Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across species. Particularly in primates, social interaction significantly shapes how memory develops and functions. 



Primates, from monkeys to great apes, spend substantial time in social environments, making it crucial for them to observe and learn from others effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-among-primates">Social interactions among primates</h2>



Primates live closely together in groups. They rely heavily on noticing social signals from others, like facial expressions and gestures.



From birth, primates naturally focus more on interacting with each other than with objects or things.



This strong preference for social interaction helps them develop important skills, especially in how they learn and remember information. 



Paying attention to others is crucial for their brain development and memory formation, influencing how primates learn and adapt throughout life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-interactions-boost-ape-memory">Social interactions boost ape memory</h2>



A team of researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, examined how social interactions affect memory in great apes.



They presented both young and adult apes with videos showing a human hand (social model) or a mechanical claw (non-social model) constructing a tower.



"We found that apes better remembered a tower when they saw a hand building it rather than a mechanical claw. This is because they paid more attention to the actions of a social being rather than a machine," noted Marie Padberg, the first author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-attention-improves-social-memory">Attention improves social memory</h2>



To understand this better, the researchers partnered with the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of South Australia</a>. They used artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze regular video recordings of the apes. 



The AI technology measured the apes' heart rates to determine their attention levels during the experiment.



The results showed that apes paid more attention during social demonstrations. Higher attention was directly linked to better memory, showing how closely attention and memory are connected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-processing-social-stimuli">Processing social stimuli</h2>



Interestingly, improved memory for social events was evident only in adult apes. Younger apes, including juveniles and infants, did not show memory enhancement when viewing social models. 



This outcome differs from humans, who exhibit superior social memory from infancy. These findings suggest a developmental difference between humans and other apes in processing social stimuli.



Study senior author Daniel Haun is the director of the Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.



"Non-human ape infants and juveniles did not show superior memory for social events. There could be several reasons for this, including the nature of the objects, the complexity of the task, or the duration of the videos," noted Haun.



"Further research is needed to determine whether superior social memory at younger ages is truly a uniquely human phenomenon."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developmental-timing-and-memory">Developmental timing and memory</h2>



This study highlights how important the timing of cognitive development is in primates. It suggests that non-human primates, like apes, might only show improved memory from social interactions as they grow older.



Younger apes do not experience this benefit early in life, unlike human infants who show strong social memory from birth. 



By understanding these differences in developmental timing, scientists can better distinguish how human thinking differs from that of other primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-memory-across-apes">Social memory across apes</h2>



The research took place at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/comparative-cultural-psychology/studying-non-human-primates/wolfgang-koehler-primate-research-center/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center</a> in Leipzig, Germany. 



The scientists studied 42 great apes, including chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans. These apes ranged in age from as young as 3 months to as old as 47 years.



This study is the first to investigate how social memory develops as apes grow older. The results represent an important step forward in understanding similarities and differences between human and ape psychology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The detailed results are published in the journal Animal Behaviour. They show how paying attention to social interactions helps improve memory in different species.



Future research may explore how the difficulty of tasks, familiarity with objects, and interactions within social groups affect memory. These studies will help scientists understand more clearly how both humans and other primates develop and use social memory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347225000089?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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Social interactions have a surprising influence on memory in great apes

Memory plays a critical role in learning and survival across...

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes which have a tendency to continue on for millions of years. Extinction events are among the strongest forces which not only kill specific life forms but also offer the basis for fresh avenues of evolution. 



A recent study evokes a fascinating image of the process, revealing how the death of the largest dinosaurs indirectly created the fruit-rich habitats which were so important to our primate ancestors.



The research was led by Christopher Doughty, an ecoinformatics professor at <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prehistoric-legacy">A prehistoric legacy</h2>



Sauropods, the long-necked, plant-munching dinosaurs of the ancient world, had a massive influence on the world around them. These hulking dinosaurs knocked over trees on a routine basis and munched through tons of plant matter. 



When Sauropods went extinct some 66 million years ago, their loss profoundly changed ecosystems. Forests rebounded and closed up, which decreased the amount of sunlight on the ground and paved the way for an impressive evolutionary shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-and-ecological-change">Sauropods and ecological change</h2>



The extinction of Sauropods enabled trees to evolve without interruptions. The forests became denser, and tree competition for light intensified. 



Trees developed larger fruits and seeds to dominate others, and these provided their offspring with an advantage over others by supplying them with additional energy and greater survival chances in shaded conditions.



"At first glance, the darker forest understory caused by dinosaur extinctions may seem unimportant, but it could have directly led to the evolution of our fruit-eating primate ancestors," said Professor Doughty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dinosaur-fruit-connection">The dinosaur-fruit connection</h2>



Before the dinosaurs went extinct, fruits were scarce, and seeds were small. But with the ecological niche left open by the sauropods, plants evolved immediately. 



Stronger seedlings, with larger seeds, were able to compete for limited sunlight. In addition, fleshy fruits evolved as an incredibly efficient way of enticing animals to scatter seeds and reproduce.



Even though this evolution scenario was previously theorized, no fossil records existed to conform the hypothesis.



To investigate, Professor Doughty and his team developed a cutting-edge model of seed and fruit size evolution after the dinosaurs became extinct. The model precisely replicated fossil records for the last 65 million years and decisively substantiated the hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversal-of-dinosaur-driven-fruit-trends">Reversal of dinosaur-driven fruit trends</h2>



Interestingly, the model also forecasted a future reversal of seed evolutionary patterns. 



Seeds began to shrink about 35 million years ago. This coincided with the appearance of new large mammals that were successful in duplicating, though on a smaller scale, the forest-clearing behavior previously shown by sauropods.



"Our model predicted these animals would open the forest enough that sufficient light began to enter the understory, and larger seeds were no longer successful over smaller seeds," explained Doughty. 



"The evolutionary pressure for seed size to increase began to diminish. Thus, we were able to explain the trends in seed size over time without resorting to external influences such as climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megafauna-extinction-and-ecological-reset">Megafauna extinction and ecological reset</h2>



About 50,000 years ago, large mammals like mammoths went extinct. These animals previously opened forests by knocking down trees and clearing vegetation. Their extinction allowed forests to become dense and dark again. 



With less sunlight reaching the forest floor, plants adapted by producing larger seeds. This highlights how big animals shape their environment, influencing the evolution of plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-as-ecosystem-shapers">Humans as ecosystem shapers </h2>



Modern human activity mimics the prehistoric impacts of the giants. Current selective forest harvesting mimics the prehistoric pressure imposed by dinosaurs on seed size and dispersal.



But if humans stop modifying forest structure and are not substituted by other megafauna, forests will shift back to more dense, dark structures, and this may trigger another evolutionary adjustment towards larger seeds. 



"These results provide a striking example of how large dinosaurs - and their eventual extinction - not only shaped their contemporary environment but also triggered cascading effects on ecosystems for millions of years," said Benjamin Wiebe, an NAU researcher.



"The next time you're eating fruit or pondering, 'why am I here,' consider the impact of the dinosaur extinctions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/pala.70002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How dinosaur extinction influenced fruit evolution

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes...

Gas,Methane,Bubbles,Frozen,In,Winter,Ice,Of,Lake,Baikal,

These frozen bubbles of methane gas are eerily beautiful, but don't let appearances fool you. Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that is often overshadowed by carbon dioxide in discussions on climate change, even though the impact of methane is far more serious.



The effects of industrial pollution, car emissions, deforestation and agriculture are usually central when we consider the forces driving climate change. 



However, researchers have now uncovered an unexpected and significant source of methane emissions, hidden beneath the icy landscapes of the Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-is-a-potent-climate-driver">Methane is a potent climate driver</h2>



As powerhouse greenhouse gas, methane doesn’t get as much attention as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-carbon-dioxide-emissions-hit-a-record-high-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>. However, it’s way more potent - about 80 times more effective at trapping heat in the atmosphere over 20 years. 



Methane comes from natural sources like wetlands and termites, but human activities crank up emissions big time. 



Livestock, landfills, and oil and gas operations release massive amounts of methane into the air. Cows, for example, burp out methane as they digest food (yep, cow burps are a real climate problem). 



Meanwhile, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaks from fossil fuel</a> extraction and pipelines quietly pump methane into the atmosphere, making the issue even worse.



The problem? Methane doesn’t stick around as long as CO₂ - only about 12 years - but in that short time, it does serious damage. 



Cutting methane emissions could quickly slow global warming, making it one of the fastest ways to fight climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-methane-leaks-from-glaciers">Investigating methane leaks from glaciers</h2>



Gabrielle Kleber and Leonard Magerl, postdoctoral researchers from <a href="https://ic3.uit.no/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UiT</a>, The Arctic University of Norway’s iC3 (Centre for Ice, Cryosphere, Carbon, and Climate), have discovered that Arctic glaciers are not as innocent as they may seem.



Beneath their icy veneer, these glaciers are leaking substantial amounts of methane into the atmosphere. 



This revelation stems from studies conducted at Vallåkrabreen, a small valley glacier that is situated in central Svalbard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glaciers-and-methane-levels">Glaciers and methane levels</h2>



The researchers measured methane levels in groundwater springs and the melt river that drains from the glacier. The findings were remarkable.



The methane levels in the melt river were found to be up to 800 times higher than the equilibrium level in the atmosphere, hitting a peak concentration of 3,170 nanomolar early in the melt season.



"We expected to see some methane in the meltwater, but the concentrations we measured were surprisingly high," explained Gabrielle, highlighting the unexpected magnitude of the problem.



"Our isotopic analysis showed that this methane is geologic in origin and is released as the glacier retreats and glacial meltwater flushes through fractures in the rock." 



Interestingly, the source of this methane was not microbial activity beneath the ice, which had been suspected in research in other glacial settings.



Instead, the methane originated from ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/knipovich-ridge-new-hydrothermal-field-arctic-intense-geological-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geological formations</a>, and had been trapped in the region for millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-and-glacial-fracking">Methane and "glacial fracking"</h2>



The further the researchers ventured into their investigation, the more they discovered about the role of glaciers in methane emissions. 



The scientists have likened the process to a natural form of fracking, coining the term "glacial fracking" to describe this phenomenon, whereby the glaciers essentially act as colossal covers that bury methane under the ground. 



However, as they melt, the water flushes the gas through cracks in the bedrock, ushering the methane above ground and into the atmosphere.



This process is not limited to just one glacier. 



The researchers estimated that similar mechanisms could be in effect at hundreds of other glaciers across Svalbard, with over 1,400 land-terminating glaciers situated on the archipelago, many of which overlie methane-rich bedrock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-feedback-loop">Climate feedback loop</h2>



The implications of this research extend far beyond Svalbard as well, to the broader Arctic region and, indeed, the whole planet.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-warming-four-times-faster-than-global-average/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic is experiencing warming</a> at a rate four times the global average, and its glaciers are retreating at an alarming pace.



As they shrink, more methane could be released, setting up what scientists call a positive feedback loop, where warming accelerates glacial melting, setting free more methane, which then intensifies warming and further melting.



"Methane is a much more powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> than carbon dioxide over short timescales. Even though these emissions are seasonal, they could add up as more glaciers retreat," warned the research team, emphasizing the potential global climate repercussions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-glaciers-and-methane">What's next for glaciers and methane?</h2>



These findings highlight the importance of understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-waters-are-emitting-more-carbon-as-they-continue-to-warm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arctic carbon cycle</a> and the impact climate change has on it. 



Future research will aim to reassess methane budgets in the Arctic, incorporating glacial emissions alongside permafrost thaw and wetland methane fluxes. 



While this study represents a significant first step, more research is needed in order to discern the full scale of the problem.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://bg.copernicus.org/articles/22/659/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biogeosciences</a>.



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Massive new source of leaking methane gas emissions discovered

These frozen bubbles of methane gas are eerily beautiful, but...

Nature’s fury is most vividly displayed in hurricanes - powerful storms that can devastate coastal communities. As climate patterns shift and environmental changes accelerate, these storms pose an increasing threat.



Effective forecasting and preparedness remain critical tools to safeguard vulnerable populations, infrastructure, and economies from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-next-big-solar-storm-could-plunge-us-into-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">devastating impacts</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hurricane-activity-is-set-to-increase">Hurricane activity is set to increase</h2>



A recent study from the University of Reading concludes that hurricanes will strengthen and become more frequent in the Atlantic and the eastern Pacific within the next decade.



The coasts of North and Central America, which have already experienced severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-helene-a-glimpse-into-the-future-of-natural-disasters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather conditions</a>, must prepare to face more dangers. This means that accurate long-term forecasts are essential for timely precautionary measures.



Using sophisticated forecasting computer programs developed by the <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UK Met Office</a>, scientists were able to successfully predict hurricane activity ten years ahead. The findings indicate tropical cyclone activity in the Atlantic would be over twice that of the 1970s.



At the same time, hurricane counts in the eastern Pacific would increase by over a third, leading to a dramatic surge in storm threats to coastal communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-storm-energy-will-double">Storm energy will double</h2>



Apart from frequency, the researchers indicated an increase in the total storm energy predicted. Storm energy, with consideration to frequency, intensity, and hurricane duration, captures the full view of hurricane risks. 



The experts predict that storm energy in the North Atlantic will double compared to the 1970s, creating more powerful and devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-amplified-hurricane-strength/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a>.



Paul-Arthur Monerie, the lead scientist at the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>'s National Centre for Atmospheric Science, emphasized the value of enhanced forecasting.



"Until now, hurricane predictions have been like trying to see through a dense fog as we could only make out what was directly ahead of us," he noted.



"Better forecasting clears that fog away, revealing patterns years into the future. This advancement gives coastal communities precious time to prepare. Our study shows hurricane activity is set to increase through 2030, giving everyone more time to prepare and protect themselves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warmer-oceans-fuel-hurricane-activity">Warmer oceans fuel hurricane activity</h2>



The researchers approached the study in a direct fashion by monitoring specific hurricanes through climate model simulations.



Previous long-range hurricane prediction relied on indirect measures like sea surface temperature or atmospheric pressure trends. Real-time storm monitoring maximizes precision and offers valuable data regarding impending hurricane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-cities-are-increasingly-vulnerable-to-hurricanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">activity</a>.



Higher ocean surface temperatures, particularly in the Atlantic, are driving the increase in hurricane activity. Higher temperatures provide the additional energy needed for storms to form and intensify.



With warmer ocean water, the hurricanes intensify faster and produce more powerful and destructive storms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-winds-and-coastal-infrastructure">Changing winds and coastal infrastructure</h2>



Another important factor in the projected rise in hurricane activity is changing atmospheric wind patterns. Variations in wind speed and direction at different altitudes of the atmosphere are conducive to the formation and strengthening of hurricanes.



Changes in the atmosphere are governed by natural climate variability and longer-term climate trends associated with global warming.



The projected increase in hurricane activity poses catastrophic threats to coastal infrastructure. Greater storm intensity and frequency have the potential to result in widespread damage to homes, roads, power lines, and critical services.



Planned infrastructure adaptation, including resilient building techniques and enhanced drainage, will increasingly play a vital role in reducing future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-hurricanes-are-intensifying-faster-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storm effects</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emergency-management-strategies">Emergency management strategies </h2>



Societies exposed to heightened hurricane threats need to enhance their emergency management strategies. 



This involves well-established evacuation procedures, strong emergency communication systems, and comprehensive public education campaigns.



Proper management and preparedness can significantly minimize casualties and economic losses despite heightened hurricane threats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-for-immediate-action">Call for immediate action</h2>



The research offers valuable information to communities to inform planning. Long-term forecasts enable communities to establish metrics for improving resilience and reducing damage.



Integrating science research into community planning enables local governments to manage and reduce hurricane hazards. 



With the urgent forecasts, governments, policymakers, and communities should take immediate action. Investments must be made in disaster preparedness, climate resilience, and adaptation.



With reliable forecasting now serving as unmistakable warning, communities have a rare opportunity to anticipate and prepare to safeguard themselves from increasingly menacing hurricane and storm threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-025-00919-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Climate and Atmospheric Science</a>.



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How hurricane activity will change over the next decade

Nature’s fury is most vividly displayed in hurricanes - powerful...

A newly identified version of a gene in the human genome appears to have influenced our capacity for complex speech, distinguishing our species from close relatives like Neanderthals and Denisovans.&nbsp;



This finding could help explain why Homo sapiens alone developed sophisticated language, an ability that underpins much of our culture and technology.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.rockefeller.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rockefeller University</a> has pinpointed a particular protein variant - found only in modern humans - that alters vocalization.&nbsp;



When introduced into mice, this version of a gene called NOVA1 changed the ultrasonic calls the animals produce, hinting at its potential role in the evolutionary roots of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-songs-human-speech-common-vocal-genetic-origin-syrinx/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human speech</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-behind-complex-speech">Genetics behind complex speech</h2>



Modern humans have long been known to possess numerous adaptations in their anatomy and nervous system that enable speech, including specialized vocal tracts and brain regions devoted to language processing. Yet the genetics behind this capacity remains poorly understood.&nbsp;



One candidate gene, FOXP2, has been linked to speech and language disorders in people, but evidence suggests <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-evolution-was-more-complex-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neanderthals</a> also possessed the same FOXP2 variant - leaving open questions about what truly sets humans apart.



The team behind the current study focused on NOVA1, first identified in the early 1990s for its essential contribution to brain function.&nbsp;



“Such changes may have played important roles in the acquisition of characteristics that have contributed to the emergence, expansion, and survival of Homo sapiens,” said first author Yoko Tajima, a postdoctoral associate at Rockefeller University.&nbsp;



Researchers have found that variants of NOVA1 are associated with language and motor difficulties, underlining the gene’s profound influence on neural development.



Unlike the versions of NOVA1 that appear in other mammals, birds, and even archaic humans, the form carried by modern humans contains a single amino acid substitution referred to as I197V. This difference, though seemingly small, may have had outsized consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-twist-nbsp">A surprising twist&nbsp;</h2>



To explore the functional impact of I197V, scientists used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR editing</a> to replace the standard NOVA1 gene in mice with the human-specific variant. They then examined how this change altered the animals’ brain activity.&nbsp;



Initially, there was no detectable shift in the genes responsible for motor control or overall neural development - implying the mice developed normally in most respects.



Soon, however, a critical clue emerged: many of the transcripts affected by the human NOVA1 variant were tied to vocalization.&nbsp;



Study leader Robert B. Darnell is head of the Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-Oncology at Rockefeller.&nbsp;



“We found that when we ‘transliterated’ the squeaks made by mice with the human-specific I197V variant, they were different from those of the wild-type mice. Some of the ‘letters’ had changed,” said Darnell. “It was one of those really surprising moments in science.”



When the team tested how adult male mice “spoke” to female mice during mating attempts, they discovered that the engineered mice produced distinct vocal patterns.&nbsp;



“They ‘talked’ differently to the female mice,” Darnell noted. “One can imagine how such changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baleen-whales-cannot-escape-human-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vocalization</a> could have a profound impact on evolution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaic-humans-and-complex-speech">Archaic humans and complex speech</h2>



To determine whether this genetic alteration was unique to Homo sapiens, the researchers compared modern human NOVA1 to the genomes of Neanderthals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-denisovan-species-humans-lived-undisturbed-tibetan-plateau-160000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Denisovans</a>, human relatives who lived tens of thousands of years ago.&nbsp;



Both archaic lineages possessed the older NOVA1 form seen in other species - lacking the I197V substitution. A further check of over 650,000 modern human genomes revealed that nearly everyone carries the I197V version of NOVA1, solidifying its status as a widespread and defining feature of our species.



“This gene is part of a sweeping evolutionary change in early modern humans and hints at potential ancient origins of spoken language,” Darnell said. “NOVA1 may be a bona fide human ‘language gene,’ though certainly it’s only one of many human-specific genetic changes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While NOVA1’s impact on speech is not yet fully understood, these findings open important research paths. Future work could examine how this human-specific variant contributes to developmental disorders, including those affecting language.&nbsp;



“Our discovery could have clinical relevance in many ways, ranging from developmental disorders to neurodegenerative disease,” Darnell said.



NOVA1’s neural pathways might help explain why some conditions prevent speech or hamper vocal communication.&nbsp;



The gene has been associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a> spectrum disorder, and earlier studies from the same group reported a patient with mutations in NOVA1 who presented speech delays, among other neurological issues. Investigating how I197V influences brain circuitry could yield insights into such disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-language-and-human-uniqueness">Language and human uniqueness</h2>



The capacity for complex speech, coupled with advanced cognitive functions, has propelled humans to remarkable achievements - from passing down knowledge orally to building global civilizations. 



This study highlights that our linguistic edge may be rooted in subtle but pivotal genetic differences - differences that evolved after our lineage diverged from archaic humans.



Though the NOVA1 variant alone does not explain why humans can speak while other hominids could not, it highlights one of the many genetic innovations underlying our species’ linguistic abilities.&nbsp;



With further work, scientists hope to piece together more of the molecular puzzle behind language, offering a glimpse into what truly made Homo sapiens the world’s great storytellers.



The study is published in the journal Nature Communications.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Laboratory of Molecular Neuro-oncology at The Rockefeller University



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How did humans start talking? Scientists may have found the answer

A newly identified version of a gene in the human...

A new study has revealed that wild fish can recognize and follow specific human divers, distinguishing between individuals based on visual cues such as colors on wetsuits and gear.&nbsp;



The findings suggest that fish, like some other animals, may form differentiated relationships with humans, challenging long-standing assumptions about their cognitive abilities.



The research was conducted by scientists at the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB) in Germany. It builds on years of anecdotal observations from scientific divers who noticed that local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-can-recognize-themselves-in-the-mirror/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> in the Mediterranean would follow and steal food from the same divers, while ignoring others.&nbsp;



“Nobody has ever asked whether wild fish have the capacity, or indeed motivation, to recognize us when we enter their underwater world,” said Maëlan Tomasek, a doctoral student at MPI-AB and the <a href="https://www.uca.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Clermont Auvergne</a>, France.



Now, the researchers have confirmed that fish do recognize individual humans - and more than that, they remember which ones provide rewards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-fish-learn-to-identify-divers">Wild fish learn to identify divers</h2>



The study took place at a research site eight meters underwater in the Mediterranean Sea, where fish have become accustomed to the presence of scientists. Unlike lab experiments, the tests were conducted in the open sea, meaning fish were free to participate or leave at any time.



Katinka Soller, a bachelor student at MPI-AB and co-first author of the study, designed the training phase to test whether wild fish could learn to follow an individual diver. Wearing a bright red vest, she swam a set 50-meter route while feeding the fish.&nbsp;



Over time, she gradually removed the red vest, concealed the food, and eventually wore only standard dive gear - yet the fish continued to follow her, anticipating a reward.



Two species of seabream were particularly eager participants. “Once I entered the water, it was a matter of seconds before I would see them swimming towards me, seemingly coming out of nowhere,” Soller said.&nbsp;



She soon recognized certain individuals who returned day after day and even gave them names, such as “Bernie” and “Alfie.”



After 12 days of training, about 20 fish were consistently following Soller on her swims, proving that they had learned to associate her with food. This set the stage for the next phase of the experiment: testing whether they could distinguish her from another diver.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-presenting-fish-with-a-second-diver-nbsp">Presenting fish with a second diver&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate whether the fish were following Soller specifically or simply any diver, the researchers introduced a second diver, Tomasek, who had different-colored gear.&nbsp;



The two divers started at the same point and swam in opposite directions. On the first day, the fish split evenly between them, unsure of whom to follow. "You could see them struggling to decide who to chase,” Soller said.



However, only Soller provided <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-show-distinct-personalities-when-foraging-for-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a>. By the second day, the fish overwhelmingly chose to follow her instead of Tomasek. To confirm that they were actively learning to recognize the divers, the researchers focused on six individual fish, four of which showed strong learning patterns over the experiment.



“This is a cool result because it shows that fish were not simply following Katinka out of habit or because other fish were there,” Tomasek explained. “They were conscious of both divers, testing each one, and learning that Katinka produced the reward at the end of the swim.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fish-recognize-human-divers">How fish recognize human divers</h2>



To further investigate what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-cues-initiate-the-brains-decision-to-cooperate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual cues</a> the fish were using to distinguish between divers, the team repeated the test - this time with both divers wearing identical wetsuits and fins. With no distinguishing features, the fish could no longer tell them apart.



For the researchers, this was strong evidence that the fish were associating specific colors or patterns on the divers' gear with food.&nbsp;



“Almost all fish have color vision, so it is not surprising that the seabream learned to associate the correct diver based on patches of color on the body,” Tomasek said.



This ability is similar to how human divers recognize one another underwater. “Faces are distorted by diving masks, so we usually rely on differences between wetsuits, fins, or other parts of the gear to recognize each other,” Soller noted.&nbsp;



With more time, the researchers believe the fish might have learned to recognize subtler details, such as hand shapes or body movements.



“We already observed them approaching our faces and scrutinizing our bodies,” Soller added. “It was like they were studying us, not the other way around.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fish-and-human-recognition">Fish and human recognition</h2>



This study supports anecdotal accounts of animals recognizing individual humans but goes further by providing controlled experimental evidence in a completely natural environment.&nbsp;



The ability to distinguish specific people suggests that fish may have more complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-sizes-itself-up-in-a-mirror-before-going-into-combat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive abilities</a> than previously thought.



If wild fish can learn to recognize and follow certain individuals, it raises the possibility that pet fish - or even fish in other natural environments - use similar strategies to identify familiar humans.&nbsp;



Finding that wild fish can quickly learn to use specific cues to recognize individual divers suggests that many other fish species - our pets included - are able to recognize certain patterns to identify us.



Senior author Alex Jordan, who leads a research group at MPI-AB, finds the results unsurprising.&nbsp;



“It doesn’t come as a shock to me that these animals, which navigate a complex world and interact with myriad different species every minute, can recognize humans based on visual cues,” said Jordan.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“I suppose the most surprising thing is that we would be surprised they can. It suggests we might underestimate the capacities of our underwater cousins.”



Tomasek noted that it might be strange to think about humans sharing a bond with an animal like a fish that sits so far from us on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-group-of-snakes-has-a-new-evolutionary-tree/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary tree</a>, that we don’t intuitively understand.&nbsp;



“But human-animal relationships can overcome millions of years of evolutionary distance if we bother to pay attention. Now we know that they see us, it’s time for us to see them.”&nbsp;



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0558" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Wild fish and human divers: An unexpected bond

A new study has revealed that wild fish can recognize...

Generic drugs are often promoted as identical to their brand-name equivalents - cheaper, yet equally safe and effective. However, a recent study challenges this widely held belief.



Study co-author John Gray is a professor in The Ohio State University’s <a href="https://www.osu.edu/giving/explore/support-a-college/fisher-college-business" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fisher College of Business</a>. He pointed out that disparities in manufacturing standards exist worldwide.



“Drug manufacturing regulation, and therefore quality assurance practices, differ between emerging economies like India and advanced economies like the United States. Where generic drugs are manufactured can make a significant difference,” said Professor Gray.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-generic-drugs-from-the-u-s-and-india">Generic drugs from the U.S. and India</h2>



The researchers uncovered a concerning link. They discovered that users of generic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/americans-have-a-shocking-dependency-on-prescription-drugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drugs</a> manufactured in India reported substantially more "severe adverse events" than users of equivalents made in the United States.



These adverse events included instances of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hospitalization-rates-for-the-flu-and-covid-19-are-strikingly-similar-among-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hospitalization</a>, disability and, in a few tragic cases, even death.



George Ball is an associate professor of operations and decision technologies at Indiana University’s Kelley School of Business.



“The FDA assures the public that all generics patterned after the same original drug should be equivalently safe and effective, however, this is not necessarily the case when it comes to generic drugs made in India,” said Professor Ball.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-generic-drugs-to-their-factories">Tracing generic drugs to their factories </h2>



This study stands out not only for its findings but also for its exceptional methodology. Although the FDA was hesitant to disclose information about the manufacturing locations of the drugs, the researchers found a workaround. 



By leveraging the Structured Product Labeling dataset, they successfully traced the drugs back to their factories of origin.



“Overcoming this lack of transparency of drug manufacturing location is one of the major accomplishments of our study,” said Professor Gray.



To ensure a fair comparison, the researchers matched those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanorobots-built-with-folded-dna-could-revolutionize-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">medicines</a> made in India with identical drugs produced in the United States.



These drugs were perfectly alike in every measure – active ingredients, dosage form, and administration route. Therefore, it would be an accurate interpretation to say, they were comparing "apples to apples."



The study considered 2,443 drugs from the United States and emerging economies. Significantly, 93% of these generic drugs were Indian-made. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adverse-events-and-comparative-analysis">Adverse events and comparative analysis</h2>



The researchers used the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) to identify events reported for people using generic drugs from India and those using their matched counterparts that were manufactured in the United States. 



Only those reports listing the most severe outcomes like hospitalization, disability, and death were considered.



The number of severe adverse events associated with the use of generic drugs manufactured in India was 54% higher than the number for equivalent generic drugs that were manufactured in the United States.



The results were largely driven by drugs that have been on the market for longer. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daily-dose-finasteride-magic-pill-regrows-hair-heals-prostate-boosts-heart-health/">Older drugs</a> were often found to have poorer quality.



“In the pharmaceutical industry, the older drugs get cheaper and cheaper and the competition gets more intense to hold down costs. That may result in operations and supply chain issues that can compromise drug quality,” explained Professor Gray.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loopholes-in-the-inspection-process">Loopholes in the inspection process </h2>



Despite these findings, the researchers caution against interpreting the results as a blanket indictment of offshore drug production.



“There are good manufacturers in India, there are bad manufacturers in the U.S., and we’re not advocating for ending offshore production of drugs or bashing India in any way. We believe this is a regulatory oversight issue that can be improved,” explained Professor Gray.



One of the major regulatory loopholes lies in the inspection process of these plants. While inspections of U.S.-based plants are unannounced, those in overseas locations such as India are prearranged.



This potential loophole may allow manufacturers to conceal problems, making it harder for the FDA to detect these issues. 



Professor Gray suggested that making all inspections unannounced, worldwide, could significantly improve the situation. He also called for product labeling to give information about the country of manufacture.



"A key recommendation we make in this study is for the FDA to make drug manufacturing location, such as the country of manufacture, and drug quality, transparent for consumers. This can help create a market in which drug quality is incentivized more than it is today,” concluded Professor Ball.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10591478251319691" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Production and Operations Management</a>.



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Generic drugs are not created equal, and a new study reveals why

Generic drugs are often promoted as identical to their brand-name...

Fossils newly unearthed in southeastern Australia have upended long-held assumptions about dinosaur evolution, revealing the world’s oldest known megaraptorid and the first confirmed evidence of carcharodontosaurs on the continent.&nbsp;



These discoveries paint a vivid picture of an unusual predator hierarchy that once roamed the region during the Early Cretaceous, adding a crucial piece to the puzzle of dinosaur history.



The research was carried out by a team led by <a href="https://museumsvictoria.com.au/research-institute/">Museums Victoria Research Institute</a> and <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a> PhD student Jake Kotevski.&nbsp;



The study focused on five <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-theropod-dinosaurs-thrived-in-polar-environments/">theropod</a> fossils found along Victoria’s coastline. They were collected in the upper Strzelecki (Bass Coast, dating back roughly 121.4–118 million years) and the Eumeralla Formation (Otway Coast, about 113–108 million years old).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-thriving-in-australia-nbsp">Dinosaurs thriving in Australia&nbsp;</h2>



The newly studied remains suggest an unexpected arrangement of carnivorous dinosaurs. They indicate that large megaraptorids - measuring between six and seven meters long - coexisted alongside smaller carcharodontosaurs that reached only two to four meters in length, as well as the agile, meter-long unenlagiines (nicknamed “southern raptors”). 



This stands in stark contrast to better-known ecosystems where carcharodontosaurs typically surpassed other predatory dinosaurs in size.



“The discovery of carcharodontosaurs in Australia is groundbreaking,” Kotevski said. “It’s fascinating to see how Victoria’s predator hierarchy diverged from South America, where carcharodontosaurs reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-rex-was-about-70-percent-bigger-than-we-thought/">Tyrannosaurus rex</a>-like sizes up to 13 metres, towering over megaraptorids. Here, the roles were reversed, highlighting the uniqueness of Australia’s Cretaceous ecosystem.”



Two of the newly identified fossils rank among the earliest megaraptorids known worldwide, prompting experts to reconsider their evolutionary timeline.&nbsp;



Because these megaraptorids thrived in Australia at such an early date, they may have played a more pivotal role in Gondwanan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-predatory-dinosaur-species-identified-in-lost-photos/">predator</a> communities than previously recognized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-clues-about-dinosaur-migration-nbsp">New clues about dinosaur migration&nbsp;</h2>



According to Dr. Thomas Rich, senior curator of vertebrate palaeontology at Museums Victoria Research Institute, the fossils also hint at broader patterns of dinosaur dispersal in the Southern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



He noted that the findings not only expand Australia’s theropod fossil record but offer compelling evidence of faunal interchange between Australia and South America through Antarctica during the Early Cretaceous.&nbsp;



“The findings also challenge previous assumptions about body-size hierarchies in Gondwanan predator ecosystems highlighting Victoria’s unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extraordinary-dinosaur-fossils-discovered-from-the-end-of-cretaceous-era/">Cretaceous</a> fauna,” xplained Dr. Rich.



These links to other Gondwanan regions bolster the theory that dinosaurs and other animals migrated between connected landmasses before shifting continents isolated certain populations.&nbsp;



Over time, such isolation could have led to distinct paths of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaurs-evolved-feathers-for-much-more-than-just-flying/">evolutionary development</a>, explaining why Australian megaraptorids, rather than carcharodontosaurs, occupied the apex predator niche.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-museum-collections">Significance of museum collections </h2>



Beyond revealing hidden chapters of Australia’s dinosaur history, the study demonstrates the significance of museum collections in fueling new scientific breakthroughs. 



Researchers often depend on carefully preserved fossils that can remain unclassified for decades, awaiting fresh analytical methods or new comparative specimens before their true importance is revealed.



“Museum collections are crucial to advancing our understanding of prehistoric life,” said Tim Ziegler, the vertebrate palaeontology collection manager at Museums Victoria Research Institute.&nbsp;



“Specimens preserved in the State Collection for decades - unidentifiable until now - are providing new insights into the evolution of dinosaur ecosystems.”



The project also illustrates a longstanding tradition of mentorship, continuity, and collaboration among palaeontologists. Senior curator Dr. Rich, at Museums Victoria since 1974, has worked with multiple generations of researchers.&nbsp;



These efforts culminate in cutting-edge studies like Kotevski’s PhD research, forming a chain of inquiry that steadily advances what we know about ancient life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volunteers-in-the-field">Volunteers in the field</h2>



Three of the fossils in this study were first identified between 2022 and 2023 by a Museums Victoria volunteer, Melissa Lowery, demonstrating the critical role that community members play in paleontology.&nbsp;



With an eye for intriguing shapes and textures, volunteers often detect clues that lead to major discoveries.



Kotevski and his colleagues continue to search for additional remains at key sites, including the location where the large megaraptorid was found.&nbsp;



These expeditions form part of the long-running <a href="http://dinosaurdreaming.monash.edu/">Dinosaur Dreaming project</a>, responsible for uncovering over 10,000 fossils - from dinosaurs and birds to mammals and marine reptiles - since it began.&nbsp;



Each new bone or tooth refines scientists’ understanding of the richly varied ecosystems that existed on Australia’s ancient coastlines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-of-cretaceous-australia">Dinosaurs of Cretaceous Australia</h2>



Unusual for reversing the roles typically observed in other continents, Victoria’s predator lineage helps paleontologists envision a world where megaraptorids reigned supreme while smaller carcharodontosaurs prowled in their shadow.&nbsp;



By confirming that early megaraptorids inhabited the region and that carcharodontosaurs were present yet less dominant, these fossils challenge orthodox views on predator size hierarchies and evolutionary pathways within Gondwana.



As fieldwork continues, each new fragment of bone has the potential to reshape our perspective on how dinosaurs spread across the prehistoric southern supercontinent, adapted to different environments, and carved out ecological niches.&nbsp;



Together, the fossils detail a singular evolutionary story that sets Cretaceous Australia apart, forever changing how we see the era’s predatory power dynamics - and offering fresh directions for future discoveries.



Image Credit: Artwork by Jonathan Metzger. Source: Museums Victoria



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Fossils discovered in Australia rewrite dinosaur history

Fossils newly unearthed in southeastern Australia have upended long-held assumptions...

Male fruit flies buzzing around in a small, contained arena sounds like a pretty ordinary science experiment. Yet one group of researchers noticed something unusual about how some of them reacted to a spinning disk.



They observed that while many flies stayed away from the disk, a select few hopped onto it and stayed for surprising amounts of time. 



<a href="https://sciprofiles.com/profile/2253355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Wolf Huetteroth</a> from the <a href="https://www.uni-leipzig.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leipzig</a> notes that these findings could open new questions about how body awareness develops in living creatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-with-purpose">Flies spin with purpose</h2>



Many people think of fruit flies as tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-fruit-flies-smell-well-as-humans-with-much-less-nose-neurons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> flitting around fruit bowls. Yet a recent study suggests that they might show optional behavior patterns that fit the definition of play. This observation challenges old assumptions about insects.



“Using several carousels, we generated and analyzed a total of around seven years of film data,” says Dr. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tilman-Triphan" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tilman Triphan</a>, the first author of the study. 



Researchers used several rotating platforms placed under a thin glass cover. Some flies dashed to the edge, but others returned to the carousel again and again.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-preferences">Individual preferences</h2>



A fraction of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> sought the disk and rode it in repeated sessions. Those individuals spent extended periods on the spinner, while their peers avoided it altogether. The behavior looked deliberate, rather than forced or random.



One aspect was the difference in how these seekers got onto the spinning surface. 



“However, we were able to distinguish whether the flies had deliberately walked onto the carousel or jumped onto it in an uncoordinated way. This allowed us to show that unplanned visits to the carousel were rather atypical for the playing flies,” says co-author <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/our-staff/f/clara-ferreira/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Clara H. Ferreira</a>, an assistant Professor at <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-possible-value-of-body-sense">Possible value of body sense</h2>



The repeated interaction with the moving disk seems to involve <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00048.2011" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proprioceptive feedback</a>, which refers to the body’s sense of position and motion.



If some flies are actively seeking the extra sensation, it might be fulfilling a hidden benefit. This is reminiscent of how certain mammals, like <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9861614/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a>, engage in rough-and-tumble routines that refine their coordination.



Some insects ended up swapping mealtime for more spins on the carousel. That trade-off hints at a possible reward gained from the turning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonflies-develop-waxy-coating-to-withstand-warmer-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">motion</a>. 



The interesting part is that these insects showed no direct advantage other than what seems to be playful amusement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-by-choice-not-force">Flies spin by choice, not force</h2>



Natural curiosity is often observed in higher animals, but insects rarely get credit for it. 



Here, the setting was calm, with continuous observation over days to capture genuine conduct. There were no artificial triggers that forced the flies onto the disk.



The team set up the environment to ensure no threat forced the flies to remain. If the spinning platform caused anxiety, they could easily walk away. 



Instead, some made a personal choice to return. This self-directed action adds weight to the suggestion of a real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">playful attitude</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-it-matter-for-humans">Why does it matter for humans?</h2>



“This could help us to find out how we humans also develop efficient self-awareness of our bodies,” says Huetteroth. 



The clue lies in how the spinning motion may sharpen the brain’s ability to map physical space. Because the flies appear to seek out extra movement, they might be training themselves to adapt and respond to unexpected motion.



Similar responses appear in many species that enjoy roller coasters or spinning rides. Researchers believe the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-human-brain-connects-unrelated-concepts-through-reasoning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain learns</a> from these experiences, reinforcing internal models of balance and orientation.



If a small insect displays a version of this, it might show that the drive to engage in such activity evolved long ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flies-spin-despite-easy-alternatives">Flies spin despite easy alternatives</h2>



The flies had easy access to food and water. They also had corners to rest without interruption. Despite these calmer options, some crawled over for a spin. 



That behavior did not enhance survival, which points toward a motivational factor besides hunger or fear.



Scientists have used <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5787388/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">open-field tests</a> to measure caution or stress in animals. 



Usually, creatures stay near edges when anxious. The carousel-seeking flies, however, went to the center and stayed. This breaks usual fear-driven patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



So far, scientists have only glimpsed how fruit flies pick between exploration, feeding, and spinning. The genetic tools available in fruit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-are-changing-insects-in-subtle-yet-deadly-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a> might shine more light on the neural wiring behind this playful bent. 



Perhaps targeted genetic studies will uncover exactly which circuits reward them for spinning.



In time, deeper understanding could reveal ways that controlled motion shapes a creature’s internal map. 



That concept might prove relevant to other animals, including humans learning how to handle complex movement or interactive environments.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00055-7?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982225000557%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Flies like to play and have fun like other animals, according to a fascinating new study

Male fruit flies buzzing around in a small, contained arena...

Scientists have devised an affordable way to permanently remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by converting common minerals into highly reactive substances that spontaneously lock away CO2. 



This breakthrough could play a critical role in curbing global warming by addressing one of its primary causes.



The new technique was developed by chemists at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> Matthew Kanan, a professor of chemistry and senior author of the paper, explained the motivation behind the carbon capture research.



“The Earth has an inexhaustible supply of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinas-rare-earth-jackpot-1-15-million-tons-of-minerals-uncovered/">minerals</a> that are capable of removing CO2 from the atmosphere, but they just don’t react fast enough on their own to counteract human greenhouse gas emissions. Our work solves this problem in a way that we think is uniquely scalable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rapid-carbon-removal-with-new-chemistry">Rapid carbon removal with new chemistry </h2>



In nature, silicate minerals gradually bind with CO2 through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-rock-weathering-is-a-co2-source-comparable-to-volcanoes/">weathering</a>, forming stable carbonates over hundreds or thousands of years.&nbsp;



Researchers worldwide have long sought methods to accelerate this slow process, often referred to as enhanced weathering. 



Kanan and Stanford postdoctoral scholar Yuxuan Chen found a way to make silicates rapidly absorb carbon, thanks to what Chen describes as a “new chemistry.”



“We envisioned a new chemistry to activate the inert silicate minerals through a simple ion-exchange reaction,” said Chen, who led the lab work. “We didn’t expect that it would work as well as it does.”



By speeding up mineral reactions that would otherwise unfold over centuries, this approach has the potential to remove significant amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/">carbon dioxide</a> from the air in a fraction of the time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-efficient-mineral-transformation">More efficient mineral transformation</h2>



Existing carbon removal strategies - such as direct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capturing-carbon-directly-from-the-air-is-now-much-more-efficient-thanks-to-new-material/">air capture</a> - often rely on energy-intensive equipment, including large fans, chemicals, and other methods to filter out CO2. They can be both costly and difficult to scale. In contrast, the Stanford scientists point to the energy savings of their approach.



“Our process would require less than half the energy used by leading direct air capture technologies, and we think we can be very competitive from a cost point of view,” said Kanan, who is also a senior fellow at the <a href="https://energy.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Precourt Institute for Energy</a> in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.



In their experiments, the team heated limestone (calcium carbonate) in a kiln to produce calcium oxide, then combined this material with silicate minerals containing magnesium.&nbsp;



When the two substances were heated together, they exchanged ions and yielded magnesium oxide and calcium silicate - both of which readily take up carbon from the air.



“The process acts as a multiplier,” Kanan noted. “You take one reactive mineral, calcium oxide, and a magnesium silicate that is more or less inert, and you generate two reactive minerals.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trapping-carbon-with-simple-chemistry">Trapping carbon with simple chemistry </h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-crack-resistant-cement-material-inspired-by-nature/">Cement</a> manufacturers have used kilns for centuries, processing limestone at high temperatures to create key ingredients for concrete. The Stanford method adapts this time-tested approach but substitutes part of the cement mixture with magnesium silicates.



When these newly formed minerals are exposed to water and carbon dioxide - even at the relatively low concentrations found in ambient air - they spontaneously convert CO2 into stable carbonates.&nbsp;



Laboratory tests showed that wet samples of magnesium oxide and calcium silicate could trap carbon in weeks to months, far outpacing natural weathering.



“You can imagine spreading magnesium oxide and calcium silicate over large land areas to remove CO2 from ambient air,” Kanan said.&nbsp;



“One exciting application that we’re testing now is adding them to agricultural soil. As they weather, the minerals transform into bicarbonates that can move through the soil and end up permanently stored in the ocean.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-benefits-for-farmers">Potential benefits for farmers</h2>



Soil treatments commonly include calcium carbonate (lime) to raise pH when it is too acidic. In principle, farmers could switch to these new reactive minerals instead of conventional lime.&nbsp;



“Adding our product would eliminate the need for liming, since both mineral components are alkaline,” Kanan explained.&nbsp;



“In addition, as calcium silicate weathers, it releases silicon to the soil in a form that the plants can take up, which can improve crop yields and resilience. Ideally, farmers would pay for these minerals because they’re beneficial to farm productivity and the health of the soil - and as a bonus, there’s the carbon removal.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-for-global-impact">Scaling up for global impact</h2>



According to Kanan’s team, ramping up production to a meaningful scale would require converting millions of tons of silicate minerals each year.&nbsp;



“Each year, more than 400 million tons of mine tailings with suitable silicates are generated worldwide, providing a potentially large source of raw material,” Chen said.&nbsp;



“It’s estimated that there are more than 100,000 gigatons of olivine and serpentine reserves on Earth, enough to permanently remove far more CO2 than humans have ever emitted.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-carbon-solution">Nature's carbon solution</h2>



After factoring in emissions from heating kilns using natural gas or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuels-may-eliminate-90-of-black-smoke-emissions-from-cars/">biofuel</a>, the researchers estimate that each ton of their final material can remove one ton of CO2 from the atmosphere.&nbsp;



For context, fossil fuel emissions of carbon dioxide surpassed 37 billion tons in 2024, demonstrating the pressing need for large-scale solutions.



“Society has already figured out how to produce billions of tons of cement per year, and cement kilns run for decades,” Kanan said. “If we use those learnings and designs, there is a clear path for how to go from lab discovery to carbon removal on a meaningful scale.”



Work is also underway to develop electric-powered kilns in collaboration with electrical engineering associate professor Jonathan Fan. 



If successful, this innovation could reduce or eliminate the carbon footprint of the heating process, further boosting the climate benefits.



By combining well-established industrial methods with a novel chemical reaction, this approach could offer a promising and relatively low-cost way to draw down billions of tons of CO2 from the atmosphere - and help mitigate the accelerating effects of climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08499-2">Nature</a>.



Image Credit: Renhour48 via Wikimedia



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Common rocks turned into great carbon trappers with new technology

Scientists have devised an affordable way to permanently remove carbon...

Stars are born in dense clouds of gas and dust, but new evidence suggests that conditions in the early universe may have shaped their formation in surprising ways.&nbsp;



In a recent study, observations of the Small Magellanic Cloud (SMC) revealed that about 40% of the star-forming clouds in this distant dwarf galaxy exhibit a “fluffy” shape.&nbsp;



This discovery potentially alters our understanding of how many stars - similar to our own Sun - came into being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-star-formation-across-cosmic-history">Star formation across cosmic history </h2>



The research was led by Kazuki Tokuda, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyushu University</a>’s Faculty of Science. The findings may shed new light on the evolution of star formation across cosmic history.



In the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/">Milky Way</a> today, stars generally form within elongated, filamentary molecular clouds.&nbsp;



Astronomers believe our own Solar System originated in such a structure, where a large filament broke apart into smaller cores - often called “stellar eggs.” 



Over hundreds of thousands of years, gravity pulled gas into each core to forge a new star.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conditions-of-the-early-universe">Conditions of the early universe</h2>



Tokuda noted that our understanding of star formation is still developing, and comprehending how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-formation-reignited-in-the-galaxy-leo-p-after-billions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars formed</a> in the earlier universe is even more challenging. 



“The early universe was quite different from today, mostly populated by hydrogen and helium. Heavier elements formed later in high-mass stars," explained Tokuda.



"We can’t go back in time to study star formation in the early universe, but we can observe parts of the universe with environments similar to the early universe.”



The Small Magellanic Cloud meets these conditions. It lies about 20,000 light-years from Earth - very close by cosmic standards - and contains only one-fifth the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hungry-white-dwarf-stars-eat-heavy-metals/">heavy elements</a> (sometimes called “metals” by astronomers) found in the Milky Way.&nbsp;



This makes the SMC an excellent proxy for conditions that would have been prevalent around 10 billion years ago, when the universe itself contained fewer heavy elements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-fluffy-molecular-clouds">Observing fluffy molecular clouds </h2>



Despite the SMC’s usefulness, it has proven challenging to gather high-resolution data on its star-forming regions. 



Astronomers need to distinguish whether filaments - like those that give rise to stars in the Milky Way - also exist in the SMC, or if some entirely different process might govern star formation there.



Fortunately, new observations from the ALMA radio telescope in Chile offered the resolution needed to analyze molecular clouds in the Small Magellanic Cloud. 



“In total, we collected and analyzed data from 17 molecular clouds. Each of these molecular clouds had growing baby stars 20 times the mass of our Sun,” Tokuda said.&nbsp;



“We found that about 60% of the molecular clouds we observed had a filamentary structure with a width of about 0.3 light-years, but the remaining 40% had a ‘fluffy’ shape. Furthermore, the temperature inside the filamentary molecular clouds was higher than that of the fluffy molecular clouds.”



Higher temperatures in the filamentary clouds appear to reflect a more recent formation. After their initial collisions, these clouds start off relatively hot, with weak turbulence.&nbsp;



As the gas cools, the incoming energy from further collisions creates increased turbulence, which can smooth out the filamentary structure - resulting in the “fluffy” clouds that Tokuda’s team observed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colossal-star-forming-factories">Colossal star-forming factories</h2>



The shift from filamentary to fluffy shapes could have profound implications for the stars that eventually emerge. If the filaments remain intact, they tend to fragment along their lengths, producing many stars (some of them low-mass stars like the Sun).&nbsp;



On the other hand, if the clouds lose their structure too quickly and become fluffy, the formation of these stellar cores may be disrupted, potentially affecting how many Sun-like stars (and planetary systems) can form.



The difference in temperature between filamentary and fluffy clouds is likely linked to their age. Initially, all molecular clouds formed as filamentary structures with high temperatures, primarily due to the impact of cloud collisions. In this heated state, turbulence within the cloud remains weak.&nbsp;



However, as the cloud cools over time, the kinetic energy from incoming gas increases turbulence, gradually breaking down the filamentary structure and transforming it into a more diffuse, fluffy cloud.



Such differences highlight the importance of heavy elements in stabilizing molecular clouds - elements that play a key role in radiative cooling and help regulate the dynamics within these colossal star-forming factories.&nbsp;



“This study indicates that the environment, such as an adequate supply of heavy elements, is crucial for maintaining a filamentary structure and may play an important role in the formation of planetary systems,” Tokuda added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysteries-of-star-formation">Mysteries of star formation </h2>



Given that heavy elements were far scarcer in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-monsters-challenge-what-we-know-about-the-early-universe/">early universe</a>, these findings hint that many primordial stars might have formed under conditions more akin to the “fluffy” clouds in the SMC. That scenario could alter our perspective on the first generations of stars and the overall evolution of galaxies in the cosmos.



“In the future, it will be important to compare our results with observations of molecular clouds in heavy-element-rich environments, including the Milky Way galaxy. Such studies should provide new insights into the formation and temporal evolution of molecular clouds and the universe,” Tokuda said.



Whether filamentary or fluffy, molecular clouds remain at the heart of one of astronomy’s greatest questions: How, and under what circumstances, do stars emerge?&nbsp;



By studying the SMC and beyond, researchers aim to map out these stellar birthplaces more completely, revealing how different cosmic eras might have shaped the countless stars that fill our skies today.



The study is published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/ada5f8">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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‘Fluffy’ molecular clouds may change our understanding of star formation

Stars are born in dense clouds of gas and dust,...

Flowers that lose their initial charm often end up in the trash. This might seem normal when the petals wither, yet many of these blooms are still valuable.



Scientists are exploring opportunities to use edible varieties of these flowers. They are checking their nutrients, flavors, and possible effects on food quality and shelf life.



“Rose flowers are still going to be rose flowers on Valentine’s Day. But we are looking at what happens the day after Valentine’s Day to those flowers,” said Anand Mohan, associate professor in UGA’s College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences.



Some flowers offer natural pigments that could replace synthetic colorants. Others contain antioxidants and proteins that might strengthen nutritional content in everyday meals.



Flowers with broad petals sometimes carry protective compounds that can guard meats, cereals, or even beverages against spoilage. These qualities are drawing attention in food science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-ultrasound">The promise of ultrasound</h2>



Researchers highlight that ultrasound waves help process many foods with less time and resource use. They also see the potential for ultrasound to extend a flower’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">usability</a> beyond a typical bouquet’s lifespan.



Ultrasound equipment works by sending waves into the material. Those waves move water away more efficiently and release beneficial compounds locked inside the petals.



When handled properly, this low-frequency technology can disrupt cell walls and let colorants, proteins, and vitamins flow into a solution. Once extracted, these compounds can be turned into powders or liquids.



Ultrasound may open up new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-freezer-can-play-a-key-role-in-reducing-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prospects</a> for turning leftover petals into color boosters or dietary enhancements. This shift could reduce waste and get more mileage out of every bloom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-petals-as-food-ingredients">Flower petals as food ingredients</h2>



“We are trying to use edible flowers as a source of protein, food colorant and vitamins,” said Mohan. 



Some species of broccoli flowers have protein content that can be blended into cereals. Others, like hibiscus, yield a vibrant color that can replace artificial dyes.



Much of the effort involves pinpointing the right flower for the right purpose. Roses might suit meat preservation, while marigolds might fit as an ingredient in certain sauces.



Scientists also look at how different varieties thrive in changing climates. The goal is to identify flowers that stay strong and maintain a steady supply for the food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-labels-help-grocers-cut-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">market</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-flavor-and-shelf-life">Balancing flavor and shelf life</h2>



Edible flowers might shift taste profiles. Some bring a delicate note, while others contribute a mild bitterness or herbal kick.



Preserving these flowers isn’t always easy. Traditional drying can be slow and may destroy color and aroma.



Hot air drying often leads to a dimmer petal hue. Ultrasound pretreatment shortens drying time and cuts the browning that heat can trigger.



The result is a dried ingredient that can be crushed or powdered. This form is simple to ship and store, making it perfect for large-scale food production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-color-intact">Keeping color intact</h2>



Many edible flowers get their bright appearance from anthocyanins or other plant chemicals. Heat can degrade these compounds, turning a vibrant petal into a dull one.



Ultrasound can reduce this risk by aiding quick water removal and limiting direct high-heat exposure. It also stalls enzymes like polyphenol oxidase, which spark browning.



A mild ultrasound phase maintains crucial pigments. The finished product retains most of its original shade.



Manufacturers see this as a bonus since vibrant natural colors attract consumers who want fewer artificial additives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extracting-beneficial-compounds">Extracting beneficial compounds</h2>



Beyond color, certain petal extracts carry valuable antioxidants that can guard against cell damage in the body. Ultrasound helps release these compounds into a friendly solvent.



Shorter extraction times mean less chance of thermal stress. This helps safeguard delicate vitamins or volatile oils.



Blue butterfly pea flower is one example. Studies show ultrasound extraction can bolster its antioxidant content while preserving its bright blue color.



Manufacturers can incorporate these concentrates into teas or juices. They gain both natural coloring and potential health perks in one go.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-advanced-techniques">Other advanced techniques</h2>



Microwave drying is another approach that rapidly heats petals. While quick, it can cause uneven heat distribution that may damage fragile flowers.



Infrared drying works at lower temperatures and keeps more nutrients intact. Its reach is shallower, so thicker petals might need extra time.



Ionizing radiation shows promise for sterilizing edible flowers. Yet consumer perception around radiation remains skeptical.



Ultrasound stands out for its mild thermal impact, which protects fragile compounds and saves energy. It has its own set of hurdles, but the results are enticing enough to keep it in the spotlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-consistent-results">Safe, consistent results</h2>



Ultrasound tools can be loud. The process involves intense vibrations that could affect hearing if workers aren’t shielded or if machines aren’t set up properly.



High-powered waves might also damage petal tissues if misused. Researchers must find the ideal treatment for each flower type.



The scale of production equipment is another factor. Small labs produce small batches, but bigger systems must ensure even coverage. Careful regulation of wave intensity and duration is essential for safe, consistent results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-flowers-into-food-products">Turning flowers into food products</h2>



Companies in the beverage sector can look into floral extracts that add aroma or color. Start-ups might explore using leftover wedding or holiday flowers as raw material.



Supermarkets that toss out unsold blooms could partner with local facilities to transform them into new products. This idea saves money and reduces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-age-group-is-responsible-for-the-most-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trash</a>.



Shoppers might soon see ready-to-use flower powders or meal-ready petals in store aisles. The next step involves marketing that resonates with people looking for color and flavor without synthetic additives.



Many chefs are already known for edible petals on plates. Scaling this practice for everyday consumers is the bigger challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edible-flowers-can-reduce-waste">Edible flowers can reduce waste</h2>



Flowers are grown year-round and shipped worldwide, but not all get purchased. Food scientists are pointing to these extras as a wasted resource.



Turning unsold flowers into extracts or powders addresses sustainability goals. It also recovers part of the cost that might otherwise vanish.



This loop of repurposing reduces the carbon footprint of the floral industry. People who want environmentally friendly options appreciate any step that rescues edible raw materials. Ultrasound-based processing could be a central tool in achieving that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-in-food-and-skincare">Flowers in food and skincare</h2>



Scientists are testing how flower-derived proteins boost nutritional value in everyday items like bars, cereals, or wraps. Others are exploring their potential in functional drinks or skincare lines.



The synergy between vitamins in certain petals and antioxidants in others might produce new solutions to common nutritional gaps. Such breakthroughs hinge on fine-tuning extraction and drying methods.



As more labs share positive data, companies could invest in research for large-scale production. This shift might reshape how we treat floral byproducts across multiple industries. 



Consumers might not see the behind-the-scenes processes, but they’ll notice new labels highlighting real flower extracts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-edible-flowers">The future of edible flowers</h2>



Some researchers see a future where local florists have partnerships with local food processors. The idea might grow as the data becomes more widely circulated.



Regulatory bodies need to establish clear guidelines for these new ingredients. Safety checks and labeling rules must be in place so that shoppers can trust the products.



Ultrasound might remain popular because of its non-destructive nature. Expanding beyond flowers, it might someday help reclaim other items that go to waste. For now, the excitement around edible flowers keeps building.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.70012" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Food Process Engineering</a>.



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Flowers as food: How ultrasound makes it possible

Flowers that lose their initial charm often end up in...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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