the hearths were human-made.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fire_early-humans_ice-age_pyrotechnology_credit-Philip-Nigst_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fire_early-humans_ice-age_pyrotechnology_credit-Philip-Nigst_1s.webp" alt="Section through the large fireplace 1. Credit: Philip R. Nigst" class="wp-image-1965812"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Section through the large fireplace 1. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Philip R. Nigst</figcaption></figure>



Even more compelling, the fires built in these hearths reached temperatures over 600°C. That’s no accident. 



It indicates a controlled, deliberate use of fire, even in a landscape where cold, snow, and limited resources might have made ignition and fuel supply extremely difficult.



“People perfectly controlled the fire and knew how to use it in different ways, depending on the purpose of the fire,” Nigst explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fueling-the-flames">Fueling the flames</h2>



So what exactly were these fires made from? The researchers found that spruce wood was likely the primary fuel, based on their charcoal analysis. 



However, the story doesn’t end there. Researchers found animal bones at the site that had been charred by fire at temperatures exceeding 650°C. 



This raises the possibility that people also burned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-bones-biomimicry-could-inspire-better-aircraft-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bones</a> or animal fat - either deliberately or as a byproduct of cooking or waste disposal.



“Some of the animal bones found at the site were burnt in a fire with a temperature of over 650° Celsius. We are currently investigating whether they were used as fuel or just accidentally burned,” said Marjolein D. Bosch, a zooarchaeologist from the University of Vienna and co-author of the study.



If Ice Age humans really were using bones and fat as alternative fuels, it would suggest a high level of adaptability. 



In environments where dry wood may have been scarce - especially in open tundra landscapes - people may have turned to whatever flammable materials were available.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seasonal-life-around-the-hearth">Seasonal life around the hearth</h2>



All three hearths were open and flat, without the stone enclosures that might characterize later or more permanent fire pits. Still, not all were built the same. 



One of the hearths was larger and had a thicker deposit, implying it burned hotter and probably longer. This variation offers clues about how people used the fires and when they built them.



The research suggests that Ice Age people returned to this site at different times of the year, possibly during their seasonal migrations. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fire_early-humans_ice-age_pyrotechnology_large-fireplace_credit-Philip-Nigst_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/fire_early-humans_ice-age_pyrotechnology_large-fireplace_credit-Philip-Nigst_1s.webp" alt="The large fireplace 1 during the excavation. Credit: Philip R. Nigst" class="wp-image-1965814"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The large fireplace 1 during the excavation. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Philip R. Nigst</figcaption></figure>



Depending on the weather and the resources they had, they may have altered the size, intensity, or purpose of their fires.



That kind of flexibility shows a deep understanding of fire’s many uses - not just for warmth, but as a tool that could be adapted to different contexts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-so-few-fires-from-the-ice-age-remain">Why so few fires from the Ice Age remain</h2>



Despite the careful work done at the Ukrainian site, the overall lack of hearths from this time period still leaves questions unanswered. 



“Was most of the evidence destroyed by the ice-age-typical, alternating freezing and thawing of the soil?” Murphree asked.



That kind of freeze-thaw action can easily disturb or erase delicate archaeological layers, making it hard to identify hearths or other features in the ground.



Another possibility is that humans had to innovate new ways to stay warm when fire wasn’t possible. “Did people not find enough fuel during the Last Glacial Maximum? Did they not use fire, but instead relied on other technological solutions?” Nigst added. 



While speculative, these questions invite further exploration into how Ice Age humans adapted to life in brutal environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



What this study makes clear is that even in the harshest conditions, Ice Age communities were far from rudimentary. 



They were skilled pyrotechnicians who knew how to manage fire under difficult circumstances. They adapted their fire use to different seasons, likely understood the properties of various fuel types, and were capable of producing high, consistent temperatures.



The team continues their work, and future analysis may uncover more about how people managed fire during the Ice Age. 



But for now, the research adds a crucial piece to the puzzle of human evolution - highlighting fire not just as a tool for survival, but as a symbol of human ingenuity and resilience.



By unearthing and studying these humble hearths, the researchers are doing more than filling in historical blanks. They’re showing us that our ancestors, thousands of years ago, were already shaping fire to meet the demands of life in one of Earth’s most challenging climates.



In doing so, they laid the groundwork for humanity’s ability to adapt, innovate, and thrive - an ability that continues to define us today.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/gea.70006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geoarchaeology</a>.



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Early humans were much better at using fire than we thought

Fire was a lifeline for humans during the Ice Age....

What happens when a mouse watches The Matrix? Apparently, science advances. A recent project used that very setup to produce the most detailed functional brain map ever created. 



It captures 84,000 neurons and their 500 million synapses in vivid, 3D <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-our-brains-build-mental-maps-of-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">detail</a>. The resulting data opens a new chapter in neuroscience, and hints at how thoughts and perceptions arise from a tangled mess of neural wiring.



This isn’t just a technical marvel. It’s a window into the brain’s hidden world, one that may eventually explain how we think, remember, or lose ourselves to disease. 



From gene engineering to artificial intelligence, the research combined many tools - but its essence lies in one simple curiosity: how do brain cells connect to form what we experience?



"It definitely inspires a sense of awe, just like looking at pictures of the galaxies," said Forrest Collman of the <a href="https://alleninstitute.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Allen Institute</a>, one of the project's leading researchers. "You get a sense of how complicated you are …"



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-mouse-mind">Inside the mouse mind</h2>



The <a href="https://www.nature.com/immersive/d42859-025-00001-w/index.html">experiment</a> began with entertainment. Scientists played a variety of video clips to a mouse - snippets of sci-fi, nature scenes, animations, and sports.



The mouse had been genetically engineered to make its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fueling-the-mind-new-map-reveals-where-the-brain-gets-its-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> glow when active. A laser-powered microscope captured the resulting activity in the brain’s visual cortex.



The <a href="https://www.bcm.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor College of Medicine</a> team recorded how individual brain cells lit up as the mouse viewed the world on screen. 



Every flicker of light marked a neuron in action, communicating through a vast, living network. This activity was concentrated in a tiny brain section, about the size of a poppy seed.



From that glowing tissue, the Allen Institute took over. They shaved the brain sample into more than 25,000 slices, each one thinner than a human hair. Using electron microscopes, they captured almost 100 million images. 



These pictures revealed the fibers - axons and dendrites - connecting the neurons like spaghetti in a bowl.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-slices-turned-into-colorful-3d-map">Brain slices turned into colorful 3D map</h2>



The real magic began with analysis. Scientists used powerful software and artificial intelligence to stitch the images back together. 



This digital reconstruction recreated the tangled circuits in 3D. Each neural fiber was given a different color, letting researchers distinguish one from another with clarity.



"You can make a thousand hypotheses about how brain cells might do their job but you can't test those hypotheses unless you know perhaps the most fundamental thing - how are those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-specialized-regions-develop-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a> wired together," said Clay Reid, one of the project’s pioneers.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mouse-brain-map_small-section-neurons_brain-wiring_credit-Allen-Institute_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/mouse-brain-map_small-section-neurons_brain-wiring_credit-Allen-Institute_1s.webp" alt="This image provided by the Allen Institute shows a digital representation of neurons in a section of a mouse's brain, part of a project to create the largest map to date of brain wiring and function, in Seattle, Wash. Credit: Forrest Collman/Allen Institute" class="wp-image-1965641"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This image provided by the Allen Institute shows a digital representation of neurons in a section of a mouse's brain, part of a project to create the largest map to date of brain wiring and function, in Seattle, Wash. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Forrest Collman/Allen Institute</figcaption></figure>



The colored map wasn’t just for show. It allowed researchers to track which neurons connected to which - and how signals might travel through the maze. 



Even more impressively they matched those connections to the activity recorded earlier, while the mouse was watching movies.



This link between structure and function has rarely been achieved at such scale. If laid end to end, the neuron wiring in the tiny sample would stretch over 5 kilometers (3 miles).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-brain-map-may-explain-disorders">New brain map may explain disorders</h2>



This kind of detailed mapping holds promise beyond pure curiosity. Understanding brain circuitry could lead to new insights into neurological diseases. Disorders like Alzheimer’s and autism might result from wiring problems - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mental-maps-help-the-brain-remember-places-and-paths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">connections</a> that form incorrectly or not at all.



That’s where the new dataset becomes powerful. It allows scientists to explore healthy brain wiring in full detail. Future comparisons with diseased tissue might reveal subtle patterns that are responsible for serious brain malfunctions.



"The technologies developed by this project will give us our first chance to really identify some kind of abnormal pattern of connectivity that gives rise to a disorder," said Sebastian Seung, a lead researcher from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton</a>.



The researchers stress that this is just the beginning. Their current map represents a small part of the mouse brain. Mapping an entire mouse brain will take more time, effort, and technology. But the foundation is now in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-shared-brain-map-for-all">A shared brain map for all</h2>



The team didn’t just build a brain map - they made it public. The full 3D reconstruction is now available for scientists around the world to explore. Curious minds can also dive in, even if they aren’t neuroscientists.



"The beauty and complexity that you can see in these actual neurons and the hundreds of millions of connections between them" make it a work of both science and art, said Collman.



Researchers at Princeton created digital tools to navigate the data. Anyone can use these tools to trace circuits, identify neurons, or design their own experiments. This kind of sharing echoes the spirit of the Human Genome Project, which helped launch gene-based medicine after decoding our DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead">The road ahead</h2>



The comparison to the Human Genome Project is not casual. Neuroscientists believe this work will have a similar impact. Mapping the brain at this level can change how we approach mental health, cognition, and learning.



Harvard researchers Mariela Petkova and Gregor Schuhknecht, who were not involved in the study, offered strong praise.



The work "marks a major leap forwards and offers an invaluable community resource for future discoveries," they wrote. The shared data "will help to unravel the complex neural networks underlying cognition and behavior."



In this new map, scientists see more than lines and colors. They see a future where understanding the brain’s wiring may unlock the mind itself. One mouse, a movie, and millions of synapses - together, they’ve brought us one step closer.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08790-w">Nature</a>.



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Huge advance in brain research that was supposed to be 'impossible'

What happens when a mouse watches The Matrix? Apparently, science...

At any single moment on Earth, billions of animals are on the move. Birds cross continents, marine mammals traverse vast oceans, insects pollinate fields and orchards, and mammals - from foxes to hedgehogs - navigate their way through forests, grasslands, and even city gardens.



These movements are not random; they are vital threads, in the fabric of ecosystems, that support biodiversity, regulate natural cycles, and ultimately sustain life on Earth. 



In line with this, understanding why animals move, how they choose their paths, and where they go has never been more important.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-movement-in-a-changing-world">Animal movement in a changing world</h2>



New research from researchers at <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>, in collaboration with CNRS Montpellier and University College Dublin, offers a fresh perspective about animal movement in the face of global change. 



Rather than simply tracking where animals go, this work explores how to predict where they will go next as the planet rapidly transforms due to human activity.



From climate shifts and habitat loss to pollution and urban sprawl, the conditions that animals face are evolving fast. Models and methods need to adapt just as quickly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-animals-gps-to-big-data">Tracking animals: GPS to big data</h2>



The study of animal movement has come a long way. With technologies such as GPS collars, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-tag-allows-long-term-tracking-of-whale-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite tags</a>, radar, and even Fitbit-style sensors, scientists are now able to collect vast amounts of data on animal behavior. 



These tools allow researchers to track everything from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-succession-animal-herbivore-mass-migration-serengeti/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> paths to daily commutes across a landscape. Each year, billions of data points pour in and are analyzed using cutting-edge mathematics and statistics.



But most of this work has focused on the present. Scientists have used these tools to describe patterns, not to forecast them. 



And in a world where environments are changing faster than ever due to climate shifts, habitat loss, and human expansion, that kind of short-term thinking may be inadequate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activity-shapes-animal-paths">Human activity shapes animal paths</h2>



This new study lays out a roadmap for predicting animal movement in unpredictable times. The team reviewed how a wide range of human-driven changes - including ocean warming, deforestation, invasive species, light pollution, and oil spills - are shaping where and how animals move.



“To predict where animals will move in rapidly changing environments, we cannot rely on correlative approaches,” said Sara Gomez of CNRS Montpellier. 



“We must incorporate biological mechanisms into our models, starting from first principles of animal movements and decision making, and develop models adequate for dynamical systems.”



The authors also argue that we need to study more species - and not just in pristine natural spaces. Movements in human-dominated environments are often overlooked, yet they may hold the key to understanding how animals adapt to novel challenges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-wildlife-management">Improving wildlife management</h2>



Dr. Holly English of University College Dublin emphasized that this is not just about improving scientific models. These predictions could shape how we manage wildlife and design <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-success-stories-offer-hope-for-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a> strategies in future.



"We discuss the challenges and opportunities of including these predictions into more effective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-2025-a-global-call-to-protect-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> management and policy," said Dr. English. 



"We give examples of conservation schemes, such as rewilding and translocations, which offer exciting, but vastly unused, opportunities to collect data from novel environments and test our model predictions.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictive-science-is-needed">Predictive science is needed</h2>



The study's lead researcher, Professor Luca Börger from Swansea University, believes the field is on the edge of a major shift. “Animal movements fundamentally affect ecosystem processes,” he said.



“Current research in the field, however, fails to address one of the most pressing problems we are facing: predicting where and when animals will move in rapidly changing or 'novel' environments.”



“We believe we are at an exciting point now where we can achieve such a crucial transformation in our field, from a descriptive to a predictive science, which is much needed under current rapid global change,” said Professor Börger.



As the world changes, so must the science we use to understand it. This study is a call to think ahead - to build models that don’t just explain the past, but help us prepare for what comes next.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2656.70040" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.



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Animal movement predictions matter more than ever

At any single moment on Earth, billions of animals are...

A good night’s sleep is often defined by how many hours you spend in bed, yet new research shows there’s much more to the story when it comes to sleep health.



According to a review article led by the <a href="https://www.heart.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Heart Association</a>, multiple elements of sleep - from when you doze off to how refreshed you feel in the morning - can each affect your heart and metabolic health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-vs-quantity-sleep-is-multifaceted">Quality vs. quantity: Sleep is multifaceted</h2>



Study lead author Marie-Pierre St-Onge is the director of the <a href="https://www.vagelos.columbia.edu/departments-centers/centers-and-institutes/center-excellence-sleep-circadian-research" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center of Excellence for Sleep &amp; Circadian Research</a> at Columbia University Irving Medical Center.



"Most adults need 7 to 9 hours of sleep each night, and suboptimal sleep raises the risk for cardiovascular disease, along with risk of cognitive decline, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/getting-high-quality-sleep-helps-prevent-depression-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>, obesity, as well as high blood pressure, blood sugar and cholesterol levels,” said St-Onge.



“However, there is increasing evidence that sleep health is about more than the number of hours you sleep each night.”



These findings point to multiple dimensions of sleep that matter: sleep continuity (how consistently you stay asleep), timing (when you go to bed and wake up), and how rested you feel throughout the day. 



Even if you clock the recommended hours, frequent nighttime wakeups or irregular bedtimes may still undermine heart and metabolic health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-timing-matters-for-metabolic-health">Sleep timing matters for metabolic health</h2>



Some people tend to go to bed unusually late, a pattern that may lead to weight gain or trouble regulating blood sugar. Experts suspect that these late bedtimes might push regular meals into the wee hours or otherwise reduce overall sleep.



Research also shows that people whose sleep schedules vary wildly from weekdays to weekends - sometimes called “social jetlag”- face higher odds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-obesity-difficult-to-reverse-it-starts-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">obesity</a> and cardiovascular concerns. 



Simply shifting when you rest can alter your body’s internal clock, influencing heart rate, hormones, and blood pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daytime-drowsiness-as-a-warning-sign">Daytime drowsiness as a warning sign</h2>



It’s not just about what happens overnight. If you find yourself dozing off in front of the TV or feeling sluggish behind the wheel, that daytime grogginess could hint at underlying sleep disruptions. 



Persistent daytime sleepiness is associated with increased risks of stroke, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-more-on-weekends-can-reduce-heart-disease-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a>, and premature mortality.



While some cases stem from conditions like obstructive sleep apnea, other lifestyle factors - such as physical inactivity or excess body weight - can also play a part. 



Interestingly, studies show that successful weight loss interventions sometimes reduce daytime drowsiness. This suggests that improving your overall health can have a powerful effect on sleep quality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-and-environmental-influences">Social and environmental influences</h2>



The study also highlights how neighborhood environments and work demands can shape sleep. Noise, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-skyglow-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycle-in-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light pollution</a>, and feelings of stress or danger can lead to poor continuity or timing.



Individuals in historically underrepresented racial and ethnic groups often encounter these hurdles more frequently, contributing to disparities in both sleep patterns and heart health outcomes. 



According to St-Onge, recognizing these varied experiences can help healthcare professionals offer more targeted interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-talking-to-your-doctor-about-sleep">Talking to your doctor about sleep</h2>



Simple questions can reveal a lot about sleep health. How long does it usually take you to fall asleep? Do you wake up multiple times during the night? Do you feel groggy most of the day? 



Such questions are often overshadowed by a single focus on “hours slept,” yet they can alert doctors to potential issues.



St-Onge also encourages people not to chalk up worsening sleep to a normal part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-reveal-how-much-sleep-you-need-for-successful-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>. “Some changes in sleep across the life course are natural, however, individuals should not accept poor or worsening sleep as a ‘fact of life’ or unavoidable consequence of the aging process."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-dimensions-of-sleep-health">Broader dimensions of sleep health</h2>



While consumer gadgets have made it easier to track how long you sleep, scientists agree that more advanced tools are needed to understand other aspects including how often you wake, whether you maintain a consistent schedule, and how well your body transitions between sleep stages.



The American Heart Association’s <a href="https://www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/healthy-lifestyle/lifes-essential-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Life’s Essential 8</a> initiative includes sleep as a key factor for good cardiovascular health, yet current scoring mainly looks at nightly duration. Experts hope future guidelines will address the broader dimensions of sleep health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restful-sleep-and-metabolic-health">Restful sleep and metabolic health </h2>



For now, the takeaway is that one size does not fit all. You may get plenty of hours in bed yet still find yourself sluggish in the afternoon or wide awake at 3 a.m. These details can carry real weight in your heart and metabolic health.



By considering the different dimensions of sleep - quality, timing, regularity, and daytime alertness - both patients and health care teams can spot trouble spots sooner and develop practical steps to help you get the restful sleep your body needs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/HCQ.0000000000000139" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes</a>.



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Sleep quality could be the key to better metabolic health

A good night’s sleep is often defined by how many...

New research draws attention to the possibility that microplastics might cause premature aging. Scientists are investigating whether these small particles have any lasting impact on cellular health, especially in older adults.



The study suggests that consistent contact with these particles might correlate with certain changes in the body linked to age-related conditions. Some experts think this interaction warrants closer inspection.



This project was co-authored by Tan Ma from <a href="http://www.rcees.ac.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beijing Environmental Research Institute</a>, who has examined how these substances disrupt important cellular systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-plastic-exposure"><a></a>Tracing plastic exposure</h2>



People encounter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-pose-a-greater-threat-to-some-ocean-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a> in items like synthetic fabrics or disposable packaging. <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/environmental-contaminants-food/microplastics-and-nanoplastics-foods" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanoplastics</a> are even smaller and can remain hidden in many everyday settings.



Researchers have spotted them in water sources and even in common household dust. The concern is that humans might accumulate them across decades with unknown consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-premature-aging"><a></a>Signs of premature aging</h2>



Several <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.7b00423" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">papers</a> propose that ongoing contact with these particles can stir up harmful cell processes, including persistent inflammation.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-mild-inflammation-can-majorly-damage-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chronic inflammation</a> often appears as people age, which might speed up natural aging. This emerging <a href="https://translational-medicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12967-024-05731-5">link</a> has many scientists asking if these plastics add extra stress at the cellular level.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/damaged-mitochondria-recycled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mitochondria</a> help power daily functions by creating energy for cells. They also help process byproducts that might damage tissues if left unchecked.



Experts see these organelles as a key indicator of healthy aging. Interference in their normal operations may link to conditions later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-and-premature-aging">Microplastics and premature aging</h2>



Scientists <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160412022001258" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">note</a> that small plastic bits can enter cells through multiple pathways. Once they get inside, they might shift how cells manage waste or handle stress.



This disturbance can weaken some of the checkpoints that keep cells balanced. If mitochondria lose efficiency, the body might face a higher load of problems related to aging.



“We know that they are there and are transported throughout the body, but we don’t know yet if they can cross the blood-brain barrier,” said Dr. Sherri Mason, a noted researcher on microplastic pollution.



Questions about how these particles gather in the body are driving new studies. Lab tests aim to see how these fragments move through different organs throughout a lifetime.



Some specialists think that data will help regulators set safer standards for plastic production. Others emphasize personal measures, like filtered water, to lower daily exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxidative-stress-from-foreign-particles">Oxidative stress from foreign particles</h2>



In advanced years, certain disorders may accelerate if <a href="https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-microbiology/chapter/cellular-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellular defenses</a> falter. Scientists have linked these mini-plastics to changes often found in cardiovascular or neurological ailments.



Extra <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/oxidative-stress" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxidative stress</a> can emerge when foreign particles disrupt normal metabolic cycles. That stress might make the aging process even more complicated.



Environmental agencies may reconsider plastic guidelines in light of these findings. Calls for improved waste management reflect a broader move toward reducing pollution at the source.



Some researchers propose stricter rules for single-use products. They also suggest more robust screening of manufacturing methods to cut back on plastic byproducts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avoiding-microplastics-and-premature-aging">Avoiding microplastics and premature aging</h2>



Certain people might opt for reusable items to minimize exposure. Others explore technologies that trap or break down plastic waste before it enters the environment.



Experts point out that these moves could help until more significant policy shifts take hold. Public awareness remains a big part of sparking any meaningful change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-influence-of-microplastics-on-aging">Influence of microplastics on aging </h2>



The field is evolving, so scientists still lack a complete picture of how microplastics might trigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sitting-too-much-can-cause-premature-aging-even-if-you-exercise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">premature aging</a>. Ongoing trials could reveal whether there is a direct cause and effect with early aging.



Careful studies will quantify how different doses affect cells over time. Findings might also identify groups most at risk for higher accumulations of these plastics.



This attention to small plastic debris reflects rising worries about synthetic waste in society. Public health experts want to see if new tests can clarify whether such particles directly influence advanced age ailments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



Many labs are joining forces to track the pathways of these materials. This wave of collaboration may give us a broader sense of how plastics connect with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aging-hotspot-found-in-the-brain-may-hold-the-key-to-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human longevity</a>.



With older populations growing worldwide, it is vital to understand everything that might influence later stages of life. Researchers suggest that these tiny particles deserve more scrutiny for the sake of public health.



Ongoing work will aim to uncover any hidden risks or unexpected benefits that come from our frequent use of plastics. The future of aging research may hinge on how we handle these discoveries.



Recent <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027869152500122X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">publications</a> point to a connection between these materials and shifts in cellular energy production. These findings highlight how damaged mitochondria may ramp up age-linked health concerns.



Those who monitor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a> say safer disposal methods and product alternatives might be ways to cut down on microscopic fragments. Taking small protective steps could be wise until deeper studies clarify the exact dangers.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S027869152500122X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food and Chemical Toxicology</a>.



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Microplastics may cause premature aging at a cellular level

New research draws attention to the possibility that microplastics might...

Bird nests rely on seemingly fragile materials to build homes that endure wind, rain, and daily commotion. These structures may look basic, but they reveal remarkable stability.



For years, many wondered how nests made from stiff, straight twigs could remain intact. Now, L. Mahadevan from the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (<a href="https://seas.harvard.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SEAS</a>) and his colleagues provide an inside look at this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-flightless-birds-are-more-intelligent-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-birds-build-sturdy-nests">How birds build sturdy nests</h2>



Many avian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brain-study-will-shed-new-light-on-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> invest hours gathering branches to craft a protective place that suits breeding and survival needs. Each piece is chosen with care, creating a design that endures shifting weight from landing birds.



Recent <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2401868122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> used <a href="https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/computed-tomography-ct" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">X-ray tomography</a> to see how rods in nest-like formations interlock and share load. Researchers noted that friction and gravity help keep stiff elements from sliding apart.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x-rays-reveal-how-twigs-interlock">X-rays reveal how twigs interlock</h2>



The Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology contributed a unique sample - a pigeon nest fashioned from steel scraps that produced clear images under X-ray scans. This allowed investigators to track how rods overlap and twist through one another.



By mapping each wire’s position, the team found subtle hooking points that created an unexpected degree of stability. Certain rods locked into place with minimal overlap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-thin-twigs-for-sturdy-bird-nests">Long thin twigs for sturdy bird nests</h2>



Scientists introduced <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/bird-nests-and-construction-behaviour/5FEF068EB96410DC357025F7E2CBA236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entanglement</a> as a way to quantify how rods criss-cross in a dense collection. This measurement considers the number of crossing points that establish a continuous chain throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-brains-fossil-reveals-roots-of-avian-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a>.



Additional trials showed how external vibration can tighten certain clusters. Slight shakes shift individual rods until they slot into more secure positions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stiff-and-flexible-rods-can-entangle">Stiff and flexible rods can entangle </h2>



“When we think about entanglement, we typically think about flexible, individual constituents wrapping around each other, as exemplified in tangled headphone cords or entangling vines. Contrary to this common intuition, stiff and straight rods can also entangle themselves - if they are long or thin enough,” said Mahadevan.&nbsp;



Computer simulations replicated these nest arrangements to test stability in various loading <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tired-birds-sleep-more-deeply-trading-safety-for-rest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenarios</a>. Results indicated that each rod’s contact angle and placement affect how quickly the configuration collapses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observations-on-real-bird-nests">Observations on real bird nests</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagulls-birds-more-intelligent-than-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Birds</a> in crowded environments face vibrations from cars, people, and changing weather. These day-to-day tremors appear to help rods nestle into a tighter weave.



“For rods with a low aspect ratio, there could be pockets of entanglement, but those would still fall apart and stay unconnected. But for high aspect ratio rods, things are really connected inside and the nest would stay together,” said Jung Kwon, a postdoctoral fellow in applied mathematics at SEAS. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineers-may-copy-bird-nest-designs">Engineers may copy bird nest designs</h2>



Structural engineering might draw from nest design to develop flexible frameworks. Interlocked rods could allow for adaptable shapes that lock or release upon demand.



Similar methods might someday shape active fabrics, which adjust stiffness through entanglement. That could broaden possibilities in protective gear, sports equipment, or rehabilitative devices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-use-friction-for-safety">Birds use friction for safety</h2>



Some spiders use <a href="https://www.arc.agric.za/arc-ppri/Pages/Biosystematics/Spider%20Research%20Centre/Venomous-Spiders-Neurotoxic-venom.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a> in their webs, while birds rely on geometry and friction. Each species showcases a unique approach to building a safe haven.



Scientists have <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269631986_Morphology_and_biomechanics_of_the_nests_of_the_Common_Blackbird_Turdus_merula" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noted</a> that weaving birds push and pull twigs until everything feels snug. This layering later forms a barrier that absorbs frequent motion and limits damage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-randomness-creates-a-strong-natural-design">Randomness creates a strong, natural design</h2>



“The role of local topological constraints, i.e., the inability of a filament to move through another filament in its vicinity, is what defines an ordered weave in a textile,” said Mahadevan. 



That concept opens fresh lines of inquiry about how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-living-in-cities-are-usually-more-colorful-and-less-brown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a> maximize natural materials under unpredictable conditions.



Understanding these patterns might guide researchers toward self-supporting platforms with fewer mechanical fasteners. It also nudges engineers to see how randomness and repeated actions merge into stable, load-bearing systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-nests-could-shape-future-structures">Bird nests could shape future structures</h2>



Experts keep searching for ways to interpret nest mechanics and other seemingly haphazard formations. Field notes and live observations continue to deepen what lab tests alone can uncover.



Small changes, like rod shape or bounce frequency, might explain why certain nests endure strong winds or repeated impact. These insights could spur ideas for building adaptable structures in everything from construction to everyday goods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-build-sturdy-nests-as-homes">Birds build sturdy nests as homes</h2>



Researchers have established a starting point to see how stiff rods behave under dense packing. Variations in rod length guide how tightly each mass holds together.



Though birds have refined this approach for countless generations, people are only beginning to realize how basic shapes and contact angles can shift our design strategies. This may signal a shift toward structures that unite strength with resourcefulness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-for-mechanical-stability">Clues for mechanical stability</h2>



In nature, every choice fulfills a purpose, and every rod contributes to a larger puzzle. That puzzle shows how complexity emerges from small parts hooking in crucial spots.



As more studies delve into bird nesting habits, investigators will reveal more clues for mechanical stability. If rigid rods can mirror nature’s logic, the potential for self-supporting systems might stretch beyond nest-building.



In conclusion, birds do not rely on glue or nails, yet they create homes that stand up to harsh weather and constant motion. That feat may inspire creative approaches to eco-friendly engineering.



By examining how rods of specific lengths interlock, scientists are uncovering solutions once hidden in a tangle of sticks. Such findings may encourage new ways to balance solidity and adaptability in design.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2401868122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Tangled twigs: The secrets of sturdy bird nests

Bird nests rely on seemingly fragile materials to build homes...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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