Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

According to new research, Homo erectus, one of our early ancestors, was able to live and thrive in the tough, desert-like areas of Eastern Africa over a million years ago.



As the first hominin species to spread out of Africa, they demonstrated levels of adaptability and perseverance that was previously underestimated by the scientific community. 



This conclusion overturns the long-standing assumption that only Homo sapiens, modern humans, had the ability to survive and flourish in extreme environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cradle-of-humankind">Cradle of Humankind</h2>



Olduvai Gorge, often referred to as the “Cradle of Humankind,” has yielded a wealth of archeological findings over the years. 



The main author of the study, Professor Julio Mercader Florín from the <a href="https://ucalgary.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>, along with his team, discovered evidence that Homo erectus repeatedly returned to specific locations, signifying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-tools-ever-made-on-earth-hominins-3-million-years-ago-cradle-of-humankind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategic use of resources</a>.



“By doing archeology, what we can see is that Homo erectus keeps coming back to the same place in the landscape over thousands of years,” Mercader explained.&nbsp;



“It’s not a one-time camp. There is thickness to the accumulation of archeological remains and fossils that is telling us that a species was targeting a very specific point in the landscape to do what they came here to do.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-homo-erectus-the-basics">Understanding Homo erectus - the basics</h2>



Homo erectus lived from around 1.9 million to 110,000 years ago, making them one of our longest-lived ancestors. They had a more modern body with longer legs and shorter arms, which allowed them to walk and run efficiently across Africa, Asia, and Europe. 



Their skulls featured thick brow ridges and robust jaws, and they used sophisticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/400000-year-old-stone-tools-show-technological-adaptations-of-prehistoric-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Acheulean stone tools</a> while being among the first to control fire for cooking and protection. 



Socially, Homo erectus likely lived in groups, which would have helped them survive in diverse and sometimes harsh environments. 



They showed signs of complex behavior, such as planning hunts and possibly even early forms of communication to coordinate within their groups.



Living in groups, Homo erectus exhibited complex behaviors like planning hunts and early forms of communication, helping them adapt to diverse climates. 



With a varied diet that included <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-thrived-on-plant-based-diets-not-meat-alone-780000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">both meat and plants</a>, Homo erectus played a crucial role in human evolution, bridging the gap between earlier ancestors and the rise of Homo sapiens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-east-africa-s-harsh-past">East Africa’s harsh past</h2>



To reconstruct the environmental conditions during the time of Homo erectus, the research team used advanced modeling techniques.&nbsp;



Study co-author Jed Kaplan, a Canada Research Chair in global systems modeling at the University of Calgary, simulated East Africa’s landscapes to analyze the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-shift-sheds-light-on-future-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a>, vegetation, and ecological pressures faced by early humans.



“Things like extreme climate change leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oases-grow-by-human-effort-but-face-threats-from-desertification/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">desertification</a> would have been really difficult for hominins to survive,” Kaplan noted. 



“What we discovered in the study is that, in fact, we find plenty of evidence for hominin activity under environmental conditions - so climate, vegetation - that suggest really hot and dry periods.”



These findings challenge previous assumptions that early humans avoided extreme environments. Instead, Homo erectus appears to have demonstrated a remarkable ability to adapt to varying and often inhospitable conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-beyond-expectations">Adapting beyond expectations</h2>



The research reveals that Homo erectus had an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quick-species-adaptability-shapes-long-term-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptability</a> comparable to that of modern humans, who emerged 200,000 to 300,000 years ago and spread across diverse environments, from Arctic tundras to tropical rainforests.&nbsp;



“It’s well known that by the time modern humans come on the landscape, we are really adaptable. We not only spread out in Africa but also start inhabiting all of these really different environments - everything from the Arctic tundra to the Sahara desert and the tropical rainforest and everything in between,” Kaplan explained.



Kaplan noted that Homo erectus not only inhabited diverse ecosystems, they may have even built boats to cross oceanic straits.



“It’s still unknown whether they could talk or had language, but they may have been able to communicate in other ways to find resources such as water or rocks for making tools or fire,” Kaplan said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



The study’s findings have profound implications for understanding human evolution and adaptability. By demonstrating that Homo erectus could thrive in a range of extreme environments, the research expands our view of early human resilience and survival strategies.&nbsp;



“It is a contribution to a better understanding of our planet and humans’ role in it,” Kaplan said.



The interdisciplinary nature of the research, which involved experts in archaeology, paleoclimate science, and biogeochemistry, highlights the value of collaboration in addressing complex questions about the past.



“It illustrates how modern climate research works,” Mercader said. “It is a model for addressing the science of past and present-day climate science research.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-homo-erectus-and-modern-humans">Homo erectus and modern humans</h2>



This study reshapes our understanding of early human capabilities. Long before modern humans emerged, Homo erectus demonstrated resilience and ingenuity, thriving in environments ranging from arid deserts to lush rainforests.&nbsp;



The findings highlight the adaptability of one of humanity’s most prominent ancestors, offering valuable insights into how humans came to occupy nearly every corner of the planet.



By piecing together evidence from diverse scientific disciplines, researchers have provided a vivid glimpse into the lives of our ancient predecessors, affirming their resourcefulness and setting the stage for further exploration of the human evolutionary journey.



This interdisciplinary study was led by Professor Julio Mercader Florín and researchers from the University of Calgary, the University of Manitoba, and 17 other global institutions examined archeological and environmental evidence from Olduvai Gorge, a UNESCO World Heritage site in Tanzania.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01919-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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New details about Homo erectus prove that humans aren't as special as we thought

According to new research, Homo erectus, one of our early...

The ripple effects of divorce stretch far beyond the immediate emotional upheaval. A groundbreaking study has revealed that experiencing parental divorce during childhood may significantly increase the risk of stroke later in life. 



This surprising connection persists even after accounting for well-known stroke risk factors, suggesting that early-life family disruption could have more profound health implications than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-divorce-linked-to-higher-stroke-risk">Divorce linked to higher stroke risk</h2>



The study, which analyzed survey data from over 13,000 older Americans, found that one in nine individuals aged 65 and older who had experienced parental divorce had been diagnosed with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eyes-serve-as-an-early-warning-system-for-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a>. 



In contrast, only one in 15 of those whose parents remained together during their childhood reported the same health issue.



Mary Kate Schilke, a university lecturer in the Psychology Department at <a href="https://www.tyndale.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tyndale University</a>, is the study’s first author.



“Our study indicates that even after taking into account most of the known risk factors associated with stroke - including smoking, physical inactivity, lower income and education, diabetes, depression, and low social support - those whose parents had divorced still had 61% higher odds of having a stroke,” noted Schilke. 



The association between parental divorce and stroke was found to be as strong as two well-known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dramatic-temperature-changes-linked-to-half-a-million-stroke-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke risk factors</a>: diabetes and depression. 



These results align with research conducted nearly a decade ago, which also demonstrated a significant link between childhood parental divorce and increased stroke risk in adulthood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parental-divorce-and-stroke-connection">Parental divorce and stroke connection</h2>



Although the study establishes a clear correlation between childhood parental divorce and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-blood-type-determine-your-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a>, the researchers are still working to determine the underlying causes of this connection.



Study senior author Esme Fuller-Thomson, a professor at the <a href="https://www.utoronto.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, acknowledged that more research is needed to understand the mechanisms at play.



“We need to shed light on the mechanisms that may contribute to this association,” she said. “While these types of survey-based studies cannot establish causality, we are hoping that our consistent findings will inspire others to examine the topic.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-types-of-childhood-adversity">Other types of childhood adversity</h2>



To ensure the results were not influenced by other adverse childhood experiences, the researchers carefully excluded participants who had a history of physical or sexual abuse.



Even after removing these cases, the link between parental divorce and stroke remained strong.



“We found that even when people hadn’t experienced childhood physical and sexual abuse and had at least one adult who made them feel safe in their childhood home, they still were more likely to have a stroke if their parents had divorced,” noted co-author Philip Baiden, an associate professor in the School of Social Work at the <a href="https://www.uta.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Arlington</a>.



Surprisingly, other types of childhood adversity - such as emotional abuse, neglect, exposure to household mental illness, substance abuse, and domestic violence - were not significantly associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exposure-to-light-pollution-could-increase-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke risk</a> in this study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-biological-and-social-factors">Role of biological and social factors</h2>



While the study does not establish a direct cause-and-effect relationship, the researchers believe that both biological and social factors may contribute to the increased risk of stroke among those who experienced parental divorce in childhood.



One possible explanation is related to chronic stress and its long-term physiological effects. Fuller-Thomson highlighted how childhood parental divorce may lead to prolonged exposure to high levels of stress hormones. 



“From a biological embedding perspective, having your parents split up during childhood could lead to sustained high levels of stress hormones,” she explained. “Experiencing this as a child could have lasting influences on the developing brain and a child’s ability to respond to stress.”



The stress associated with parental divorce may also contribute to unhealthy coping mechanisms and behavioral patterns later in life. 



Individuals who experienced divorce during childhood might be more prone to chronic stress, which has been linked to increased inflammation, high blood pressure, and other conditions that elevate stroke risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-stroke-prevention">Implications for stroke prevention</h2>



The study was focused on data from the 2022 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey. The researchers examined survey responses from 13,205 older Americans, of whom 13.9% had experienced parental divorce during childhood.



If this association is confirmed, childhood family history could become an important consideration in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-adults-with-migraines-have-a-greater-stroke-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a> prevention and healthcare strategies. Schilke noted that these findings could eventually help medical professionals tailor stroke prevention programs.



“If future research finds similar links between parental divorce and stroke, it is possible that knowledge about whether or not their patient grew up in an intact family will be used by health professionals to improve targeted outreach for stroke prevention and education,” said Schilke.



While the study cannot definitively prove that parental divorce causes an increased risk of stroke, it raises important questions about how childhood experiences shape long-term health outcomes. 



As research in this area continues, understanding the long-term health consequences of early-life stress could lead to more effective interventions and support systems for individuals at higher risk.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0316580" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Shock study: Children of divorced parents are at higher risk of having a stroke

The ripple effects of divorce stretch far beyond the immediate...

For 130 years, the enigmatic nature of the orchid Stigmatodactylus sikokianus puzzled scientists and botanists alike.



Named in 1889 by renowned Japanese botanist MAKINO Tomitaro, the fungus-consuming plant features a distinct appendage reminiscent of a tiny finger on its stigma - the part of the flower that accepts pollen.



But why is this appendage there, and what purpose does it serve? Despite its popularity among Japan's iconic orchids, the function of this unique feature remained a mystery - until now.



<a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> botanist SUETSUGU Kenji specializes in orchids that feed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-fungi-determine-the-gradient-of-forest-diversity-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil fungi</a> rather than sunlight. Stigmatodactylus, he realized, fit this bill perfectly.



“I’m particularly interested in their pollination mechanisms, employing an interdisciplinary approach that integrates taxonomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology," said Kenji.



His fascination with these unique orchids propelled him to investigate further, questioning the purpose and ecological role of the finger-like appendage that had attracted so much attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-orchid-that-self-pollinates">The orchid that self-pollinates </h2>



Kenji's research sheds light on a unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-apocalypse-australasia-is-facing-a-hidden-pollination-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> method. He found that Stigmatodactylus sikokianus predominantly self-pollinates, which means it doesn’t require insects to transport pollen from one plant to another.



Interestingly, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-faced-with-competition-some-plants-learn-to-self-pollinate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self-pollination</a> occurs roughly three days after the flower opens. This delay bears significant ecological implications.



Given the plant's natural habitat in dark forest understories, it is rarely visited by potential pollinators.



“While self-pollination likely guarantees reproductive success, relying solely on this method risks inbreeding. This may drive the evolution of mechanisms that combine the benefits of self-pollination and outcrossing," said Kenji.



"Delayed self-pollination, postponed until opportunities for outcrossing are exhausted, is likely one such adaptation - a failsafe mechanism.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-novel-self-pollination-mechanism">Novel self-pollination mechanism </h2>



While meticulously observing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>, Kenji noticed that the finger-like appendage plays a crucial role in self-pollination.



On the third day after the flower opens, the stigma collapses and makes contact with the pollen-carrying anther, aided by the finger-like appendage, thereby fertilizing the plant. 



“The movement of the stigma appendage represents, to the best of our knowledge, a novel self-pollination mechanism in orchids,” said Kenji.



He noted that since there are 28 species in the Stigmatodactylus family, many of which share this unique appendage, this self-pollination mechanism could be common in other species too.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridging-traditional-research-with-modern-science">Bridging traditional research with modern science</h2>



Kenji hopes his work will help bridge the gap between historical botanical research and contemporary scientific inquiries. 



“The significance of this discovery lies in its ability to bridge historical botanical research and contemporary scientific inquiry. It underscores the value of integrating meticulous taxonomic analysis with ecological and evolutionary studies to gain novel insights," said Kenji.



"This study demonstrates that traditional natural history research, unifying taxonomy, evolution and ecology, still has the power to uncover new phenomena today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orchids-self-pollinate-to-survive">Orchids self-pollinate to survive</h2>



Understanding the unique pollination mechanism of Stigmatodactylus sikokianus offers significant implications for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/despite-their-incredible-adaptability-orchids-are-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchid conservation</a> efforts.



Many orchid species are highly specialized and depend on specific ecological conditions to thrive. 



The newfound knowledge about the self-pollination strategy of Stigmatodactylus sikokianus sheds light on how other orchid species may have evolved to adapt to low-pollinator environments.



This insight can guide conservationists in designing better habitat protection strategies and cultivation techniques to ensure the survival of orchids facing similar ecological challenges. 



Furthermore, it highlights the need to preserve the dark forest understories where these delicate plants flourish, as habitat destruction poses a major threat to their existence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-evolutionary-significance">Broader evolutionary significance</h2>



The discovery of the delayed self-pollination mechanism in Stigmatodactylus sikokianus raises intriguing questions about the broader evolutionary adaptations of orchids and other flowering plants.



In ecosystems with scarce pollinators, plants must develop creative reproductive strategies to ensure their survival. 



This ability to self-pollinate suggests that evolution has equipped some orchids with a dual approach - allowing time for potential cross-pollination before resorting to self-fertilization as a last resort.



The findings contribute to our understanding of plant reproductive biology and may inspire further research into similar mechanisms in related plant families.



By studying these adaptations, scientists can better comprehend how plants respond to environmental pressures and how they might adapt to future changes, such as climate shifts and habitat fragmentation.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10624" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



Image Credit: IKEDA Tetsuro



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Some orchids have 'fingers' to pollinate themselves

For 130 years, the enigmatic nature of the orchid Stigmatodactylus...

The,Interior,Of,Main,Public,Baths,In,Ruins,Of,Ancient

Many of us are aware that the ancient city of Pompeii met a catastrophic end, sealed under a relentless downpour of ash and pumice from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. 



Recently, though, archaeologists have managed to unearth an incredible reminder of the grandeur of Pompeii's heyday - an elaborate private bathhouse, believed to be the largest of its kind within a private home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extravagant-roman-life">Extravagant Roman life</h2>



Nestled within the confines of a wealthy residence, the bathhouse serves as a poignant reminder of the city's affluent inhabitants. 



Only the elite could afford such luxury, so this bathhouse indicates the presence of thriving industry in the city, alongside robust financial and political networks.



The remnants of two people who sought refuge in a smaller room capture the terrifying moment that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tragic-end-of-pompeii-was-not-solely-caused-by-mount-vesuvius/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vesuvius</a> erupted, their fate sealed by a collapsed wall and a lethal flood of volcanic gas and ash.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pompeii-s-lavish-bathhouse">Pompeii's lavish bathhouse</h2>



The bathhouse featured a range of rooms designed to cater to different bathing needs.



Primary among these was a large plunge pool that was surrounded by scarlet columns and frescoes of athletes.



There were hot, cold, and warm rooms, each serving its unique purpose. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_plumbing_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_plumbing_1s.webp" alt="An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths, complete with plumbing systems, to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957642"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths, complete with plumbing systems, to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



A warm room, presumably for oil massages, led to a sauna-like hot room. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sauna-bathing-cardiovascular-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sauna</a> had a specially designed suspended floor that allowed hot air to flow underneath the room.



Beyond these comforts, the bathhouse was resplendent with a changing room that boasted a mosaic floor adorned with geometric patterns that were made using marbles sourced from across the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/using-ai-to-decode-the-legacy-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman Empire</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-glimpse-into-pompeii-s-final-moments">Glimpse into Pompeii’s final moments</h2>



A team of archaeologists, accompanied by a crew from the BBC and Lion TV, have discovered an entire city block, which also houses a laundry, bakery, and a grand banquet hall, apart from the luxurious private residence containing the bathhouse. 



The block is believed to have been owned by Aulus Rustius Verus, a notable Pompeii politician.



Near a small prayer room, the remains of two individuals were found - a woman aged between 35 and 50 who was clutching jewelry and coins, and a young man in his late teens or early twenties.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_private-bath-house_1s.webp" alt="An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957625"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An elite resident of Pompeii used these baths to entertain guests. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



"The pyroclastic flow from Vesuvius came along the street just outside this room, and caused a wall to collapse, and that had basically crushed him to death," said Dr. Sophie Hay, an archaeologist at Pompeii, as she described the tragic scene.



"The woman was still alive while he was dying - imagine the trauma - and then this room filled with the rest of the pyroclastic flow, and that's how she died."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reality-of-the-pompeii-bathhouse">Reality of the Pompeii bathhouse</h2>



The grand bathhouse, a once-in-a-century find, also bears witness to the grim reality of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-ancient-rome-smelled-like-patchouli/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roman life</a>. 



Behind the hot room, a sweltering boiler room lies, where slaves would have had to toil in intolerable heat.



In the coming weeks, the excavation will conclude, and the public will get a chance to witness this incredible find.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_public-bath-house_ornate-frescoes_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/pompeii_ruins_public-bath-house_ornate-frescoes_1s.webp" alt="In comparison, this was the inside of a public bathhouse in Pompeii. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park" class="wp-image-1957628"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In comparison, this was the inside of a public bathhouse in Pompeii. Credit: Pompeii Archaeological Park</figcaption></figure>



Apart from the bathhouse discovery, a previous study, led by the University of Naples Federico II, also shed light on a massive Alexander the Great mosaic that was unearthed in Pompeii in 1831.



The mosaic, made of nearly two million pieces, may have utilized rocks from various Mediterranean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lead-pollution-may-have-caused-the-fall-of-the-roman-empire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mining</a> areas, including Greece, Tunisia, and the Iberian Peninsula, which supports the idea that the Roman Empire had far-reaching connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pompeii-s-ash-locked-history-in-time">Pompeii's ash locked history in time</h2>



The extraordinary preservation of Pompeii’s structures and artifacts, including the recently discovered bathhouse, is a reflection of the unique conditions created by Mount Vesuvius' eruption. 



The volcanic ash and pumice that blanketed the city acted as a protective seal, preserving architectural details, organic materials, and even human remains in remarkable detail. 



Layers of fine ash solidified over time, creating a mold of the city's final moments and allowing modern archaeologists to reconstruct daily life with unparalleled accuracy.



Advanced imaging techniques have played a crucial role in revealing hidden structures beneath the hardened layers of volcanic debris. 



These technologies not only help locate previously unknown sites but also allow researchers to study fragile artifacts without intrusive excavation.



The bathhouse discovery highlights the ongoing importance of scientific innovation in archaeology. 



As the excavation progresses, experts hope to uncover even more details about the materials used, the engineering marvels of the time, and the social dynamics of Pompeii’s elite.



The full study was reported in a BBC <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c15zgvnvk4do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">press release</a>.



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Wealthy Pompeii homes had opulent bathhouses with plumbing before the volcano struck

Many of us are aware that the ancient city of...

The clever coyotes of San Francisco are proving just how adaptable they can be to urban life. 



These native predators, who returned to the city in the early 2000s after a century-long absence, aren't just surviving in the concrete jungle - they're thriving. The coyotes have learned to switch up their menu based on what each neighborhood has to offer.



Scientists from the University of California, Davis, recently conducted a study to better understand how these animals are adapting to urban life. 



The findings reveal how restaurant density, pavement levels, and other urban features influence what coyotes eat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-coyotes-diets-are-changing">Urban coyotes’ diets are changing</h2>



Urban environments present new challenges and opportunities for wildlife. As green spaces shrink, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hunting-coyotes-actually-boosts-their-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> in San Francisco are forced to modify their food sources. 



The researchers found that these adaptable predators consume a significant amount of human-provided food. “Chicken is a really big diet item; we found it in 72% of the scat samples analyzed in the study,” noted lead author Tali Caspi, a Ph.D. candidate at <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>.



Despite their reliance on human food, coyotes still hunt natural prey when available. Pocket gophers, a common rodent in the area, were the second most frequent food source, found in 57% of scat samples. 



Other notable items in their diet included pig (human-sourced) and raccoon (natural prey). 



While concerns about coyotes hunting domestic cats exist, the study showed that feline remains appeared in only 4.5% of analyzed samples. This suggests that predation on pet cats is not a significant part of their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-urban-coyote-diets">Investigating urban coyote diets</h2>



To uncover these dietary patterns, the researchers collected more than 700 coyote scat samples from different parts of San Francisco between September 2019 and April 2022.



The team analyzed the samples at UC Davis’ <a href="https://vgl.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Veterinary Genetics Laboratory</a>, using genotyping to match scat to individual coyotes and DNA metabarcoding to determine what they had eaten.



One key finding was that urban coyotes living in areas with high restaurant density, such as downtown and other heavily paved neighborhoods, consumed more human food. 



In contrast, those living in greener areas, such as the Presidio or Golden Gate Park, relied more on natural prey. This variation highlights how coyotes adapt their foraging behavior based on their surroundings.



The study also revealed that while individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-can-make-puppy-dog-eyes-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> within the same family had similar diets, the diets of different family groups varied significantly. 



“This study highlights the huge range of dietary and habitat affinities of coyotes as a species. That is a trait for which they are already well-known, but the study also joins a growing body of evidence pointing to relatively narrow proclivities of coyotes as individuals. They tend to stick with what they know,” noted senior author Ben Sacks, director of the <a href="https://mecu.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mammalian Ecology and Conservation Unit</a> at UC Davis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-return-of-coyotes-to-san-francisco">Return of coyotes to San Francisco</h2>



Coyotes are native to San Francisco, but they were eradicated from the city in the early 1900s. For nearly a century, they were absent from the urban landscape. 



However, in the early 2000s, coyotes made a comeback and have since established a stable population in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coyotes-live-longer-in-densely-populated-human-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban areas</a>. 



Today, they share space with more than 870,000 people in a city that spans just 47 square miles, making San Francisco the second-most densely populated major city in the United States.



Despite their return, many people remain unaware of how to coexist with these animals. Coyotes are opportunistic feeders, meaning they take advantage of whatever food is easiest to access. 



While they can hunt naturally, human-provided food - whether intentionally given or found in trash - has become a major part of their diet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coexisting-with-urban-coyotes">Coexisting with urban coyotes</h2>



As coyotes continue to thrive in San Francisco, it is important for residents to take steps to reduce conflicts. 



Many conflicts arise when people inadvertently provide food, either by leaving pet food outside, improperly disposing of trash, or feeding them directly. This can make coyotes more comfortable around humans, increasing the chances of unwanted encounters.



“There’s a misconception that coyotes are starving and need our help finding food in San Francisco, and clearly they don’t,” noted Caspi.



In reality, coyotes are highly adaptable and capable of surviving without human intervention.



Another way to minimize conflicts is by keeping domestic pets safe. Coyotes may not actively hunt cats, but they are opportunistic predators. Keeping cats indoors and ensuring that small pets are supervised can help reduce negative interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-wildlife-and-adaptation">Urban wildlife and adaptation</h2>



San Francisco’s urban <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/city-life-has-a-huge-impact-on-coyote-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coyotes</a> are part of a larger trend of wildlife adapting to city life. Around the world, animals are learning new ways to survive in urban environments. 



Song sparrows in Portland, Oregon, adjust their song frequencies to be heard over city noise, while cockatoos in Australia have figured out how to open trash cans for food. These behaviors demonstrate how different species develop unique survival strategies when faced with human-made landscapes.



“There are a lot of different ways to survive city life as an animal,” Caspi said. “It speaks to the plasticity and resilience of these species to see all of these different strategies for coping with urban life.”



Coyotes, known for their intelligence and adaptability, are no exception. They have successfully integrated into one of the country’s most densely populated cities, using their keen instincts to navigate an environment vastly different from their historical range.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-coyotes-in-san-francisco">Future of coyotes in San Francisco</h2>



The study’s findings provide valuable insights into urban wildlife management. By understanding what coyotes eat and how they adapt to their environment, city officials and conservationists can implement better strategies to reduce conflicts while protecting both wildlife and human residents.



The research was funded by a Christine Stevens Wildlife Award from the Animal Welfare Institute, along with support from UC Davis, <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Berkeley</a>, and the UC Davis <a href="https://education.ucdavis.edu/center-community-and-citizen-science" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Community and Citizen Science</a>. 



Contributions from community scientists via iNaturalist also played a crucial role in the study, helping researchers locate fresh scat samples and even leading to a rare discovery of fin whale DNA in a coyote’s diet. This was traced back to a beached whale recorded on the app.



As San Francisco continues to evolve, so will its urban coyotes. They have proven their ability to adapt, and their presence in the city is likely to remain a fixture of the urban ecosystem. Learning to coexist with them will be essential in maintaining a balance between wildlife conservation and city life.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecs2.70152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecosphere</a>.



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Urban coyotes have developed a taste for human food

The clever coyotes of San Francisco are proving just how...

A recent study led by the University of Oxford challenges the widely held notion that plants actively communicate with each other to warn of impending threats.



Instead, the findings suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-complex-biochemical-communication-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> are more likely to passively “eavesdrop” on their neighbors through shared fungal networks rather than engage in altruistic signaling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underground-communication-network">Underground communication network</h2>



Beneath the soil, plants are connected by an intricate fungal network popularly referred to as the “wood wide web.” This network emerges from the symbiotic relationships between plant roots and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycorrhizal fungi</a>.&nbsp;



In this partnership, plants supply fungi with carbon while the fungi provide essential nutrients to the plants. These networks also enable the transmission of resources and information among plants.



Previous studies have demonstrated that when one plant is attacked by herbivores or pathogens, neighboring plants connected to the same fungal network often strengthen their defenses.&nbsp;



However, it has remained unclear whether these responses result from active warnings sent by the attacked plant or passive cues interpreted by its neighbors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-questioning-altruism-in-plant-behavior">Questioning altruism in plant behavior</h2>



The idea that plants actively warn their neighbors poses a puzzle for evolutionary biologists. Altruistic behavior is generally rare in nature and typically occurs when it offers mutual benefits. For plants competing for resources like sunlight and nutrients, warning their neighbors would seem counterintuitive.



To address this paradox, an international research team from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a> and <a href="https://vu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam</a> developed mathematical models to explore whether plants would evolve to signal threats to one another.&nbsp;



The results suggest that it is highly unlikely for plants to develop active warning mechanisms, as such behavior would not confer significant evolutionary advantages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-communicate-in-deceptive-ways">Plants communicate in deceptive ways</h2>



The study revealed that plants might even engage in deceptive signaling to gain an advantage over their competitors.&nbsp;



“Our results indicate that it is more likely that plants will behave deceptively toward their neighbors, rather than altruistically,” said lead author Thomas Scott from the Department of Biology at the University of Oxford.&nbsp;



“For instance, plants may signal that a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-herbivore-extinctions-drastically-affect-forest-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivore</a> attack is occurring, even when no herbivore is present. Plants can gain a benefit from dishonest signaling because it harms their local competitors, by tricking them into investing in costly herbivore defense mechanisms.”



The findings challenge the idea of plants as cooperative entities and instead suggest that what appears to be altruistic behavior may often serve competitive or self-interested purposes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-neighboring-plants-still-respond">Why do neighboring plants still respond?</h2>



If plants are not actively warning their neighbors, why do connected plants upregulate their defenses when one is attacked? The researchers proposed two alternative explanations.



First, plants might unintentionally emit cues when under stress, similar to humans blushing when embarrassed. These involuntary emissions could be picked up by neighboring plants as signals of a threat, even though the emitting plant gains no direct benefit from sharing this information.



Second, the fungal networks themselves could play an active role in transmitting warnings. Mycorrhizal fungi rely on healthy plants for their survival, as plants provide them with carbohydrates. By relaying signals about potential threats, the fungi may protect their host plants and ensure the stability of the network.&nbsp;



“Maybe it is the fungal networks themselves that are sending the warning signals,” Scott said. “Mycorrhizal fungi rely on the plants on their network for carbohydrates, so it’s important to keep these plants in good condition. Perhaps the fungi are listening in on their plant partners, detecting when one has been attacked, and warning the others to prepare themselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nosy-plants-that-eavesdrop">Nosy plants that eavesdrop</h2>



Co-author Toby Kiers from Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam offered another perspective, likening plants to neighbors gossiping about a shared environment:



“There is no dispute that information is transferred. Organisms are constantly detecting and processing information about their environment. The question is whether plants are actively sending signals to warn each other. Maybe just like gossiping neighbors, one plant is simply <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eavesdropping-viruses-the-unseen-war-within-our-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eavesdropping</a> on the another.”



This reinterpretation highlights the possibility that plants are more passive participants in these networks, interpreting cues rather than engaging in intentional communication.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-plant-ecology-and-conservation">Implications for plant ecology and conservation</h2>



The study’s findings have significant implications for our understanding of plant behavior and ecosystem dynamics. Recognizing that plants may rely more on passive information gathering than active signaling shifts the focus of research to the role of fungal networks in mediating plant interactions.&nbsp;



This knowledge could be valuable in predicting how plant communities will respond to environmental changes such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> or climate change.



Understanding these dynamics also has potential applications in agriculture and conservation. For instance, manipulating fungal networks might enhance crop resilience or help restore ecosystems by improving communication between plants in stressed environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



While the study provides compelling theoretical support for the eavesdropping hypothesis, further empirical research is needed to validate these models.&nbsp;



Experiments could focus on isolating the role of fungi in transmitting signals and exploring whether different plant species vary in their ability to interpret these cues.



Additionally, studying how plants and fungi interact in diverse ecosystems could reveal whether certain environments favor passive communication over active signaling.&nbsp;



Expanding the research to include underrepresented plant species and regions would also provide a more comprehensive understanding of these interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-how-plants-communicate">Rethinking how plants communicate </h2>



This study fundamentally challenges the idea of plants as altruistic communicators, suggesting instead that their behavior may be driven by competition, self-interest, and passive eavesdropping.&nbsp;



By highlighting the role of fungal networks, the research opens new avenues for exploring the intricate relationships that sustain plant communities.



As Scott and his team continue to refine their models and expand their investigations, the hidden dynamics of plant communication promise to reveal even more about the complex strategies plants use to survive and thrive in their environments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2420701122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS).



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Plants use underground networks to ‘eavesdrop’ on their neighbors 

A recent study led by the University of Oxford challenges...

White-faced capuchin monkeys in Costa Rica displayed a surprising ability to withstand extreme drought conditions, according to a new study led by University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) researchers.&nbsp;



The research highlights how a robust stress response during mild droughts prepared these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/capuchin-monkeys-use-clever-tools-to-access-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">capuchin monkeys</a> to endure catastrophic events like the severe El Niño drought from 2014 to 2016. 



The study offers fresh insights into the adaptive role of stress responses in wild animals, with implications for both evolutionary biology and conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-response-helps-monkeys-survive">Stress response helps monkeys survive</h2>



Stress is often viewed as harmful, associated with “wear-and-tear” on the body. However, this study aimed to explore how the physiological stress response might serve an adaptive function.&nbsp;



“We wanted to understand how the stress response adaptively helps these individuals survive greater challenges,” explained Susan Perry, a <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> evolutionary anthropologist and co-author of the study.



Perry and her team leveraged the devastating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-event-may-push-earth-towards-its-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Niño</a> drought as a natural experiment to investigate how hormonal stress responses correlated with survival outcomes in white-faced capuchin monkeys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-el-nino-s-impact-on-monkeys">El Niño’s impact on monkeys</h2>



The El Niño <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megadroughts-are-becoming-more-frequent-and-severe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drought</a>, the most severe in recent history, significantly altered the lives of the monkeys at the Lomas Barbudal Capuchin Monkey Project in Guanacaste, Costa Rica. For over 35 years, Perry and her team have documented the lives and social behaviors of these monkeys. 



However, the extreme drought pushed the population to its limits, with widespread food shortages leading to visible weight loss, abandonment of infants, and drastically reduced caretaking behaviors. Mortality rates soared, especially among infants and older females.



According to Perry, this was the only time in their longitudinal study that these monkeys, who are usually behaviorally flexible, did not manage to adapt to an environmental stressor by simply changing how they behaved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indicators-of-stress-in-monkeys">Indicators of stress in monkeys</h2>



The researchers analyzed fecal samples collected between 2008 and 2013 from 28 female monkeys - 14 who survived the drought and 14 who did not. These samples contained glucocorticoids, hormones that regulate metabolism, immune response, and inflammation.



The findings revealed that monkeys exhibiting a more pronounced rise in glucocorticoid levels during mild droughts were significantly more likely to survive the severe El Niño drought. This result held true even after accounting for variables like pregnancy and time of day.



The study provides a clearer understanding of how an adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a> response looks in this species. These findings suggest that a steeper hormonal response to milder stressors might prepare individuals to cope with more extreme challenges in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-studies-in-a-changing-climate">Long-term studies in a changing climate</h2>



The research underscores the importance of longitudinal studies in understanding how animals cope with increasingly extreme weather events caused by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-impact-the-immune-system-of-wild-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



Perry’s team believes that such studies can reveal which species possess the physiological flexibility to adapt to rapidly changing environments and which are more vulnerable.



For instance, the white-faced capuchins' inability to adapt behaviorally during the drought marked a stark departure from their usual flexibility, raising questions about the limits of such adaptability in other species.&nbsp;



Long-term data like this can help conservationists identify species or populations at risk and guide interventions.



According to the experts, a population of highly endangered animals that cannot quickly adapt to change might need to be moved to a place that now has climatic conditions that match the environment in which that population evolved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-biology-and-conservation">Evolutionary biology and conservation</h2>



The study not only sheds light on the origins and maintenance of individual differences in stress responses but also has broader implications for evolutionary biology. Understanding how certain physiological traits enhance survival can provide clues about the pressures that shape species over time.



As climate change continues to intensify, studies like this are essential for identifying species’ resilience thresholds and informing conservation strategies.&nbsp;



For white-faced capuchins, their robust stress response during mild droughts was a life-saving adaptation during an extreme environmental crisis - offering a glimmer of hope for the survival of species in an increasingly volatile world.



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Stress helps capuchin monkeys survive in extreme weather 

White-faced capuchin monkeys in Costa Rica displayed a surprising ability...

According to official statistics, over 100,000 annual cases of illness in Germany are likely the result of microorganisms in food, such as bacteria, viruses, or parasites. Experts believe these numbers reflect only a fraction of the true scale, as many cases go unreported. 



Despite the actual risks posed by poor kitchen hygiene, the <a href="https://www.bfr.bund.de/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment</a> (BfR) reports that public concern about this issue remains surprisingly low.&nbsp;



In the latest BfR consumer monitor, a mere 17% of respondents expressed concern about kitchen hygiene and related illnesses, whereas 68% worried about microplastics and 52% about residues of plant protection products in their food.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-misconceptions-mistakes-only-happen-elsewhere">Misconceptions: Mistakes only happen elsewhere</h2>



Dr. Heidi Wichmann-Schauer, a hygiene specialist at the BfR, attributes this gap in perception to a widespread belief that mishandling of food occurs primarily outside one’s own home.&nbsp;



“Most people assume that they themselves do not make mistakes in their own kitchen, but that the mistakes are produced by others,” she explained in an episode of the BfR’s science podcast <a href="https://podcast.bfr.bund.de/6-unterschatztes-risiko-keime-in-der-kuche-006" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Risko</a>.&nbsp;



Contrary to such assumptions, even minor lapses in everyday kitchen routines can facilitate the transfer of pathogens to meals, resulting in severe foodborne illnesses. 



These infections can pose life-threatening risks, particularly for vulnerable groups like young children, pregnant women, seniors, or individuals with weakened immune systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-products-and-foodborne-illnesses">Animal products and foodborne illnesses </h2>



Foods of animal origin, such as meat, fish, eggs, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-raw-milk-health-hazard-pasteurization-important/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unpasteurized milk</a>, often host pathogens capable of causing disease in both animals and humans - a classification known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-u-s-is-alarmingly-unprepared-for-zoonotic-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zoonotic</a> pathogens. Common culprits include Campylobacter, salmonella, and certain strains of Escherichia coli.&nbsp;



Healthy animals can carry these microorganisms without displaying any signs of sickness. However, the microbes may contaminate food during processes like slaughter, milking, or egg collection, significantly raising the risk of infection for humans.



Given these potential dangers, Dr. Wichmann-Schauer underscores the importance of avoiding raw consumption of such products, particularly among those most susceptible to infection. She noted that “especially very young children, very old people, people whose body’s defences are weakened by previous illness or pregnant women” should never eat these foods raw.&nbsp;



Yet even for the general population, thorough cooking is critical for ensuring safety. “If a product is heated to at least 70 degrees Celsius uniformly throughout for at least two minutes, then we can assume that most existing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogens</a> have been killed,” said Dr. Wichmann-Schauer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-risks-in-the-kitchen">Common risks in the kitchen</h2>



Cross-contamination is another formidable hurdle. The direct transfer of bacteria from one item - often raw foods - to another is a frequent source of infection.&nbsp;



For instance, using the same cutting board or knife for raw meat and fresh vegetables, without proper cleaning, allows germs from the meat to infiltrate the vegetables. A salad that harbors these undetected pathogens can then provoke serious illness upon consumption.&nbsp;



Dr. Wichmann-Schauer emphasized that cleanliness in the kitchen and the correct handling of food are essential, advocating practices such as washing hands frequently, separating utensils for raw and ready-to-eat products, and sanitizing all surfaces thoroughly between uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lack-of-awareness-about-kitchen-risks">Lack of awareness about kitchen risks</h2>



Despite the severity of these risks, public awareness remains focused on more visible or widely publicized threats. The concern about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-steadily-increasing-in-freshwater-environments/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, for instance, may overshadow the persistent and pervasive threat of pathogens in the home kitchen.&nbsp;



While substances like microplastics or pesticide residues indeed merit attention, the data show that microbial contamination likely contributes to a more immediate and frequent risk profile.&nbsp;



According to the BfR, bridging this awareness gap is vital to preventing unnecessary illnesses that could be mitigated through improved personal habits and hygiene measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preventing-foodborne-illnesses-nbsp">Preventing foodborne illnesses&nbsp;</h2>



In practice, preventing foodborne diseases involves a comprehensive approach to safe food handling - one that extends from the point of purchase to the moment of consumption.&nbsp;



Storing raw meat separately in sealed containers, refrigerating perishables promptly, and regularly cleaning refrigerators and kitchen tools are all essential steps.&nbsp;



For particularly vulnerable populations, additional precautions, such as consistently verifying cooking temperatures, become even more critical. These measures serve to reduce the survival and spread of harmful microorganisms in domestic environments.



Ultimately, the strong emphasis on kitchen hygiene is not about generating undue alarm but reinforcing a set of simple, practical habits that can save lives.&nbsp;



By recognizing the gravity of seemingly trivial oversights, consumers and households can better protect themselves, reducing the incidence of foodborne illnesses and fostering a safer food culture overall.



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Kitchen germs are an underestimated threat to public health

According to official statistics, over 100,000 annual cases of illness...

In a collaborative effort between geneticists and archaeologists, new evidence about the structure of Iron Age society has been uncovered. At the heart of this discovery lies the surprising and influential role of women in both social and political arenas.



Their findings stem from an extensive DNA analysis conducted in Dorset, Southern England, where they sequenced over 50 ancient genomes from burial sites used before and after the Roman Conquest in the year 43 CE.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-women-in-the-iron-age">Power of women in the Iron Age</h2>



The genetic data opened up a new narrative, revealing a society built around strong female-lineage.



"We reconstructed a family tree with many different branches and found most members traced their maternal lineage back to a single woman, who would have lived centuries before. In contrast, relationships through the father's line were almost absent," explained Dr. Lara Cassidy, assistant professor in <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/Genetics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trinity College Dublin's</a> Department of Genetics and the leader of the study.



Such a discovery alters our understanding of societal norms during that time, and indicates that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-women-were-not-just-gatherers-they-were-hunters-too/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">women</a> held sway in both political and social aspects.



"This tells us that husbands moved to join their wives' communities upon marriage, with land potentially passed down through the female line," Cassidy added.



"This is the first time this type of system has been documented in European prehistory and it predicts female social and political empowerment. It's relatively rare in modern societies, but this might not always have been the case."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-matrilocality-in-iron-age-society">"Matrilocality" in Iron Age society</h2>



More astonishingly, this form of social organization, known as "matrilocality," was not exclusive to Dorset.



After scrutinizing earlier genetic surveys, the team found echoes of the same pattern throughout Iron Age Britain.



"Across Britain we saw cemeteries where most individuals were maternally descended from a small set of female ancestors," remarked Dan Bradley, professor of population genetics in Trinity's Department of Genetics, and co-author of the study. 



"In Yorkshire, for example, one dominant matriline had been established before 400 BCE. To our surprise, this was a widespread phenomenon with deep roots on the island," he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-iron-age-the-basics">Understanding the Iron Age -- the basics</h2>



The Iron Age was an exciting period in ancient history when people began using iron to make tools, weapons, and everyday items instead of relying on bronze or stone. 



This shift was a game-changer because iron was more durable and widely available, allowing communities to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-shift-to-farming-may-have-influenced-our-ancestors-height/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stronger farms</a>, better homes, and more effective weapons. 



With these advancements, societies grew bigger and more complex, leading to the rise of powerful kingdoms and empires. 



Farming became more efficient, which meant more food was available, supporting larger populations and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beer-iron-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sparking innovations</a> in various aspects of daily life.



Different regions around the world entered the Iron Age at their own pace, but it generally took place between 1200 BCE and 500 BCE in places like Europe and the Near East, drifting into the first century CE. 



During this time, trade routes expanded as people exchanged iron goods and ideas, fostering cultural exchanges and technological progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaeological-discoveries">Archaeological discoveries</h2>



The team tapped into a rich vein of well-preserved burials in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-tracks-discovered-on-uks-dinosaur-highway/">Dorset</a>, which is a rarity in Britain. The local inhabitants of the time, known by the Romans as "Durotriges," had distinct burial customs that led to this abundance of data.



The village of Winterborne Kingston, amusingly nicknamed "Duropolis," was one of the excavation sites where the more elaborately decorated burials were usually those of women.



"Beyond archaeology, knowledge of Iron Age Britain has come primarily from the Greek and Roman writers, but they are not always considered the most trustworthy," observed Dr. Miles Russell, the excavation's director and co-author of the study.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/iron-age-society_female-centric_Durotrigian-burial-site_credit-Bournemouth-U_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/iron-age-society_female-centric_Durotrigian-burial-site_credit-Bournemouth-U_1s.webp" alt="Durotrigian burial of a young woman from Langton Herring sampled for DNA (c) Bournemouth University. She was buried with a mirror (right panels) and jewelry, including a Roman coin amulet showing a female charioteer representing Victory.jpg. Credit: Bournemouth University." class="wp-image-1957615"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Durotrigian burial of a young woman from Langton Herring sampled for DNA (c) Bournemouth University. She was buried with a mirror (right panels) and jewelry, including a Roman coin amulet showing a female charioteer representing Victory. Credit: Bournemouth University.</figcaption></figure>



"That said, their commentary on British women is remarkable in light of these findings. When the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-romans-made-such-incredibly-durable-concrete-is-no-longer-a-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Romans</a> arrived, they were astonished to find women occupying positions of power. Two of the earliest recorded rulers were queens - Boudica and Cartimandua - who commanded armies," Russel added.



"It's been suggested that the Romans exaggerated the liberties of British women to paint a picture of an untamed society. But archaeology, and now genetics, implies women were influential in many spheres of Iron Age life. Indeed, it is possible that maternal ancestry was the primary shaper of group identities."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-digging-deeper-into-the-past">Digging deeper into the past</h2>



Beyond the insights into societal structure, the research from <a href="https://www.bournemouth.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bournemouth University</a> also picked up previously unnoticed waves of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a> into coastal southern England during the Iron Age.



A re-examination of the arrival of the Celtic language in Britain is now on the horizon.



"Migration into Britain during the later Bronze Age has previously been detected, leading some to hypothesize that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-reached-the-faroe-islands-much-earlier-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Celtic</a> language arrived during this period. But our results point towards substantial cross-channel mobility during the Iron Age as well," Cassidy concluded.



"Narrowing down the arrival time of Celtic will be difficult. Indeed, it is quite possible that Celtic languages were introduced to Britain on more than one occasion."



This investigation into the past has thus brought forth unexpected insights into the role of women, and has shed light on a crucial piece of Iron Age societal structure while also opening up new pathways for understanding Britain's historical timelines.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-024-04214-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Iron Age societies were more progressive than most, including modern times

In a collaborative effort between geneticists and archaeologists, new evidence...

Data from the European Space Agency’s Swarm mission has revealed a fascinating discovery. Researchers have found that faint magnetic signals created by ocean tides can help map magma distribution beneath the seabed.



These signals could also provide insights into long-term changes in global ocean temperatures and salinity.



Swarm’s ability to detect these subtle magnetic variations is a significant step forward in geophysical research. By studying these weak signals, scientists can better understand the complex interactions between Earth’s magnetic field, ocean currents, and even volcanic activity beneath the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swarm-s-unique-capabilities">Swarm’s unique capabilities</h2>



Swarm is a constellation of three satellites that orbit the Earth between 462 km (287 miles) and 511 km (318 miles) above the surface. 



Launched in 2013, these satellites were designed to study Earth’s geomagnetic field with unprecedented accuracy.



Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic field</a> extends into space and acts as a protective shield against solar radiation. The primary source of this field is believed to be the movement of liquid iron in the outer core. 



However, other factors contribute to the planet’s overall magnetism, including magnetized rocks in the crust.



While the oceans are not typically considered a source of magnetism, salty seawater is a moderate conductor of electricity. 



As ocean tides move across Earth’s magnetic field, they generate weak electric currents, which, in turn, produce faint magnetic signals.



These signals are extremely weak compared to those generated by the planet’s core, but Swarm’s highly sensitive instruments can detect them from space.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-s-hidden-magnetic-signature">Ocean’s hidden magnetic signature</h2>



Swarm’s advanced sensors, including state-of-the-art magnetometers, can distinguish the faint tidal magnetic signals from other, stronger sources. This ability allows researchers to study the entire water column of the ocean in ways never before possible.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“This study shows that Swarm can provide data on properties of the entire water column of our oceans,” noted Anja Strømme, ESA’s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/Swarm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swarm Mission</a> Manager.
</blockquote>



This capability is a game-changer for oceanography and climate science. By analyzing these magnetic signatures, scientists can gain new insights into ocean dynamics, including variations in temperature and salinity over time. 



These factors play a crucial role in understanding climate change and predicting future environmental shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-of-magma-beneath-the-ocean">Distribution of magma beneath the ocean</h2>



Beyond its contributions to ocean science, Swarm is also helping researchers study the distribution of magma beneath the ocean floor. This information is essential for understanding volcanic activity, particularly in seismically active regions.



One of the most significant volcanic events in recent history, the 2022 Hunga-Tonga eruption, demonstrated the destructive power of underwater volcanoes. 



Understanding how magma moves and accumulates beneath the seabed could improve early warning systems for such eruptions in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-swarm-s-unexpected-longevity">Swarm’s unexpected longevity</h2>



Swarm was originally designed as a four-year mission, yet it has been operational for over a decade. The extended mission duration has provided scientists with the opportunity to explore new research questions that were not initially considered.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“This is one of the benefits of flying missions for longer than originally planned. So, by flying as long as the scientific output is of excellent quality and resources allow, you can tackle scientific questions that weren’t originally envisaged,” said Anja Strømme.
</blockquote>



As the satellites gradually descend due to atmospheric drag, they are now positioned to capture even weaker magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/origin-of-the-suns-magnetic-field-discovered-after-400-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> from the ocean that were previously beyond the reach of their instruments.



This unintended benefit has opened new avenues of research, allowing Swarm to contribute even more valuable data in its later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-activity-and-faint-signals">Solar activity and faint signals</h2>



One of the key factors that allowed Swarm to detect these weak oceanic magnetic signatures was the Sun’s period of low activity around 2017. 



During this time, known as a solar minimum, there was less interference from space weather, allowing the satellites to collect cleaner data.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“These are among the smallest signals detected by the Swarm mission so far,” explained study lead author Alexander Grayver from the <a href="https://portal.uni-koeln.de/es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cologne</a>.
</blockquote>



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
“The data are particularly good because they were gathered during a period of solar minimum, when there was less noise due to space weather.”
</blockquote>



The solar minimum is a phase in the Sun’s 11-year cycle when its surface activity is at its lowest. During this time, the Sun emits fewer charged particles and less electromagnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetism-at-earths-core-simulations-offer-breakthrough-insights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radiation</a>. 



This reduction in solar interference makes it easier for Swarm’s instruments to detect weak geomagnetic signals that would otherwise be obscured.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-of-subtle-magnetic-signals">Future studies of subtle magnetic signals </h2>



Scientists are hopeful that Swarm will continue to operate beyond 2030, despite its gradual descent. If the mission remains active during the next solar minimum, it will have another opportunity to detect these subtle magnetic signals with even greater clarity.



With each new discovery, Swarm reinforces the value of long-term space missions. What began as a project to study Earth’s magnetism has evolved into a powerful tool for understanding the planet’s oceans, climate, and even volcanic activity.



As Swarm continues its journey, its data will remain a critical resource for researchers seeking to unravel the hidden forces shaping our planet. 



Whether through tracking ocean currents, mapping magma flows, or detecting the smallest fluctuations in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetic-north-pole-is-moving-faster-than-ever-as-it-races-toward-russia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s magnetic field</a>, Swarm is proving that even the faintest signals can reveal profound scientific insights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2024.0078" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A</a>.



Image Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>



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Satellites detect hidden magnetic signals in Earth's oceans

Data from the European Space Agency’s Swarm mission has revealed...

Imagine a future where one of the biggest pollutants of our environment, the production of ammonia, is no longer a headache. Instead, the Earth itself could become a productive partner in generating this chemical. All it takes is the use of Earth's natural forces and heat.



In an unexpected twist of events, a scientific breakthrough at the globally renowned Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>), points in this very direction.



The ground-breaking study was motivated by a mysterious natural phenomenon observed in Mali, West Africa, in the 1980s.



Locals came across a well that was gushing with hydrogen gas, an oddity that scientists attributed to a water-rock chemical reaction beneath Earth's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-shift-in-the-fertilizer-industry">Green shift in the fertilizer industry</h2>



“It was an ‘aha’ moment,” shared senior author Iwnetim Abate of MIT. "We may be able to use Earth as a factory, harnessing its heat and pressure to produce valuable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decline-in-ozone-depleting-chemicals-is-an-encouraging-trend/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemicals</a> like ammonia in a cleaner manner."



Ammonia's importance cannot be overstated. It is a key ingredient in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a> and potentially a clean fuel source. However, its current production methods are far from energy-efficient or green. 



Today's industrial ammonia production is a significant consumer of global energy and a major emitter of CO2. In fact, for every ton of ammonia produced, there's a release of around 2.4 tons of CO2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-ammonia-production">Traditional ammonia production</h2>



For over a century, the production of ammonia has been dominated by the Haber-Bosch process, an energy-intensive method that relies heavily on the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-from-fossil-fuels-kills-5-million-people-each-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>.



This conventional approach operates at high temperatures and pressures, consumes vast amounts of natural gas and contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.



Despite its efficiency in meeting global fertilizer demands, the process is far from sustainable. 



As industries face mounting pressure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-changes-in-diet-can-greatly-reduce-your-carbon-footprint/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reduce their carbon footprints</a>, the search for greener alternatives has intensified. 



Scientists and engineers are now exploring innovative methods that utilize Earth's natural processes to revolutionize ammonia production, offering a path toward cleaner, more efficient solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-solution-under-our-feet">Finding the solution under our feet</h2>



With sustainability in their sights, the research team at MIT set out to test this idea of an "Earth factory." They constructed an environment that replicated the conditions beneath Earth's surface.



Iron-rich minerals were exposed to nitrogen-laced water, which ignited a chemical reaction that transformed the rock and gave rise to what they termed "geological ammonia."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ammonia-fertilizer_new-green-process_illustration_MIT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/ammonia-fertilizer_new-green-process_illustration_MIT_1s.webp" alt="Researchers cooked up a new recipe—without any energy input or CO2 emission—for generating ammonia, a key chemical for the agriculture industry, by mixing nitrogen-laced water with iron-rich rocks. Credit: Yifan Gao and Iwnetim Abate" class="wp-image-1957605"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers cooked up a new recipe - without any energy input or CO2 emission - for generating ammonia, a key chemical for the agriculture industry, by mixing nitrogen-laced water with iron-rich rocks. Credit: Yifan Gao and Iwnetim Abate</figcaption></figure>



Remarkably, the process didn't require any additional energy input, and there were no CO2 emissions. To top it all, the entire process even took place under ambient conditions!



To replicate real-world conditions, the team replaced synthetic mineral with olivine, a naturally iron-laden rock. They optimized the process further by introducing a copper catalyst and elevating the heat to 300°C.



In just 21 hours, they managed to produce about 1.8 kg of ammonia per ton of olivine, demonstrating the method's feasibility and sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-green-ammonia-production-matter">Why does green ammonia production matter?</h2>



"These rocks are all over the world, so the method could be adapted very widely across the globe," enthused Abate.



However, he acknowledged that implementation would come with its own set of challenges, including drilling into iron-rich rocks deep within the Earth and dealing with the complexities of the rocks' interactions with gases and liquids.



On the economic front, geological ammonia production is encouraging. The cost is around $0.55 per kilogram, roughly equivalent to the price of conventional methods. 



But the game-changer is the potential to address environmental crises like CO2 production and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/staggering-amount-of-wastewater-impacts-coastal-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wastewater pollution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-life-and-ammonia">Nature, life, and ammonia</h2>



Yifan Gao of MIT, the first author of the study, postulated a win-win strategy. 



"Nitrogen sources are considered as pollution in wastewater, and removing them costs money and energy," he explained.



The team suggested turning this problem on its head by using wastewater to produce ammonia. This perspective could potentially add an additional profit of $3.82 per kilogram of ammonia formed.



"Ammonia is pretty important for life. The only other natural way that ammonia is produced on Earth is when lightning strikes nitrogen gas," commented senior author Ju Li.



"That’s why the geological production of ammonia is quite interesting when you think about where life came from,” Li concluded.



This initiative by the scientists at MIT highlights the innovative solutions that can arise when we look towards nature for inspiration.



With every small step, we move closer to a future where sustainable chemical production is not just a dream but a reality.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2542435124005415" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joule</a>.



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New green tech produces ammonia fertilizer using Earth's natural forces

Imagine a future where one of the biggest pollutants of...

The battle against brain aging has a surprising new player: the X chromosome we inherit from our mothers. Recent research reveals that this genetic hand-me-down could influence how quickly our brains age, particularly in women. 



While we've long known that women have two X chromosomes compared to men's single X, it turns out that which parent those X chromosomes come from might matter more than we thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x-chromosome-in-brain-function">X chromosome in brain function</h2>



The X chromosome has long been linked to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-the-secret-to-keeping-your-brain-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain health</a>. Many intellectual disabilities stem from mutations in genes located on the X chromosome. 



Women with Turner syndrome, a condition where only one X chromosome is present instead of two, often experience cognitive impairments. Scientists have suspected that the X chromosome plays a role in memory, learning, and susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s.



Dr. Samira Abdulai-Saiku, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCSF</a> and first author of the study, emphasized the significance of these findings.



“Given the fact that the X chromosome is enriched for brain-related genes, it became very important for us to know what roles it might be playing in brain aging,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-x-chromosome-matter">Why does X chromosome matter?</h2>



In females, every cell requires only one active X chromosome. To maintain balance, the body randomly inactivates one X chromosome in each cell. 



Some cells use the maternal X chromosome, while others rely on the paternal X chromosome. This mosaic pattern of gene expression creates a unique genetic environment in women.



However, the process of X inactivation is not always perfectly balanced. Some women, purely by chance, may have more cells that activate the maternal X chromosome than the paternal one. This variation, known as X chromosome skewing, has been largely overlooked in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain aging</a> research - until now.



“Skewing of the X chromosome is common among humans, and there are certainly women who are walking around with much higher or lower levels of maternal X chromosomes than others, just by chance,” said Dr. Dena Dubal, senior author of the study and professor of neurology at UCSF.



“There has been little research on the potential consequences of this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maternal-x-chromosome-accelerates-brain-aging">Maternal X chromosome accelerates brain aging</h2>



To understand the effects of X chromosome activation, the UCSF research team bred female mice in a way that ensured some had only an active maternal X chromosome, while others retained a mix of maternal and paternal X chromosomes. 



The results revealed that female mice with only a maternal X chromosome suffered from worse memory and learning abilities as they aged.



Further investigation showed that the hippocampus - a brain region essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-habits-may-age-the-brain-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory and learning</a> - aged more rapidly in mice with only an active maternal X chromosome.



The researchers observed significant differences in gene expression, with certain genes on the maternal X chromosome being completely silenced, while they remained active on the paternal X chromosome.



“What we showed is that these animals’ brains were really aging faster than the brains of their genetically identical sisters who had both mom’s and dad’s X chromosomes turned on,” Dubal explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reactivating-the-silenced-genes">Reactivating the silenced genes</h2>



To further explore the effects of X chromosome expression, the researchers turned to CRISPR gene-editing technology. By reactivating the silenced genes on the maternal X chromosome in older female mice, they were able to improve cognitive function. 



The mice that underwent this genetic intervention demonstrated enhanced learning and memory, suggesting that reversing gene silencing could be a potential strategy for slowing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hobbies-keep-the-brain-sharp-and-slow-cognitive-aging/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brain aging</a>.



Abdulai-Saiku highlighted the importance of this discovery. “Together, all these experiments suggested to us that the parental origin of an X chromosome can have a big impact on brain health,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-evolutionary-tradeoff">An evolutionary tradeoff?</h2>



The study was not designed to determine why the maternal X chromosome accelerates brain aging compared to the paternal X chromosome. 



However, Dubal proposed a possible evolutionary explanation. “It may be that this gene expression pattern is actually really beneficial to brain development, but then there is this tradeoff later in life,” she said.



This hypothesis raises important questions about the genetic mechanisms underlying aging and neurodegeneration. 



If certain genes promote brain growth and function during youth but accelerate decline with age, understanding these tradeoffs could lead to interventions that extend cognitive health into old age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Dubal and her team plan to continue their investigation into the role of the X chromosome in brain aging. Their findings could help explain why some people are more prone to cognitive decline than others and may offer new strategies for preventing diseases like Alzheimer’s.



“The X chromosome you inherited from your mom is turning off genes, accelerating aging, and impairing cognition,” Dubal said. “Can we reverse this?”



The potential for reversing age-related cognitive decline by modifying gene expression is an exciting avenue for future research. If scientists can identify ways to balance X chromosome expression, it may open doors to new therapies for brain aging in both men and women.



This remarkable research not only deepens our understanding of the genetic factors influencing brain aging but also offers hope for innovative approaches to maintaining cognitive health across the lifespan.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08457-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Genes inherited from our mothers make our brains age faster

The battle against brain aging has a surprising new player:...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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