Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The Arctic's frozen ground has long kept its secrets locked away beneath layers of ice and snow. But as researchers dive deeper into the complex workings of this remote landscape, they're uncovering startling revelations about how water moves beneath the surface. 



A seemingly minor trickle of groundwater beneath Alaska’s tundra is quietly releasing vast amounts of carbon into the ocean.



This finding comes from researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Texas at Austin</a>, who discovered that this hidden process is adding an estimated 230 tons of organic carbon per day into the Beaufort Sea during summer. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundwater-releasing-carbon">Groundwater releasing carbon</h2>



Although groundwater accounts for only a small portion of the total water reaching the ocean, it is delivering as much carbon as the region’s rivers during the warmer months.



Cansu Demir, who led the research while completing her doctoral degree at the UT Jackson School of Geoscience, now works as a postdoctoral research associate at <a href="https://www.lanl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>.



“This study shows that there’s humongous amounts of organic carbon and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> released via fresh groundwater discharge in summer,” said Demir.



The researchers found that groundwater discharge in the Arctic is not only significant but may also play an increasing role in carbon release as permafrost continues to thaw.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-groundwater-in-climate-change">Role of groundwater in climate change</h2>



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-system-captures-carbon-dioxide-directly-from-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon emissions</a> from rivers, melting ice, and thawing permafrost are well documented, this study sheds light on a less recognized but equally important contributor. 



As fresh groundwater reaches the ocean, it releases carbon dioxide (CO2) that can contribute to climate change. The presence of CO2 in seawater can also lead to ocean acidification, which has long-term consequences for marine ecosystems.



As the Arctic warms, the natural movement of groundwater is changing. The study shows that fresh groundwater is actively flowing into submarine environments along the coastline where the land meets the sea. 



This contradicts earlier assumptions that freshwater submarine groundwater discharge in this region was extremely limited. The discovery raises concerns about the long-term effects of increasing groundwater discharge on carbon levels in the Arctic Ocean.



Demir and her team went further by separating freshwater from other groundwater sources. Unlike previous studies, which included recirculated saltwater that had seeped into the ground from the ocean, this research specifically identified sources of fresh groundwater.



The freshwater likely originates from rain, melting snow, thawed shallow ground ice, and possibly deeper permafrost layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundwater-s-contribution-to-carbon-release">Groundwater’s contribution to carbon release</h2>



Through direct observations and numerical modeling, the researchers measured the volume of fresh groundwater entering the Beaufort Sea and compared it to river discharge.



They found that fresh groundwater accounts for 3-7% of the total discharge from three major rivers in the region during summer. This volume is surprisingly high for an Arctic environment and is comparable to groundwater discharge levels in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-carbon-sinks-are-being-pushed-to-their-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperate</a> regions at lower latitudes.



What makes this discovery even more striking is the amount of organic carbon and nitrogen contained in the groundwater. Despite its relatively small volume, groundwater carries nearly as much organic carbon and nitrogen as the rivers in the region.



“In that small amount of water, that groundwater carries almost the same amount of organic carbon and nitrogen as rivers,” Demir explained.



This means that even as Arctic rivers continue to flow and release carbon into the ocean, groundwater is quietly doing the same, adding to the overall impact of carbon release in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-permafrost-and-its-impact">Permafrost and its impact</h2>



Groundwater does not simply move through soil and sediment on its way to the sea. It interacts with permafrost, a frozen layer of soil and organic matter that has stored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-has-regulated-earths-climate-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> for thousands of years. 



When permafrost melts, it releases stored carbon into the moving groundwater, which then transports it into the ocean.



This process is similar to how estuaries function, acting as natural reservoirs of organic matter and nutrients. However, permafrost is unique in that it holds a massive amount of trapped carbon. 



When it melts, this carbon is no longer locked away but instead becomes part of the natural carbon cycle. The result is a significant increase in the amount of carbon reaching the ocean, which can further contribute to climate change.



“The Arctic coast is changing in front of our eyes,” said Bayani Cardenas, a co-author of the study and professor at the Jackson School’s <a href="https://eps.jsg.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a>. 



“As permafrost thaws, it turns into coastal and submarine aquifers. Even without this thawing, our studies are among the first to directly show the existence of such aquifers.”



This transformation has far-reaching implications. If warming continues, even more permafrost will melt, increasing the amount of freshwater that moves underground and carrying even more carbon into the ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-ecological-consequences">Potential ecological consequences</h2>



The effects of this newly recognized carbon pathway go beyond climate change. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-losing-their-ability-to-absorb-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increase in CO2 levels</a> due to groundwater discharge is likely to impact marine ecosystems, particularly in Arctic coastal environments.



One of the most concerning impacts of groundwater contributing to carbon levels is ocean acidification. As more carbon dioxide enters the ocean, it lowers the pH of seawater, making it more acidic. 



This shift in acidity can weaken marine organisms such as crustaceans, clams, and snails, which rely on calcium carbonate to build their shells. Acidification can make these creatures more vulnerable, disrupting food chains that support both marine and human communities.



In addition to acidification, the large influx of organic carbon and nitrogen may alter nutrient balances in coastal waters. Changes in nutrient levels can affect marine plant life, algae growth, and the availability of food for larger marine species. 



Such disruptions could have cascading effects throughout Arctic marine ecosystems, affecting everything from microscopic organisms to larger fish and mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-concern-for-the-arctic-s-future">Growing concern for the Arctic’s future</h2>



As climate change accelerates permafrost thaw, the natural movement of groundwater is likely to increase. This means that more carbon will enter the ocean through submarine groundwater discharge, adding to the carbon already released by rivers and melting ice.



Understanding this process is essential for predicting future climate trends and ecological changes in the Arctic. Researchers are continuing to investigate how groundwater moves through permafrost regions and how its carbon content interacts with the ocean. 



The findings from this study provide an important foundation for future research, highlighting the need to consider groundwater as a key factor in Arctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-emissions-reduction-20-percent-possible-only-2-percent-economic-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate models</a>.



While much remains to be explored, one thing is clear: groundwater is playing a larger role in Arctic carbon emissions than previously thought. 



As the Arctic landscape continues to change, scientists will need to keep a close watch on how these hidden water flows influence both regional and global climate systems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL109142" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Alaska’s groundwater releases a huge amount of carbon into the ocean

The Arctic's frozen ground has long kept its secrets locked...

For centuries, humans have selectively bred dogs for specific tasks such as herding, hunting, guarding, and scent detection.&nbsp;



The assumption has been that these breeds developed distinct physical traits, particularly in skull morphology, that make them superior at their assigned tasks.&nbsp;



However, a new study challenges this long-standing belief, suggesting that skull shape does not determine task performance, and that individual personality and behavior play a larger role than previously thought.



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adq9590" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, the study was led by Nicholas Hebdon and Lindsay Waldrop.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misconceptions-about-dog-performance">Misconceptions about dog performance </h2>



The researchers used advanced 3D reconstruction techniques to analyze 117 skulls from 40 domestic dog breeds and 18 wild canid species. 



The findings revealed substantial overlap in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-dogs-have-larger-brains-than-ancient-dog-breeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skull shape</a> across breeds, with no clear structural adaptations for tasks like bite work or scent detection. 



Instead, the research suggests that human breeding preferences have primarily focused on visual traits rather than functional specialization.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-skull-shape-and-task-performance">Dog skull shape and task performance</h2>



The study analyzed dog breeds commonly used for bite work and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scent detection</a>, including those in law enforcement and military roles, where dogs are trained for patrol and tracking.&nbsp;



The researchers compared functional groups as classified by organizations like the <a href="https://www.akc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Kennel Club</a> (AKC) and the <a href="https://www.ukcdogs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Kennel Club</a> (UKC).



Despite the diversity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skull shapes</a> in domestic dogs, the study found high morphological overlap in areas related to function, such as the jaw and nasal structures. This suggests that breeds selected for specific tasks are not as physically specialized as once believed.



For example, bite force measurements showed no significant differences between breeds trained for bite work and those that were not, while scent-detection breeds did not have noticeably enhanced olfactory structures compared to other breeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-and-specialized-tasks">Dogs and specialized tasks</h2>



“In the past 200 years, humans have created hundreds of dog breeds that look really different and are pretty specialized at some tasks like herding, protecting, and detecting odors,” said Lindsay Waldrop, an assistant professor of biological sciences at <a href="https://www.chapman.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chapman University</a>.



“We have assumed that these dogs look different because they are structurally specialized at these tasks, but our study shows that, at least for their skulls, they are not specialized for tasks that involve the skull, such as biting tasks and scent work.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-myths-about-dangerous-breeds">Myths about “dangerous” breeds</h2>



One of the most notable findings refutes a common misconception: that certain dog breeds, such as pit bulls, have unique jaw structures that make them inherently more dangerous.



Waldrop noted that there are many news stories about dogs attacking people badly, and often, specific breeds are targeted in this reporting - such as pit bulls.&nbsp;



“Some people claim that these dogs bite harder than others of the same size or have special features like ‘locking jaws’ that make them especially dangerous to people. Our study shows that this is simply not true. Dogs bred to bite things aren’t structurally different than dogs bred to do other things,” said Waldrop.



Similarly, no distinct skull adaptations were found in dogs bred for scent detection, suggesting that behavioral traits and training play a more significant role in a dog’s ability to track odors than skull morphology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-preferences-and-dog-morphology">Human preferences and dog morphology</h2>



The one exception to the pattern was brachycephalic breeds (e.g., bulldogs and pugs), which have shortened snouts due to human-driven aesthetic selection. However, these modifications were not tied to functional advantages.



“I was most surprised by the overall similarity we see in most of the dog skulls,” said lead author Nicholas Hebdon, a postdoctoral research associate at Chapman University.



“Humans have done so much breeding work to alter the visual appearance of these animals that I honestly expected to see really marked groupings of some kind, and we really didn’t see much of that.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-shapes-skull-morphology">Evolution shapes skull morphology </h2>



In contrast, the study found strong differences between domesticated dog skulls and wild canids, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-wolves-are-a-crucial-component-of-the-american-west/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wolves</a> and foxes.&nbsp;



Wild canids have longer snouts relative to their cranial length - a feature typical of species that rely on acute senses, such as smell. This suggests that evolution, rather than selective breeding, shapes skull morphology in ways that align with natural survival needs.



Interestingly, fox skulls showed significant overlap with some terrier breeds, which were historically bred for pest control. This structural similarity may reflect functional convergence between wild predators and domestic dogs specialized for hunting small prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeds-and-working-dog-selection">Breeds and working dog selection</h2>



The study challenges the notion that physical traits alone determine working dog ability, emphasizing that behavioral traits and training are more influential.



Recent research has shown that breed-associated behaviors are partially heritable, meaning that some behavioral tendencies - such as herding instincts or scent-tracking abilities - may have genetic components.&nbsp;



However, the new findings suggest that observable behavior and trainability are more critical factors than skull structure in determining a dog's suitability for specialized tasks.



This could impact how working dogs are bred and selected, particularly in fields such as law enforcement, search and rescue, and service dog training.&nbsp;



Rather than selecting dogs based on physical traits alone, trainers may benefit from assessing personality, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-canine-cognitive-code-everyday-dog-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive ability</a>, and responsiveness to training as primary selection criteria.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-canine-evolution">New perspective on canine evolution</h2>



The study’s findings redefine how we understand dog specialization and selective breeding. While humans have significantly altered the visual appearance of domestic dogs over centuries, functional adaptations may not be as pronounced as previously thought.



By debunking misconceptions about breed-based functional superiority, these findings open the door for more effective, evidence-based approaches to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-training-is-more-effective-when-nice-voice-tone-is-used/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dog training</a>, breeding, and working dog selection.&nbsp;



Rather than focusing on appearance-based stereotypes, future studies and breeding programs may place greater emphasis on behavioral and cognitive traits - a shift that could benefit both dogs and the people who depend on them.



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Dog breed does not define performance and ability 

For centuries, humans have selectively bred dogs for specific tasks...

Sharks and rays have inhabited Earth’s oceans for about 450 million years. These cartilaginous fish have survived five mass extinctions, adapting to environmental changes that wiped out countless other species.



Despite their resilience, modern threats endanger their survival like never before. Overfishing and habitat destruction have placed more than a third of all species at serious risk. Now, climate change introduces another challenge to sharks and rays.



A team of international researchers led by palaeobiologist Manuel A. Staggl from the University of Vienna sought to understand how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-constantly-reshuffling-earths-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">past climate fluctuations</a> affected the biodiversity of sharks and rays. 



They focused on the Jurassic (200-143 million years ago) and Cretaceous (143-66 million years ago) periods, a time when these species thrived in diverse environments. 



By analyzing fossilized teeth and comparing them to climate records, they identified key environmental factors that influenced shark populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-climate-change-shaped-shark-evolution">How climate change shaped shark evolution</h2>



The evolution of sharks and rays has always been closely linked to environmental conditions. During the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, the oceans underwent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant changes</a>. 



The expansion of shallow coastal waters created new habitats, while rising global temperatures affected marine ecosystems. These periods saw an explosion in shark and ray diversity, demonstrating their ability to adapt to shifting conditions.



Fossil evidence suggests that the diversity of these species fluctuated with environmental changes. The researchers found that three main factors influenced their survival.



Higher global temperatures and an increase in shallow water areas had a positive effect, allowing sharks and rays to expand into new regions. 



However, a third factor - rising carbon dioxide (CO2) levels - had a clearly negative impact. This discovery sheds new light on how future climate change might affect these species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-co2-and-shark-diversity">Rising CO2 and shark diversity </h2>



One of the most significant findings of the study was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-fear-climate-change-will-end-the-world-during-their-lifetime/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">negative effect of CO2 concentrations</a> on shark and ray biodiversity. Higher CO2 levels in the ocean have long been suspected to harm marine life, but this study provides clear evidence of its impact.



This is the first time that the negative impact of CO2 in the ocean has been so clearly described. While the exact mechanisms remain unclear, laboratory studies on modern sharks and rays suggest direct physiological consequences.



Increased CO2 can alter their sensory abilities, affecting their ability to navigate and hunt. It can also influence skeletal development during embryonic stages, potentially leading to deformities.



The fossil record confirms that past increases in CO2 levels contributed to the extinction of certain shark and ray species. This suggests that current climate change, driven by human activity, could have similar long-term consequences. If CO2 levels continue to rise, the survival of many species may be at risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-opportunities-for-sharks">Climate opportunities for sharks</h2>



Despite the dangers, climate change may not be entirely detrimental to sharks and rays. In previous geological periods, rising sea levels and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cities-are-largely-unprepared-for-the-effects-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasing temperatures</a> actually benefited their populations. 



Expanding warm-water regions and the creation of new shallow coastal environments provided ideal conditions for these predators.



"The resulting habitats in shallow seas that cover large continental areas are real biodiversity hotspots; sharks and rays were able to colonize them very quickly and efficiently thanks to their adaptability," explained Staggl.



During the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, temperatures were significantly higher than today, leading to the expansion of the tropics and subtropics. With fewer seasonal changes, marine ecosystems became more stable, supporting a wider range of species.



If similar conditions emerge in the future, some sharks and rays might find new habitats to thrive in. However, the speed of modern climate change presents a unique challenge. 



Unlike past warming events that occurred over millions of years, today’s changes are happening in just decades. This rapid shift could make adaptation difficult, even for a group of species that has survived multiple extinctions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rapidly-changing-world">A rapidly changing world</h2>



Assuming that sharks and rays will simply adapt to climate change would be overly optimistic. 



"The environment is currently changing particularly quickly - unfortunately probably too quickly for the animals and their ecosystems," said Staggl. 



The current rate of warming and ocean acidification may surpass their ability to adjust. Overfishing and habitat destruction further <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-the-world-is-on-track-for-a-catastrophic-level-of-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complicate the situation</a>. 



Many shark species are already struggling due to declining populations, and climate change may add additional stress. Warmer oceans can disrupt food chains, forcing sharks to migrate in search of prey.



Changes in ocean currents and rising acidity levels may also alter their breeding patterns. If these species cannot adapt quickly enough, many could face extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-sharks-from-climate-change">Protecting sharks from climate change</h2>



Urgent action is needed to protect sharks and rays from multiple environmental threats. Conservation efforts must address overfishing, habitat loss, and the growing effects of climate change. 



These predators play a crucial role in maintaining marine ecosystems, and their decline could have widespread consequences.



"Because without the top predators, the ecosystems would collapse," warned Jürgen Kriwet, professor of palaeobiology at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a>.



Sharks and rays regulate the balance of ocean life, keeping populations of other marine species in check. Without them, ecosystems could become unstable, affecting biodiversity and fisheries that millions of people depend on.



"By protecting sharks and rays, we are investing directly in the health of our oceans and therefore also in the people and industries that benefit from these ecosystems," said Kriwet.



Preserving these species is not just about maintaining biodiversity - it is about ensuring the stability of marine environments. 



The future of sharks and rays depends on immediate and sustained conservation efforts. Their survival will determine the health of the oceans for generations to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-7737/14/2/142" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology</a>.



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Sharks may benefit from rising temperatures - but not from rising CO2

Sharks and rays have inhabited Earth’s oceans for about 450...

Research has consistently demonstrated the cognitive benefits of bilingualism. A new study suggests that these benefits may be even more pronounced in children with autism. 



A team of psychologists and researchers set out to investigate the role of bilingualism in children, with a particular focus on kids with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-diagnoses-have-almost-tripled-in-the-us-over-the-past-ten-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">autism</a>.



Based on a sample of 112 children between the ages of 7 and 12, the team scrutinized the cognitive impacts of speaking two or more languages.



The experts found promising connections between multilingualism and improved executive function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bilingualism-and-executive-function">Bilingualism and executive function</h2>



"We discovered that multilingualism is associated with improvements in executive function, which in turn is associated with improvements in autism symptoms," said Lynn Perry, one of the lead researchers.



Executive function refers to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-key-mental-abilities-that-actually-improve-with-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mental skills</a> essential for focus, planning, remembering instructions, and multitasking. 



While these skills develop over time, children with autism often face challenges with executive functioning, which can impact their ability to handle daily tasks and adjust to new situations. Bilingualism seems to have a positive effect in this area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universal-benefits-of-bilingualism">Universal benefits of bilingualism </h2>



The benefits of bilingualism are not exclusive to children with autism. Speaking more than one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/native-language-is-specially-stored-in-the-brain-for-easy-access/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">language</a> seems to give a cognitive boost to all kids, enhancing skills that are indispensable for thriving in school and future workplaces.



The ability to perceive and respond to the world from another's viewpoint, known as perspective-taking, is another area that bilingualism appears to significantly impact. 



"We also found that multilingual children have enhanced perspective taking skills, or the ability to understand someone else’s thoughts or point of view," noted Celia Romero, another researcher on the team.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bilingual-advantage">The bilingual advantage </h2>



A theory called joint activation, born from neuroscience, suggests an interesting pattern in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bilingual-brain-maintains-youthfulness-with-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bilingual brain</a>. 



With two languages constantly active and battling for usage, the brain continuously shifts between the languages, enhancing executive control. This phenomenon is touted as the "bilingual advantage."



Lucina Uddin is a former professor at the <a href="https://www.as.miami.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Miami College of Arts and Sciences</a> and the current director of the Brain Connectivity and Cognition Laboratory at the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Los Angeles</a>.



"If you have to juggle two languages, you have to suppress one in order to use the other. That's the idea, that inhibition - or the ability to stop yourself from doing something - might be bolstered by knowing two languages," explained Uddin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-children-exposed-to-multiple-languages">Children exposed to multiple languages </h2>



The research challenges previous concerns that learning multiple languages might overwhelm autistic children.



"I started investigating this to let families know there’s no detriment for their child to learn another language, whether or not they have a neurodevelopmental disorder," said Romero. "We know this through research, but often it takes time to translate that to families, so I hope this study helps address that."



This perspective is shared by Michael Alessandri, the executive director of the Center for Autism and Related Disabilities.



"It is wonderful to have sound research supporting our general recommendation to not restrict language exposures to children in multilingual homes,” said Alessandri. "This will surely bring a sense of relief to many of our families living with loved ones with autism.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The researchers will continue their work by focusing on preschool children and the effect of bilingualism on peer interactions, which are critical for children's social and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bilingual-children-have-lasting-cognitive-benefits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive</a> development.



At UCLA, Uddin is conducting an extensive follow-up study to further examine the impact of multilingualism on brain and cognitive development in autistic children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-impact-of-bilingualism">Long-term impact of bilingualism</h2>



The benefits of bilingualism extend beyond childhood, influencing cognitive resilience and adaptability into adulthood. 



Studies suggest that multilingual individuals develop stronger problem-solving skills and improved memory retention over time. 



For autistic individuals, these advantages may translate into better academic performance, enhanced workplace adaptability, and improved social interactions.



Researchers believe that the continuous cognitive exercise of managing two languages strengthens neural pathways associated with flexibility and decision-making. 



As more studies emerge, experts hope that multilingual education will be increasingly encouraged in neurodivergent communities, ensuring long-term cognitive and social benefits.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aur.3260" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Autism Research</a>.



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Children with autism benefit from learning multiple languages

Research has consistently demonstrated the cognitive benefits of bilingualism. A...

Recent evidence indicates that even modest exposure to traffic-related air pollution could harm the liver and potentially increase the likelihood of developing metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD).&nbsp;



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.uts.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Technology Sydney</a> (UTS) set out to investigate how fine particulate matter - collected from urban roadways - can undermine liver health over time.&nbsp;



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-air-pollution-forms-may-help-us-prevent-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a> is typically associated with respiratory risks, this research suggests its effects may extend far beyond the lungs.



“We think of air pollution as being harmful to people’s lungs, but it has a broader impact on health including on the liver,” said lead author Hui Chen, a professor at UTS.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-fatty-liver-disease">What is fatty liver disease?</h2>



Fatty liver disease, also known as hepatic steatosis, is the world’s most prevalent liver disorder, characterized by an overaccumulation of fat in liver cells.&nbsp;



In its advanced stages, fatty liver can lead to inflammation, cirrhosis, cancer, or even organ failure. A key reason the liver is so vulnerable is because it plays central roles in detoxifying the blood, regulating glucose, and producing essential molecules the body needs to function.



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-say-this-is-the-best-fruit-to-eat-for-a-healthier-liver/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liver</a> is critical for metabolism. It clears toxins, regulates blood sugar, and produces essential vitamins and proteins, among many other functions. If the liver isn't functioning properly, it can leave people feeling tired and unwell due to disrupted metabolism,” Chen explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pollution-particles-infiltrate-the-liver">How pollution particles infiltrate the liver</h2>



The study examined the effects of tiny particulate matter, specifically PM2.5, which is smaller than 2.5 microns - about 3% the diameter of a human hair. Because of its minuscule size, PM2.5 bypasses many of the body’s natural filters when inhaled.&nbsp;



“When we inhale air pollution, the very tiny particles known as PM2.5 enter the bloodstream through the lungs. The liver, which filters toxins from the blood, then accumulates these substances, which can include heavy metals such as arsenic, lead, nickel and zinc,” said Chen.&nbsp;



Over time, this accumulation may strain the organ and jeopardize overall metabolic health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-exposure-and-fatty-liver">Pollution exposure and fatty liver </h2>



World-renowned liver specialist Professor Jacob George, director of the <a href="https://wimr.org.au/research-centres/the-storr-liver-centre/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Storr Liver Center</a> and a co-author of the study, researches the causes of liver diseases and cancer.&nbsp;



Professor George pointed out that “around one in three Australian adults has fatty liver disease, and it is more common in those who are overweight or have diabetes.”&nbsp;



Although unhealthy dietary habits, physical inactivity, and excess alcohol consumption are well-established contributors, these latest findings highlight the added role that chronic exposure to traffic pollution may play.&nbsp;



This insight emphasizes the complexity of fatty liver disease, which likely results from a combination of lifestyle, genetic, and environmental elements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-effects-on-the-liver">Cumulative effects on the liver</h2>



The researchers exposed mice to 10 micrograms of traffic-related PM2.5 each day - a dose they say reflects typical human exposure levels in busy urban areas, such as major roads in Sydney.&nbsp;



Key markers of liver health, including inflammation and fibrosis (scar tissue formation), plus changes in liver sugars and fats, were tracked at intervals of four, eight, and twelve weeks.



After four weeks, the liver showed few notable changes. After eight weeks, however, clear disruption in normal metabolic function was observed.



By twelve weeks, significant changes emerged, including higher levels of inflammation and scarring, altered sugar storage, and increased harmful fats.



“The effect was cumulative. At four weeks we didn’t see much change, but by eight weeks there was disruption to the normal metabolic function of the liver and by 12 weeks we could see significant changes,” explained first author Dr. Min Feng, a medical doctor and PhD candidate in the UTS Faculty of Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-air-pollution-alters-liver-chemistry">How air pollution alters liver chemistry</h2>



The presence of PM2.5 appeared to spur immune cells to cluster in the liver, leading to inflammation and scar tissue formation.&nbsp;



In addition, the liver’s processing of fats ramped up, leading to more potent forms of lipids - like triglycerides, diacylglycerols, and ceramides - while simultaneously storing less sugar for energy.&nbsp;



On a molecular level, researchers discovered changes in 64 liver proteins, many of which correlate with fatty liver, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-weakens-astronauts-immune-system-similar-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immune dysfunction</a>, or cancer-related processes.



“Previous research has shown that exposure to heavily polluted air is associated with liver disorders, however this study reveals even low levels can cause harm. It suggests there is no safe level of exposure to traffic-derived air pollution,” said Chen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-health-risks-of-traffic-pollution">Mitigating health risks of traffic pollution</h2>



The researchers recommend that people limit their exposure to traffic-related air pollution by avoiding peak-hour commutes, taking less congested routes when possible, and closing car windows with air recirculation mode in dense traffic. They also suggest considering masks if traveling through highly polluted areas.&nbsp;



Such steps may help reduce the accumulation of PM2.5 in the bloodstream and minimize any subsequent stress on the liver.



While further research is needed to explore how medication or therapeutic interventions might mitigate this pollution-driven liver damage, these findings add a new dimension to how air pollution can impact health.&nbsp;



By demonstrating that even small doses of PM2.5 can compromise liver function over time, the study broadens the discussion of environmental hazards. Fatty liver disease and other related conditions may be more intricately tied to daily life in polluted urban settings than previously recognized.



As a next step, the researchers plan to investigate potential treatments, such as targeted pharmaceuticals or lifestyle modifications, that could bolster the liver’s resilience against pollution.&nbsp;



While lifestyle factors - such as a healthy diet, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exercise</a>, and reduced alcohol intake - remain central to preventing fatty liver, evidence now points to tackling environmental exposures as well.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2025.01.025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Environmental Sciences</a>.



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Traffic-related air pollution causes liver damage

Recent evidence indicates that even modest exposure to traffic-related air...

A new study has revealed how sudden cold waves impact insects and mammals in the Amazon rainforest.&nbsp;



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Würzburg</a> documented a rare cold spell in June 2023, during which temperatures plummeted from an average of 23.9°C to just 10.5°C. 



“Climatic conditions in tropical lowland rainforests are generally considered to be constantly warm and organisms are adapted to little fluctuations in temperature,” noted the researchers.



“However, even rainforests deep in the Amazon can be affected by cold waves.”



The team conducted the first comprehensive study on how wild animal communities in the Amazon lowlands respond to drastic temperature shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-cold-in-the-amazon-nbsp">Unexpected cold in the Amazon&nbsp;</h2>



Local field assistants informed the research team that cold spells lasting several days are not uncommon in the Amazon.&nbsp;



In fact, a similar but milder drop to 18°C occurred in 2022. However, the researchers were surprised by the severity and duration of the 2023 event. Recognizing the opportunity, they set out to study its effects on local wildlife.



Until now, studies on cold waves in the Amazon had largely focused on agricultural impacts.&nbsp;



This study marks the first investigation into how these temperature fluctuations affect native insect and mammal populations, shedding light on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-climate-changes-have-drastic-effects-on-tropical-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical species</a> might cope with future climate variations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-wildlife-responded-to-the-cold">How wildlife responded to the cold</h2>



The researchers analyzed biodiversity data collected in 2022, comparing it with data gathered during and after the cold spell. Their study included insect monitoring using traps to measure biomass of flying and ground-dwelling species.



The team also used camera traps to observe the behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-of-large-mammals-was-caused-by-humans-not-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large mammals</a>, including jaguars, tapirs, and peccaries.



During cold tolerance experiments, insects were gradually cooled in a thermostat to determine their survival thresholds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insects-show-resilience-with-one-exception">Insects show resilience, with one exception</h2>



During the cold wave, insect biomass and activity declined sharply, but most species fully recovered in the following months.&nbsp;



The exception was <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dung-beetles-share-their-workload-with-their-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dung beetles</a>, whose populations remained lower even after temperatures returned to normal, suggesting they are more sensitive to cold than other insects.



Cold tolerance tests revealed that while most insects could survive temperatures lower than 10.5°C, about 25% were already near their physiological limits.&nbsp;



These insects lost mobility at just 0.62°C below the recorded cold wave temperatures, meaning even slightly colder events could significantly impact their survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammals-reduced-activity-to-conserve-energy">Mammals reduced activity to conserve energy</h2>



Unlike insects, mammals can regulate their body temperature. However, camera traps revealed a noticeable drop in their activity during the cold spell.&nbsp;



The researchers believe this was a strategy to conserve energy, as maintaining body heat in colder conditions requires greater metabolic effort.



Once temperatures returned to normal, mammal activity levels rebounded. Though the study did not include birds, reptiles, or amphibians, researchers noted subjectively that these groups also appeared less active, contributing to an unusually quiet rainforest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-waves-in-the-amazon">Cold waves in the Amazon</h2>



The study highlights that cold waves - defined as three or more consecutive days of significantly lower temperatures - are a recurring phenomenon in the Amazon.&nbsp;



Between 1980 and 2017, 67 such events were recorded, some lasting up to eight days. These cold spells are typically caused by Antarctic air masses traveling north along the Andes and Brazilian highlands.



With climate change influencing global weather patterns, researchers speculate that these events may become more intense. If temperatures continue to drop beyond the tolerance of certain species, long-term ecological consequences could emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-and-conservation-efforts">Future research and conservation efforts</h2>



The study, part of the <a href="https://www.andiv.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ANDIV project</a> (Patterns and Drivers of Insect Diversity and Their Microbiome Along a Complete Forest Elevational Gradient in the Peruvian Andes), highlights the need for further research into how climate variability impacts Amazonian ecosystems. 



Supported by the <a href="https://www.dfg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Research Foundation</a> (DFG) and involving scientists from the <a href="https://www.uni-jena.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Jena</a> and <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LMU Munich</a>, this ongoing project aims to understand how insect biodiversity is shaped by environmental changes.



As global temperatures fluctuate, understanding the resilience of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-amazon-became-a-biodiversity-hotspot/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazonian wildlife</a> to unexpected cold spells will be crucial for predicting how climate change might reshape one of the world’s most diverse ecosystems.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2024.0591" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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Cold shocks in the Amazon: How do wild animals respond?

A new study has revealed how sudden cold waves impact...

The modern gym experience for women is more complex than simply showing up to exercise.



A new study reveals that women face social pressures, judgment, and physical barriers in gym environments. These challenges affect their ability to maintain regular exercise routines and fully benefit from physical activity.



Regular exercise improves both physical and mental health, with women experiencing significant advantages. Research shows that women who engage in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fitness-is-far-more-important-than-weight-for-living-a-healthy-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consistent exercise</a> have lower mortality rates and a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease compared to men.



Despite these benefits, women remain less active than men, even as their gym memberships have increased. Understanding the factors behind this disparity is essential to creating more inclusive and supportive fitness spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-pressures-and-gym-spaces">Social pressures and gym spaces</h2>



The study was led by researchers Emma Cowley from the&nbsp;<a href="https://sheresearch.ie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SHE&nbsp;Research&nbsp;Centre</a>&nbsp;at TUS, Ireland, and Jekaterina Schneider from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.uwe.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University&nbsp;of&nbsp;the&nbsp;West&nbsp;of&nbsp;England</a>.



Cowley and Schneider conducted an online survey with 279 women. Among these respondents, 84% were current gym-goers. The findings revealed a persistent struggle among women to feel comfortable in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/working-out-at-the-gym-you-may-need-to-check-the-air-quality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gym spaces</a>.



Many women reported feeling judged based on their appearance and performance, leading to feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt. 



This environment creates additional pressure to conform to certain fitness ideals while simultaneously navigating the challenge of being taken seriously in gym spaces dominated by men.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-women-claiming-space-in-the-gym">Women claiming space in the gym</h2>



Women often found themselves fighting for space, whether it was waiting for gym equipment or feeling the need to prove their competence in weightlifting areas traditionally occupied by men. 



Additionally, many reported experiencing harassment or receiving unsolicited advice from male gym-goers. These interactions contribute to a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physical-activity-instantly-boosts-your-brain-speed-by-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gym culture</a> that, at times, makes it more difficult for women to focus on their workouts without feeling scrutinized.



Despite these challenges, the study also found that women actively resisted the gendered and appearance-based expectations placed upon them. Many found empowerment through skill development, breaking traditional gender norms, and working out in environments that supported their fitness goals. 



When women exercised in spaces where they felt encouraged rather than judged, they were more likely to continue their fitness journeys with confidence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gym-attire-and-confidence">Gym attire and confidence</h2>



One of the key findings of the study was the role of gym attire in shaping women’s experiences. Clothing choices in gym settings were often both empowering and restrictive. 



Many women selected their workout attire based on comfort and functionality, prioritizing movement and breathability. However, social comparison and fear of judgment often influenced these decisions.



Some women expressed concerns about wearing non-branded gym attire, fearing that their clothing choices might make them stand out in a negative way.



Others worried that dressing in stylish or coordinated outfits could make them appear too put-together or as if they were trying too hard. For many, gym attire became a tool for hiding perceived imperfections, such as choosing clothes that concealed certain areas of their body or minimized the visibility of sweat stains.



This aspect of the study aligns with previous research suggesting that gym clothing plays a significant role in shaping body image and self-perception. 



For some women, the right attire can boost confidence and make them feel more prepared for their workouts. However, when clothing choices are influenced by social pressures or concerns about judgment, they can become an additional barrier to feeling at ease in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ai-artificial-intelligence-changing-health-diet-fitness-exercise-approach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gym setting</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-future-research">Expanding future research</h2>



While the study provides important insights into women’s experiences in gym environments, the researchers acknowledge several limitations. 



Most participants in the study were white, heterosexual, and self-identified as being of “normal” weight. They were also able-bodied, current gym-goers, and lived in economically developed countries.



These factors limit the generalizability of the findings, as they do not fully capture the experiences of women from diverse backgrounds.



The study highlights the need for future research that includes a more representative sample. Women from different racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds, as well as those with disabilities, may face unique challenges in gym environments.



Understanding these perspectives can help create more inclusive policies and practices that ensure all women feel comfortable and supported when engaging in fitness activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-redefining-gym-culture">Redefining gym culture</h2>



One of the most striking takeaways from the study is how social norms continue to influence women’s experiences in the gym. The experts note that while the pressure to maintain an ultra-thin physique has decreased, a new challenge has emerged.



The growing emphasis on muscularity and athleticism has introduced new, often unattainable, fitness ideals for women.



“In the gym, just like in other areas of life, women often feel stuck between being seen as ‘too much’ and ‘not enough’, dealing with judgement about how they look, how they perform, and even how much space they take up,” noted the researchers.



“Even though the pressure to be super thin is decreasing, the growing focus on being muscular and athletic is creating new challenges. It is pushing unrealistic standards that can negatively affect women’s body image and overall well-being.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inclusive-gym-culture-for-women">Inclusive gym culture for women</h2>



These observations highlight the ongoing need to challenge traditional fitness standards and promote a more balanced and individualized approach to exercise. 



By shifting the focus away from aesthetics and toward health, strength, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-in-a-pill-is-now-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personal well-being</a>, gyms can create environments that encourage women to feel more comfortable and confident in their fitness journeys.



Creating a gym culture that welcomes and supports women requires a collective effort from fitness professionals, gym staff, and gym-goers. 



Encouraging respectful interactions, implementing inclusive gym policies, and providing designated spaces where women can train without discomfort are essential steps in making fitness environments more accessible. 



Additionally, promoting body positivity and self-acceptance within the fitness industry can help counteract the unrealistic expectations that many women face.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316756" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Gym-phobia: The hidden workout hurdles faced by women

The modern gym experience for women is more complex than...

Our relationship with sheep stretches back over 11,000 years, making them one of humans' oldest animal partners.



Early communities relied on them for meat, protein-rich milk, and warm, water-resistant wool. These animals provided sustenance, clothing, and economic stability, playing a key role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-had-surprising-diets-3-5-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early settlements</a>.



Now, an international team of researchers has uncovered the prehistoric journey of sheep through genetic analysis. 



Led by experts from Trinity College Dublin, <a href="https://www.lmu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LMU Munich</a>, and the Bavarian State Collections of Natural History (<a href="https://snsb.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SNSB</a>), the team examined 118 genomes from archaeological bones.



These samples span 12 millennia and stretch from Mongolia to Ireland, revealing how sheep domestication evolved alongside human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-sheep-domestication">Early sheep domestication</h2>



The earliest evidence of sheep herding comes from Aşıklı Höyük, a settlement in central Türkiye. 



Genetic analysis suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-early-humans-and-small-scavengers-benefited-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early herders</a> captured and domesticated wild mouflon in this region over 11,000 years ago. These findings confirm that the origins of sheep domestication lie in the western part of the northern Fertile Crescent.



Sheep played a vital role in these early communities, providing a reliable source of food and raw materials for clothing. 



Domestication marked a turning point, as humans began selectively breeding sheep to enhance desirable traits. This process laid the foundation for future genetic changes that would shape sheep populations across the world.



By 8,000 years ago, early European farmers had begun to make deliberate breeding choices. The study found strong evidence that these farmers were selecting sheep based on coat color. 



This marks the earliest known example of humans actively influencing the biology of another species for aesthetic and practical reasons. Similar patterns appeared in goats, indicating a widespread human interest in shaping animal traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-selection-in-early-sheep">Genetic selection in early sheep</h2>



One of the most significant discoveries in the research was the identification of genetic selection near the “KIT” gene. 



This gene is closely linked to white coat color in many domesticated livestock species. The presence of selection pressure around this gene suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wooden-structure-completely-rewrites-early-human-history/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">early farmers</a> preferred lighter-colored sheep, possibly for easier wool processing or aesthetic appeal.



During this period, the genomes of sheep in Europe, Iran, and Central Asia began to diverge. This divergence reflected the growing geographical separation of herding communities. 



However, genetic distinctions between eastern and western sheep did not last long. Farmers and traders facilitated movement between regions, leading to the blending of sheep populations across vast territories.



By 7,000 years ago, as human societies in Mesopotamia expanded, so did the movement of domesticated sheep. Early cities influenced agricultural practices, and sheep populations spread westward within the Fertile Crescent. 



This movement established genetic continuity between regions and contributed to the formation of distinct sheep breeds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-human-migrations-on-sheep">Impact of human migrations on sheep</h2>



About 5,000 years ago, another wave of migration reshaped both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/out-of-africa-hominin-migration-timeline-pushed-back-even-further-by-new-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human</a> and sheep populations. 



Pastoralist groups from the Eurasian steppes expanded westward, significantly altering the cultural and genetic makeup of Europe. This migration transformed British ancestry by nearly 90% and introduced the Indo-European language family.



Sheep accompanied these human migrations, reinforcing their role as a key resource for mobile societies. Genetic data from the study suggests that steppe sheep ancestry became widespread in Europe during this period. 



The movement of herders and their livestock shaped agricultural economies, contributing to the development of wool production and dairy farming.



Dr. Kevin Daly, Ad Astra Assistant Professor at <a href="https://www.ucd.ie/agfood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCD School of Agriculture and Food Science</a>, emphasized the scale of this migration and its impact on sheep populations.



"One of our most striking discoveries was a major prehistoric sheep migration from the Eurasian steppes into Europe during the Bronze Age. This parallels what we know about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-early-humans-first-start-wearing-clothes-and-why-parasites-lice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human migrations</a> during the same period, suggesting that when people moved, they brought their flocks with them," he stated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expansion-of-sheep-based-economies">Expansion of sheep-based economies</h2>



By the Bronze Age, sheep had become an essential component of human economies. 



The study suggests that steppe-related ancestry accounted for nearly half of the genetic makeup of European sheep at this time. This shift highlights the deep connection between human expansion and livestock management.



Sheep provided more than just food and fiber. The presence of milk-producing genes in ancient sheep populations suggests that early herders exploited dairy products such as milk and cheese. 



This adaptation allowed human populations to sustain themselves more effectively, particularly in regions where agriculture was limited.



The reliance on sheep continued to shape trade networks and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-thrived-on-plant-based-diets-not-meat-alone-780000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">settlement</a> patterns. As civilizations developed, demand for wool increased, leading to further specialization in breeding. This period marked the beginning of structured sheep farming, setting the stage for future agricultural advancements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationship-between-humans-and-sheep">Relationship between humans and sheep</h2>



Professor Dan Bradley, who led the research, highlighted the evolving relationship between sheep and humans over thousands of years. 



"This research demonstrates how the relationship between humans and sheep has evolved over millennia. From the early days of domestication through to the development of wool as a crucial textile resource, sheep have played a vital role in human cultural and economic development," he said.



The study not only sheds light on the past but also raises questions about the future of sheep breeding. Understanding ancient genetic shifts can help researchers trace the origins of modern sheep breeds and their adaptation to different environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-genetic-studies">Importance of genetic studies</h2>



Professor Joris Peters, co-corresponding author of the study, stressed the need for further investigation into the patterns of sheep dispersal and selection. 



"Our study, while convincingly reconciling morphological and genomic evidence of the geographic origin of domestic sheep, clearly illustrates that further transdisciplinary research is needed to clarify the patterns of dispersal and selection of the many landraces occurring today in Eurasia and Africa," he stated.



Ongoing genetic research will provide deeper insights into how sheep populations have adapted to human needs and environmental changes. Modern sheep farming continues to rely on selective breeding, a practice that began thousands of years ago.



This study demonstrates that the relationship between humans and sheep is one of mutual dependence. From prehistoric herders to modern farmers, sheep have played a crucial role in shaping human civilization. 



As research continues, scientists will uncover even more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-ancestors-homo-erectus-thrived-in-extreme-desert-landscapes-1-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">complex history</a> of this enduring partnership.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn2094" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Sheep have been intertwined with humans for over 11,000 years

Our relationship with sheep stretches back over 11,000 years, making...

In rural Pennsylvania and New York, researchers have attached tiny QR codes to hundreds of honey bees in an effort to track the insects' foraging habits.&nbsp;



This innovative approach, developed by a team of entomologists and electrical engineers at the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pennsylvania State University</a>, aims to unravel the mystery of how far <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> travel to collect pollen and nectar.&nbsp;



The study marks a significant leap in understanding honey bee ecology and could have implications for organic beekeeping practices.



“This technology is opening up opportunities for biologists to study systems in ways that weren’t previously possible, especially in relation to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-beekeeping-is-equally-productive-as-methods-using-chemicals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">organic beekeeping</a>,” said Margarita López-Uribe, an associate professor of entomology at Penn State.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-in-bee-monitoring">New era in bee monitoring</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/bees_qr-codes_foraging-tracking_credit-Penn-State_1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The QR codes</a>, known as fiduciary tags, are attached to the bees' backs without harming them. These tags, combined with a custom-built imaging system, allow researchers to track the bees as they leave and return to their hives. 



The system records critical data, including each bee's unique ID, the time and date of its movements, direction, and environmental factors such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-temperatures-are-overheating-bumblebee-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a>.



“In field biology, we usually just look at things with our eyes, but the number of observations we can make as humans will never scale up to what a machine can do,” López-Uribe explained.



The data collected from this automated system offers far greater precision and scalability than traditional methods, which rely on visual observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-in-organic-beekeeping">Challenges in organic beekeeping</h2>



Organic beekeeping requires keeping hives free from synthetic chemicals and situating them away from polluted areas. 



However, honey bees’ capacity to fly long distances - up to 10 kilometers - complicates the enforcement of these standards.&nbsp;



The team hypothesized that bees typically forage much closer to their hives, often within one kilometer. This study could refine our understanding of these ranges and influence organic certification standards.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-perform-waggle-dance-to-share-the-location-of-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The waggle dance</a> is the best source of information that we have about bee foraging, but that’s based on human observations, with maybe an hour of observations made once a day over two weeks,” López-Uribe said.&nbsp;



“The goal is to understand if that 10-kilometer estimation is biologically accurate. Can we determine exactly how far honey bees travel from their hives?”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



To achieve this, the entomologists partnered with electrical engineers to design a cost-effective and solar-powered tracking system. 



Study co-author Julio Urbina, a professor of electrical engineering, emphasized the importance of cross-disciplinary collaboration in the project.



“There wasn’t anything available like this before,” Urbina said. “This paper is the first step moving forward in the right direction, with opportunities to do more - in large part because of the growing synergy across our teams.”



The collaboration required both teams to step out of their comfort zones. Engineers learned to handle and monitor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bees-value-quality-over-quantity-in-flower-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees in the field</a>, while entomologists explored the intricacies of designing automated technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-monitoring-systems-of-the-future">Bee monitoring systems of the future</h2>



“Systems built in the past to monitor bees were developed to run in or near controlled laboratory environments,” said Diego Penaloza-Aponte, a doctoral student in electrical engineering and co-corresponding author on the study.&nbsp;



“Our goal was to develop something that could run in a rural environment, away from the lab, on solar power and to make everything open source. Anyone can use this system and modify it.”



The result was a system that cost under $1,500 per apiary, which includes monitoring equipment for six <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bee-colonies-are-collapsing-as-climate-change-progresses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bee-foraging-secrets-discovered">Bee foraging secrets discovered</h2>



Over a single season, the researchers tagged more than 32,000 bees, monitoring them continuously using the automated system. 



Each bee's activity was logged, offering unprecedented insights into their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-foraging-behavior-changing-climate-warming-waters/">foraging behavior</a>.



“We targeted young bees so we could track their age more accurately, especially when they start to fly and when they stop,” said Robyn Underwood, Penn State Extension educator in apiculture.&nbsp;



“Once the bee was old enough to fly, it would leave the colony and be seen under the camera. In real time, our sensor would read the QR code and capture the bee ID, date, time, direction of movement - leaving or entering the hive - and the temperature.”



Most trips outside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-gentle-tap-on-the-hive-reveals-honeybee-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the hive</a> lasted between one and four minutes, which might involve checking the weather or defecating.&nbsp;



Longer trips, typically under 20 minutes, involved foraging. Interestingly, about 34% of bees spent more than two hours away from the hive, possibly due to extended foraging trips or failure to return.



“We also found that bees are foraging for a lot longer over their lifetimes than initially thought,” Underwood said.&nbsp;



"We’re seeing bees foraging for six weeks, and they don’t start foraging until they are already about two weeks old, so they live a lot longer than we thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loitering-and-waggle-dancing">Loitering and waggle dancing</h2>



The system’s precision revealed unexpected challenges, such as bees loitering near hive entrances and being detected multiple times.&nbsp;



“Turns out, some bees just like hanging out in the entrance, and the camera will read them every time they walk by,” Penaloza-Aponte said. 



“That’s why the programming is so handy. It can cut that outlier data and help make sure we’re tracking what’s actually meaningful.”



The researchers are now collaborating with experts at <a href="https://www.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a> to compare their foraging data with decoded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-refine-their-dancing-skills-by-watching-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waggle dances</a>. 



They also plan to expand the study to track other bee species and specific hive members, such as drones and queens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-understanding-of-bee-ecology">Better understanding of bee ecology</h2>



According to the experts, this system is a game-changer for understanding honey bee behavior.



It combines technology and biology in a way that scales up what we can learn and opens the door for discoveries that wouldn’t have been possible otherwise.



By making their system open source and cost-effective, the team hopes to empower scientists and beekeepers to explore new frontiers in bee research and conservation, ensuring the survival of these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-pollinators-boost-the-nutritional-value-of-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">essential pollinators</a> in a rapidly changing world.



Image Credit: Provided by Margarita López-Uribe, Robyn Underwood, Julio Urbina, Diego Penaloza-Aponte and team



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What is it like to be a bee? These tiny QR tracking tags helped science find out

In rural Pennsylvania and New York, researchers have attached tiny...

A recent study suggests that Alzheimer's disease may have a stronger connection to sleep than previously believed, with both sleep quality and duration playing a significant role in its development.



Disruptions in sleep, especially during the transition to REM, may serve as early signs of cognitive decline. REM sleep is important for memory consolidation, emotional processing, and overall brain health.



"Sleep disturbances are common in patients with dementia and have been associated increasingly with Alzheimer's disease and Alzheimer's disease and related dementias (AD/ADRD) biomarkers, even in preclinical stage of the disease," noted the study authors.



Understanding the various sleep stages, including REM, could provide valuable insights for Alzheimer’s research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-sleep-changes-with-age">How sleep changes with age</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-disrupts-college-students-sleep-more-than-screen-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sleep</a>, for health purposes, isn't just a singular, seamless cycle. We undergo three distinct phases of non-REM sleep, each progressively deeper than the former, before finally transitioning into REM sleep.



The completion of this cycle typically takes 90 minutes or longer, depending on age. As people get older, it often takes longer to move into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-brain-paralyzes-the-body-during-rem-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">REM sleep</a>.



This delay may indicate underlying neurological changes, potentially linked to Alzheimer’s progression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rem-sleep-and-memory-connection">REM sleep and memory connection</h2>



During REM sleep, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reboot-switch-in-brain-activates-as-you-sleep-to-make-room-for-new-memories-barr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain</a> is hard at work processing memories - particularly those that are emotionally charged - and depositing them into long-term storage.



“The delay in REM sleep disrupts the brain’s ability to consolidate memories by interfering with the process that contributes to learning and memory,” said Dr. Yue Leng, an associate professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSF</a>.



“If it is insufficient or delayed, it may increase the stress hormone cortisol. This can impair the brain’s hippocampus, a critical structure for memory consolidation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-patterns-in-alzheimer-s-patients">Sleep patterns in Alzheimer’s patients</h2>



The researchers observed 128 individuals (with an average age of 70) in the neurology unit of the China-Japan Friendship Hospital in Beijing. Among them, half were diagnosed with Alzheimer's, about one-third had mild cognitive impairment, and the rest had normal cognition.



The participants spent a night in the clinic, allowing researchers to monitor their brainwave activity, eye movement, heart rate, and breathing.



Based on these observations, the researchers categorized the individuals into groups of early and delayed REM sleep. The former group transitioned to REM sleep in less than 98 minutes, while the latter typically took over 193 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delayed-rem-sleep-and-alzheimer-s">Delayed REM sleep and Alzheimer’s</h2>



The researchers identified an interesting pattern. Patients with Alzheimer's were more prone to delayed REM sleep, and they also exhibited higher levels of two toxic proteins - amyloid and tau - commonly associated with the condition.



Individuals with prolonged REM sleep had higher amyloid levels by 16% and tau levels by 29% compared to their counterparts with early REM sleep. They also had a 39% decrease in a beneficial protein called brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), known to drop in Alzheimer's.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-strategies-against-alzheimer-s">Potential strategies against Alzheimer's</h2>



With these findings in mind, the researchers recommend taking a closer look at the effects of medications that influence sleep cycle. 



"Future research should study the effects of certain medications that influence sleep patterns, as these may modify disease progression,” Leng said.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melatonin-receptor-is-a-new-target-for-treating-sleep-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Melatonin</a>, known for its role in sleep regulation, has been shown in animal studies to boost REM sleep while reducing tau and amyloid accumulation. 



Other insomnia medications that block chemicals suppressing REM sleep have demonstrated similar effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prioritizing-healthy-sleep-habits">Prioritizing healthy sleep habits</h2>



For individuals who are concerned about their Alzheimer’s risk, prioritizing healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-habits-may-age-the-brain-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep habits</a> may be beneficial.



“This includes treating conditions like sleep apnea and avoiding heavy drinking, since both can interfere with a healthy sleep cycle,” said Dr. Dantao Peng of the Department of Neurology at the <a href="https://www.zryhyy.com.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">China-Japan Friendship Hospital</a> in Beijing, who is also a senior author of the study.



“Patients taking certain antidepressants and sedatives that reduce REM sleep should discuss their concerns with their doctor, if they are worried about Alzheimer’s.”



In conclusion, while sleep alone may not serve as a standalone indicator of Alzheimer's, it is becoming increasingly clear that sleep patterns play a crucial role in brain health. 



The research was <a href="https://alz-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/alz.14495">published</a> in Alzheimer’s and Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer's Association.



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Dreams and REM sleep quality directly linked to Alzheimer’s disease

A recent study suggests that Alzheimer's disease may have a...

The existence of water on Mars has long been a subject of curiosity and debate. A recently published study presents compelling evidence of ancient "wave ripples" in rocks that were shaped by Martian water and winds billions of years ago.



These ripples, imprinted on the Martian surface, speak to a time when shallow bodies of water were open to the Martian air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-ripples-on-mars">Mysterious ripples on Mars</h2>



The importance of these ripples cannot be overemphasized as they provide clear evidence of the existence of a standing body of water on Mars approximately 3.7 billion years ago.



This profound discovery paints a picture of a time when the Martian climate was seemingly warm enough to support liquid bodies water, not just frozen ice fields, that were open to the air.



"The shape of the ripples could only have been formed under water that was open to the atmosphere and acted upon by wind," observed Claire Mondro, a postdoctoral scholar from The California Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.caltech.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CalTech</a>) and the study's first author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-mars-ripples-tell-us">What the Mars ripples tell us</h2>



Dr. Michael Lamb, a geology professor at Caltech, painstakingly created computer models based on these ripples to estimate the size of the ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/perseverance-rover-samples-bunsen-peak-rock-jezero-crater-martian-lake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian lake</a>.



Lamb’s extensive experience in studying sediment, water, and atmosphere interactions on Earth lent credibility to this model. 



The ripples, a mere 6 millimeters high and spaced 4 to 5 centimeters apart suggest the existence of a shallow lake, no deeper than about 2 meters (6.5 feet).



Mondro’s observations lend further weight to these inferences. “Extending the length of time that liquid water was present extends the possibilities for microbial habitability later into Mars's history,” she pointed out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-finding-liquid-water-on-mars-matters">Why finding liquid water on Mars matters</h2>



Discovering that Mars once had liquid water is a game-changer for our understanding of the planet and the broader possibilities of life beyond Earth. 



Water is a fundamental ingredient for life as we know it, so finding evidence of past liquid water raises exciting questions about whether Mars could have supported microbial life.



Beyond the search for life, knowing that Mars had liquid water has practical implications for future human missions. Water is a crucial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-radiation-levels-are-measured-for-the-first-time-and-will-help-astronauts-prepare/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resource for astronauts</a>, not only for drinking but also for producing oxygen and even rocket fuel. 



If remnants of ancient water sources or ice deposits exist on Mars, they could be tapped into to support long-term human habitation and exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-martian-surface">Exploring the Martian surface</h2>



These marvelous ripples went unnoticed until NASA's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a> documented them in 2022 during its expedition across the Gale Crater region of Mars, a region that was once home to wind-blown dunes.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mars_lakes_ponds_ice-free_ripples_rock-formation_credit-Science-Advances_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/mars_lakes_ponds_ice-free_ripples_rock-formation_credit-Science-Advances_1s.webp" alt="Symmetric ripple marks in the AMB outcrop. Credit: Science Advances (2025)." class="wp-image-1957535"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Symmetric ripple marks in the AMB outcrop. Credit: Science Advances (2025).</figcaption></figure>



A nearby band of rock, the Amapari Marker Band, hinted at the existence of another lake, approximately 6.5 feet (2 meters) deep, that formed slightly later in Mars's history than the previous one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-mars-ripples-matter">Why do Mars ripples matter?</h2>



“The discovery of wave ripples is an important advance for Mars paleoclimate science," noted John Grotzinger, the Harold Brown Professor of Geology at Caltech.



"The Curiosity rover discovered evidence for long-lived ancient lakes in 2014, and now, 10 years later, Curiosity has discovered ancient lakes that were free of ice, offering an important insight into the planet's early climate,” added Grotzinger, a former project scientist for Curiosity's Mars Science Laboratory (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MSL</a>) mission.



It seems we are just scratching the surface of understanding the red planet’s past, and with each discovery, we inch closer to unraveling the mysteries of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alien-life-may-be-lurking-deep-underground-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars and its potential for supporting life</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-to-mars-climate-evolution">Clues to Mars' climate evolution</h2>



The discovery of these ancient ripples offers a crucial glimpse into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/was-mars-past-climate-supportive-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars's climate history</a>, providing scientists with valuable data to reconstruct the environmental conditions that existed billions of years ago.



The presence of liquid water suggests that Mars once had a significantly thicker atmosphere that was capable of sustaining warmer temperatures.



Over time, the planet's climate underwent drastic changes, leading to the loss of surface water and the thinning of its atmosphere. 



Understanding these transitions is key to determining how long Mars could have supported habitable conditions and whether it might have once harbored microbial life. 



Scientists believe that further exploration of ripple formations could shed light on the duration and stability of these ancient lakes, helping to piece together the timeline of Mars' environmental shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-future-mars-missions">Implications for future Mars missions</h2>



The findings from Curiosity's observations could play a pivotal role in shaping the objectives of upcoming Mars missions. 



Future rovers and landers, equipped with more advanced instruments, may focus on analyzing ripple formations in greater detail, searching for chemical signatures that indicate past life-supporting conditions. 



The Perseverance rover, currently exploring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jezero Crater</a>, has already been tasked with collecting samples that might contain traces of ancient microbial activity.



These efforts align with NASA's long-term goal of bringing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-seeks-a-faster-way-to-bring-mars-samples-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Martian samples</a> back to Earth for comprehensive laboratory analysis.



The ripple evidence on Mars is also encouraging for future crewed missions, as understanding past water sources could help identify potential locations for human exploration and resource utilization.



Image credit to <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> for the Mars water illustration image.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adr0010" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Clear evidence of liquid water, not just frozen ice, discovered on Mars

The existence of water on Mars has long been a...

2017 American Samoa

Scientists recently reported an unexpected deep-sea development in the Pacific: certain metallic rocks seem to be making oxygen in the dark, without light or sunshine, at the bottom of the ocean.



This idea runs counter to the usual belief that oxygen only forms in sunlight through photosynthesis.



Although these findings have stirred debate, the central claim is that potato-sized nodules found thousands of feet below the surface appear to split seawater molecules and release oxygen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-and-photosynthesis-the-basics">Oxygen and photosynthesis - the basics</h2>



Since the late 1700s, we've been taught that light creates oxygen through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>, a crucial natural process that keeps life on Earth thriving. 



Plants, algae, and some bacteria soak up sunlight to turn carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. 



In the simplest of terms, nature uses light as fuel to produce the oxygen we breathe and keep everything on Earth alive. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-photosynthesis-could-transform-power-generation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosynthesis</a> not only gives energy to these organisms but also releases oxygen into the atmosphere, maintaining the perfect balance of gases that most life forms need. 



Until the discovery of dark oxygen, it has been commonly accepted knowledge that without light, photosynthesis would grind to a halt, and our planet wouldn’t have the oxygen-rich air we rely on every day.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-sea-rocks-making-oxygen">Deep-sea rocks making oxygen</h2>



Exploration in a region called the <a href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/18ccz/background/mining/mining.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clarion-Clipperton Zone</a> - where deep-sea mining companies are eyeing metals resources like cobalt and nickel - uncovered <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/ferromanganese-deposit" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ferromanganese nodules</a> resting on the ocean floor.



Ferromanganese nodules are like little treasure rocks that settle on the ocean floor, packed with metals such as manganese and iron. 



These nodules form slowly over millions of years as minerals from seawater build up in layers around a tiny core, like a shark tooth or a piece of shell.



Think of them as underwater onions, with each layer adding more minerals and creating these cool, rounded shapes.



Researchers suggested that the nodules may produce electric charges that spark electrolysis, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/summer-storms-stir-oxygen-into-the-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">generating oxygen</a> and hydrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-the-rocks-produce-oxygen">How do the rocks produce oxygen?</h2>



Early studies raised plenty of questions about the process and the potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-microalgae-show-photosynthesis-is-possible-in-near-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effect on seafloor life</a>. 



Leading the push for more answers is <a href="https://www.sams.ac.uk/people/researchers/sweetman-professor-andrew-k/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andrew Sweetman</a>, a professor at the Scottish Association for Marine Science. 



He is running a three-year project to investigate how these nodules might form oxygen in the absence of light. One of his goals is to see if this phenomenon appears in other parts of the Clarion-Clipperton Zone.&nbsp;



“Our discovery of dark oxygen was a paradigm shift in our understanding of the deep sea and potentially life on Earth, but it threw up more questions than answers,” said Sweetman.



He and his team will also look into whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cascading-oxygen-loss-could-endanger-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial reactions</a> help release hydrogen, an energy source for certain deep-sea microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-freshwater-mysteries">Freshwater mysteries</h2>



Dark oxygen has popped up in other surprising, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-microalgae-show-photosynthesis-is-possible-in-near-darkness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">light-deprived places</a>.



<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-023-38523-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emil Ruff</a> detected oxygen in freshwater samples beneath Alberta, Canada. It appeared in groundwater that had been isolated for tens of thousands of years, yet still contained enough oxygen to support life. 



“After 40,000 years or 30,000 years (separated from surface processes), there’s no reason really to think that there should be any oxygen left,” remarked Ruff.



He found that special bacteria could produce oxygen on their own by breaking down certain dissolved compounds. 



What’s more, Ruff found that the quantity of oxygen produced was enough to sustain other oxygen-dependent microbial life in the groundwater.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-dark-oxygen">Challenging dark oxygen</h2>



Not all scientists are in agreement about this dark oxygen discovery. Some deep-sea mining interests challenged Sweetman’s work, saying they have found no such electrical oddities in the nodules. 



<a href="https://metals.co/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Metals Co.</a> submitted a <a href="https://eartharxiv.org/repository/view/7717/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rebuttal</a> of the scientific research paper to Nature Geoscience, which awaits peer review.



Meanwhile, independent observers note the need for more experiments. A research oceanographer at the US Geological Survey’s <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/pacific-coastal-and-marine-science-center" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Coastal and Marine Science Center</a> in Santa Cruz, California, said the USGS has not observed any electrical phenomena in ferromanganese nodules examined so far.



She was not involved in either Sweetman’s or Ruff’s research.



NASA hopes these findings might hint at life in places beyond Earth. Dark ocean worlds like Jupiter’s moon <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/why-europa/europa-up-close/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa</a> and Saturn’s moon <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/resources/gallery/8-real-world-science-facts-about-saturns-moon-enceladus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Enceladus</a> are prime targets for research.



Sweetman shared that the space agency wants to test whether high pressures found on those icy moons can trigger oxygen generation in deep-sea rocks without direct sunlight. If the same basic chemistry works there, it could point to possible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-oxygen-in-the-deep-sea-may-hold-clues-about-alien-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life in alien seas</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dark-oxygen-and-deep-sea-mining">Dark oxygen and deep-sea mining</h2>



The Clarion-Clipperton Zone sits far offshore, and mining there is governed by the <a href="https://www.isa.org.jm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">International Seabed Authority</a>. Critics argue that removing nodules in huge volumes could destroy habitats.



Organizations like <a href="https://www.fauna-flora.org/publications/fauna-flora-deep-sea-mining-report-update-march-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fauna &amp; Flora</a> warn of irreparable harm, saying it may disturb carbon storage in the ocean. Sweetman believes it is risky to harvest seabed minerals until scientists know a lot more about these systems.



He acknowledges the controversy and plans to address critics in peer-reviewed forums. For now, the hunt for hard data continues, fueled by the hope of expanding our understanding of life - both here and possibly on other worlds.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-024-01480-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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"Dark oxygen" discovery upends centuries of scientific beliefs, textbooks to be rewritten

Scientists recently reported an unexpected deep-sea development in the Pacific:...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



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Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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