Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Ever wondered how an electronic tongue powered by artificial intelligence (AI) could enhance our ability to distinguish tastes? 



Researchers have recently unveiled this innovative technology, which identifies subtle differences in liquids. 



A team at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> led the research, demonstrating how AI could redefine how we perceive and analyze <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-trained-an-ai-algorithm-to-taste-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flavors</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-processes-involved-in-taste">Biological processes involved in taste</h2>



The electronic tongue is capable of identifying differences in liquids, such as milk with varying water content, diverse sodas, coffee blends, and even signs of spoilage in fruit juices. 



“We’re trying to make an artificial tongue, but the process of how we experience different foods involves more than just the tongue,” said Saptarshi Das, professor of engineering science and mechanics.



Professor Das explained how the electronic tongue mimics the biological processes involved in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taste-buds-are-the-first-line-of-defense-against-eating-too-much-and-too-fast/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">taste</a>, which go beyond the basic five taste categories.



To artificially imitate the gustatory cortex, the researchers developed a neural network, a machine learning algorithm that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-invent-computer-that-operates-just-like-the-human-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mimics the human brain</a>. 



Study co-author Harikrishnan Ravichandran is a doctoral student in engineering science and mechanics.



"In this work, we’re considering several chemicals to see if the sensors can accurately detect them, and furthermore, whether they can detect minute differences between similar foods and discern instances of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-leafy-green-vegetables-safe-until-ready-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food safety</a> concerns," said Ravichandran.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ion-sensitive-field-effect-transistors">Ion-sensitive field-effect transistors </h2>



The experts noted that ion-sensitive field-effect transistors (ISFETs) have emerged as indispensable tools in chemosensing applications. 



"ISFETs operate by converting changes in the composition of chemical solutions into electrical signals, making them ideal for environmental monitoring, healthcare diagnostics, and industrial process control," wrote the researchers.



"Recent advancements in ISFET technology, including functionalized multiplexed arrays and advanced data analytics, have improved their performance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-applications-across-various-fields">Applications across various fields</h2>



The electronic tongue can broadly detect and classify numerous substances, assessing their quality, authenticity, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-waste-can-be-used-for-fresher-safer-produce/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshness</a> with remarkable precision.



This comprehensive approach not only holds the potential to revolutionize food safety and production but also extends its applications to medical diagnostics and beyond.



According to study lead author Andrew Pannone, the AI reached a near ideal inference accuracy of more than 95% when utilizing the machine-derived figures of merit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decision-making-process-of-artificial-intelligence">Decision-making process of artificial intelligence </h2>



To gain deeper insights into the AI’s decision-making process, the team applied Shapley additive explanations - an advanced method grounded in game theory.



This technique allowed the researchers to analyze how the AI weighed various factors in its assessments, providing a clearer view into the reasoning behind each decision.



“We found that the network looked at more subtle characteristics in the data - things we, as humans, struggle to define properly,” explained Professor Das. This highlights how the neural network’s holistic approach mitigates variations that might occur daily.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-the-electronic-tongue">Future of the electronic tongue</h2>



Professor Das noted that the electronic tongue’s capabilities are “limited only by the data on which it is trained,” suggesting future applications in medical diagnostics.



“We figured out that we can live with imperfection. And that’s what nature is - it’s full of imperfections, but it can still make robust decisions, just like our electronic tongue.”



According to Professor Das, the electronic tongue's capabilities are only limited by the data it is trained on, making it potentially applicable in medical diagnostics and various industries.



A significant advantage lies in the sensor's robustness, a quality that could support broad deployment across industries, despite day-to-day variations.



Furthermore, these sensors do not need to be identical, making them more practical and cost-effective. Just like in nature, the electronic tongue can make robust decisions amid imperfections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-versatility-of-the-electronic-tongue">Versatility of the electronic tongue</h2>



The electronic tongue’s potential applications go beyond basic taste detection. This versatile tool is equipped to handle various industry needs, from food and beverage quality control to medical diagnostics.



By examining different chemicals and assessing factors like freshness and authenticity, the electronic tongue demonstrates its adaptability. 



The researchers believe that this technology's robustness, combined with the neural network's ability to adjust to day-to-day variations, makes the electronic tongue a valuable asset for any industry where precise and rapid substance identification is essential.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-08003-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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'Electronic tongue' could revolutionize food safety

Ever wondered how an electronic tongue powered by artificial intelligence...

The non-profit organization Carbon Mapper is leveling up the game in the battle against climate change, using cutting-edge satellite tech to keep a close eye on greenhouse gas emissions.



This revolutionary initiative is proving how high-tech environmental monitoring can spur real action and spark creative solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-mapper-s-tanager-1-satellite">Carbon Mapper's Tanager-1 satellite</h2>



The recent launch of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-greenhouse-gas-detecting-satellite-is-now-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tanager-1</a> satellite marks a key achievement for the Carbon Mapper team, advancing our ability to combat climate change through innovative technology.



This pioneering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-data-could-revolutionize-weather-forecasts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satellite</a>, created through a partnership between <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) and Planet Labs PBC, is equipped with an advanced imaging spectrometer capable of precisely detecting methane and carbon dioxide emissions, even from the most remote and hard-to-reach areas.



With its extensive global reach, Tanager-1 isn’t only focused on tracking emissions within the United States but also extends its monitoring capabilities to detect and analyze emissions in international hotspots, helping to address climate change on a worldwide scale.



This launch showcases the expansive influence of the Carbon Mapper project and its commitment to tackling climate challenges on a global scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visualizing-the-invisible-with-tanager-1">Visualizing the invisible with Tanager-1</h2>



Tanager-1 took to the skies on August 16, blasting off from Vandenberg Space Force Base. It's not just any satellite - it's the result of different minds coming together with a shared vision.



Thanks to its sophisticated imaging, Tanager-1 can track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/state-of-the-climate-greenhouse-gases-hit-a-record-high-in-2022/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gases</a> that were once difficult to monitor.



“The first greenhouse gas images from Tanager-1 are exciting and are a compelling sign of things to come," said James Graf, director for Earth Science and Technology at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-bird-s-eye-view-of-global-activity">A bird’s eye view of global activity</h2>



Already, Tanager-1 has captured images of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-massive-amounts-of-methane-gas-spews-from-wildfires/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> and carbon dioxide over areas like Pakistan, South Africa, and Texas. These photos highlight how our actions are affecting the world.



By collecting intricate data, the Carbon Mapper team can guess the rate of emissions, helping us understand how these gases are driving climate change.



At the heart of Tanager-1 is a highly advanced imaging spectrometer. This tool allows researchers to detect specific chemical compounds by peeking beyond the visible spectrum.



By examining light wavelengths, the spectrometer can identify a unique "spectral fingerprint" for different substances up in the sky, enabling an incredibly accurate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monitoring-mining-emissions-with-satellites-new-era-of-remote-environmental-surveillance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monitoring of emissions</a> at a facility level.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-data-driving-change">Sharing data, driving change</h2>



The Carbon Mapper team is dedicated to making this crucial information widely available.



As Tanager-1 starts scanning large areas of Earth every day, the collected data will be provided through the Carbon Mapper data portal. 



This is a treasure trove of knowledge for researchers and policymakers, helping them make informed decisions to fight greenhouse gas emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-story-behind-carbon-mapper">The story behind Carbon Mapper</h2>



Carbon Mapper was created out of a pressing need to respond quickly and effectively to climate change. 



The primary objective is to close the gap in monitoring methane and carbon dioxide emissions around the world, with a focus on providing transparent, accessible data that helps drive climate solutions on a global level.



Thanks to the support of forward-thinking philanthropists and a strong public-private partnership, Carbon Mapper is paving the way with a revolutionary satellite constellation. 



This fleet of satellites is built to offer real-time, precise insights into greenhouse gas emissions, changing how we understand and address their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-access-to-emissions-data">Global access to emissions data</h2>



Beyond gathering data, Carbon Mapper's mission is to make a real-world impact on climate policy and action. 



With Tanager-1 at the forefront, Carbon Mapper envisions a future where emission data is available to everyone - not just scientists and policymakers.



This openness can help us all feel a greater sense of responsibility and urgency, inspiring everyone to play a part in reducing our carbon footprints.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-carbon-mapper-network">Expanding the Carbon Mapper network </h2>



Looking forward, Carbon Mapper plans to add more satellites to its constellation, creating a even more detailed map of global greenhouse gas emissions. 



This expanded network will allow continuous monitoring, fast response to emission spikes, and quicker action to tackle pollution sources. 



By raising the bar in environmental monitoring, Carbon Mapper is paving the way towards a future where data-driven decisions contribute to a cleaner, more sustainable world.



Image Credit: Carbon Mapper/Planet Labs PBC



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Carbon Mapper satellite pinpoints greenhouse gas hotspots

The non-profit organization Carbon Mapper is leveling up the game...

In a report published in The Conversation, experts describe the potentially catastrophic crises faced by humanity, and our failure to acknowledge our interconnectedness with nature. 



The authors of the <a href="https://theconversation.com/humanitys-future-depends-on-our-ability-to-live-in-harmony-with-nature-233042" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> - Liette Vasseur, Anders Hayden and Mike Jones - note that our current mindset is focused on competition, growth and profit. This, they say, has been a key contributor to social and ecological crises



Humanity stands on the brink of a series of trials, each one potentially more devastating than the last. 



Our ongoing battles against inequality, poverty, inadequate food supplies, environmental turmoil, and loss of biodiversity suggest that we might have overstepped as hosts. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-nature-continue-to-sustain-life">Can nature continue to sustain life?</h2>



Our existence is woven into complex systems. A single tug at one thread resonates through the entire fabric. 



Societies often turn a blind eye to these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2024-the-tide-may-finally-be-turning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interconnections</a>, leading to a one-sided, exploitative relationship with nature. Our perceived superiority over other living beings, defined by race, gender, economic status, or species, fuels such exploitative tendencies.



Our growth-focused, competitive mindset has been a thorn in the side of both social and ecological welfare for years. 



What's truly chilling isn't the damage already done but the delicate state in which it leaves our environment. Have our actions pushed nature to a precipice, beyond which it can't sustain life?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-straddling-the-fence">Straddling the fence</h2>



As we ponder over our collective survival and prosperity, addressing these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2024-a-call-for-land-restoration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interconnected</a> crises becomes non-negotiable. 



While initiatives like Earth for All and the United Nations' Pact for the Future offer some guidance, they fall short of the sweeping change we need. It's like trying to put out a forest fire with a water pistol.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-and-equitable-future">Sustainable and equitable future </h2>



What does this profound change entail? It's not merely about minor adjustments to existing systems; it's about revamping our interactions with the environment. 



In their report, the experts note that we must reciprocate what we take from nature. They emphasize that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-the-dual-crises-of-climate-and-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable</a> and equitable well-being must be placed at the center of human societies.



The ability to lead good lives without overshooting our planet's boundaries is a tightrope walk we need to master. This balancing act requires an economic perspective that encourages living in harmony with nature, not against it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daunting-yet-achievable">Daunting yet achievable</h2>



This transformation might seem like a Herculean task, but it's achievable. Communities from Puget Sound to Sumas First Nation serve as living proof of this possibility. The experts pointed out that in these communities, people are already living in ways that allow humans and ecosystems to flourish.



We, as adaptable creatures with the gift of foresight, have the capacity to transform systems through cooperation.



Our personal choices matter, but their influence magnifies when we unite for systemic changes in our communities, organizations, and the broader society. So, how about we pull together and accelerate this transition?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-friendly-sustainable-future">Nature-friendly sustainable future </h2>



Embracing a lifestyle intertwined with nature requires collaborative, equitable action, purposeful efforts, and communication across cultures. 



Let's start pondering over the ripple effects of our actions and contemplate both their immediate and long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-extinctions-shatter-the-harmonious-balance-of-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repercussions</a>. It’s time we took the reins and crafted more fair and sustainable societal systems.



Addressing the plethora of problems we face requires a diverse toolkit of solutions, sourced from both formal knowledge, like scientific research, and traditional wisdom, such as Indigenous ecological knowledge. Imagine the swell of creativity we could unleash by blending these different knowledge systems.



This reformation is not just about changing our mindset; it’s also about reshaping our technological systems. 



Technology, often a tool for exploitation, bears <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">massive potential for positive changes</a>. With a systems thinking approach, we can steer technological innovations towards equity and sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-circular-economy">A circular economy</h2>



Moving towards a circular economy is key to redesigning the relationship between humankind and the environment. 



Unlike the existing “use, produce, discard” model, the circular economy aims to minimize waste and maximize resource use through restorative and regenerative processes. This approach encourages a complete redesign of production processes to prioritize reuse and recycling materials. 



Not only does it reduce environmental harm, but it also creates economic opportunities and jobs, paving the way for a sustainable future within our planet’s resource limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-education-key-to-change">Education: Key to change</h2>



Education stands as a powerful force in driving our transition to a more sustainable and equitable future. It’s the lantern that illuminates the interconnectedness of social, economic, and environmental systems, inspiring actionable change. 



By integrating sustainability principles into educational curricula, we can equip future generations with the knowledge and skills to address global challenges of nature. 



More than just enlightening, education can foster a sense of responsibility towards our planet, nurturing leaders who can champion innovation and sustainable policies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-sustainability-and-our-future">Nature, sustainability, and our future</h2>



Significant changes loom over Earth's natural environments and societal systems. Our survival depends on our ability to plan for these challenges proactively. 



We need more than incremental changes to tackle these threats. "What is needed is radical transformation aimed at creating just and flourishing relationships between nature and humanity for the benefit of all current and future life on Earth," the experts concluded.



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We must live in harmony with nature to create a sustainable future

In a report published in The Conversation, experts describe the...

NASA is gearing up for an ambitious mission that could reshape our understanding of life in the universe. The Europa Clipper spacecraft is preparing to launch this week, aiming to discover if the hidden ocean beneath Jupiter's moon Europa holds the ingredients necessary for life.



Scheduled to lift off no earlier than Monday, October 14, the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/europa-clipper/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa Clipper</a> will embark on its journey from Launch Complex 39A at NASA's Kennedy Space Center in Florida. 



The spacecraft will ride atop a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket, marking a significant milestone in space exploration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-europa-matters">Why Europa matters</h2>



Steve Vance, an astrobiologist and geophysicist on the Europa Clipper science team at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (<a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JPL</a>), shared his excitement about the mission. 



"Non-icy materials on the surface could get moved into deep interior pockets of briny water within the icy shell," he said. "Some might be large enough to be considered lakes, or at least ponds."



Europa, one of Jupiter's largest moons, has captivated scientists for decades. Beneath its thick ice crust lies a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-evidence-jupiter-moon-europa-deep-ocean-shifting-icy-shell/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vast ocean of liquid water</a> -- more than all of Earth's oceans combined. 



The big question is whether this ocean could harbor life. The Europa Clipper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europa-clipper-mission-set-to-search-for-life-on-jupiters-ocean-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mission aims to find out</a> by investigating the moon's potential habitability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-and-strategic-flight-path">Long and strategic flight path</h2>



To maximize the mission's success, Europa Clipper will follow an elongated, looping orbit around Jupiter. 



This trajectory minimizes exposure to Jupiter's intense radiation while allowing the spacecraft to swoop in for close passes -- 49 flybys in total -- by Europa. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/europa-clipper-mission_illustration_nasa_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/europa-clipper-mission_illustration_nasa_1s.webp" alt="An artist’s concept of NASA’s Europa Clipper spacecraft. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech" class="wp-image-1947316"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An artist’s concept of NASA’s Europa Clipper spacecraft. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech</figcaption></figure>



During these encounters, the spacecraft will gather valuable data about the moon's surface and subsurface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-beneath-europa-s-icy-shell">Life beneath Europa's icy shell?</h2>



One of the mission's main objectives is to understand how thick Europa's icy shell is and what's happening beneath it. 



Using a suite of sophisticated instruments, scientists hope to "see" through the ice and gain insights into the underlying ocean. 



They'll also search for materials on the surface that might have come from below, look for organic compounds -- the building blocks of life -- and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iron-snow-brings-hope-for-finding-life-on-jupiters-moon-europa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sample any gases</a> escaping from the moon.



High-resolution images are crucial for studying Europa's geology. The Europa Imaging System (<a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/instruments/eis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EIS</a>) is designed for this task. 



"The EIS imagers will give us incredibly high-resolution images to understand how Europa’s surface evolved and is continuing to change," said Dr. Morgan Cable, a planetary scientist at JPL and member of the Europa Clipper team. 



These images will help researchers identify features like cracks, ridges, and possibly active plumes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-water-plumes">Searching for water plumes</h2>



In 2005, NASA's Cassini mission spotted giant plumes of water vapor erupting from Saturn's moon Enceladus. Scientists suspect Europa might exhibit similar activity. 



The Europa Ultraviolet Spectrograph (<a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/instruments/europa-uvs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europa-UVS</a>) will search for these water plumes and analyze any material venting into space. Detecting plumes would offer a direct glimpse into the subsurface ocean.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/europa_jupiter-moon_internal-structure_alien-ocean_plumes_NASA_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/europa_jupiter-moon_internal-structure_alien-ocean_plumes_NASA_1s.webp" alt="This artist’s concept (not to scale) depicts what Europa’s internal structure could look like: an outer shell of ice, perhaps with plumes of material venting from beneath the surface; a deep, global layer of liquid water; and a rocky interior, potentially with hydrothermal vents on the seafloor. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech" class="wp-image-1947317"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist’s concept (not to scale) depicts what Europa’s internal structure could look like: an outer shell of ice, perhaps with plumes of material venting from beneath the surface; a deep, global layer of liquid water; and a rocky interior, potentially with hydrothermal vents on the seafloor. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech</figcaption></figure>



Even if Europa doesn't have active plumes, the spacecraft is equipped to study tiny amounts of gas and dust ejected from the surface. Instruments like <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/instruments/maspex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MASPEX</a> (Mass Spectrometer for Planetary Exploration/Europa) and <a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/instruments/suda/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SUDA</a> (Surface Dust Analyzer) will collect and analyze these particles. 



"The spacecraft will study gas and grains coming off Europa by sticking out its tongue and tasting those grains, breathing in those gases," said Dr. Morgan Cable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-magnetic-field">Investigating the magnetic field</h2>



To learn more about the ocean's depth and salinity, the mission will measure Europa's induced magnetic field using the Europa Clipper Magnetometer (<a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/instruments/ecm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ECM</a>). 



This data, combined with measurements from the Plasma Instrument for Magnetic Sounding (PIMS), will help scientists understand the moon's internal structure and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-could-survive-near-surface-europa-enceladus-moons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">properties of its ocean</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-ice">Peering into the ice</h2>



The Radar for Europa Assessment and Sounding to Near-surface (<a href="https://europa.nasa.gov/spacecraft/instruments/reason/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">REASON</a>) instrument will peer up to 18 miles into Europa's ice shell. 



By sending radar waves into the ice, REASON can map its layers and possibly detect pockets of water. This information is vital for assessing whether the ice shell itself could be a habitable environment.



Using data collected during the mission, scientists will create computer models of Europa's interior. 



Steve Vance explained, "Using the data gathered to inform <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jupiters-moon-europa-creates-enormous-amount-of-oxygen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extensive computer modeling</a> of Europa’s interior structure also could reveal the ocean’s composition and allow estimates of its temperature profile." 



Understanding these factors is key to determining the moon's potential to support life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quest-for-life-on-europa-and-beyond-earth">Quest for life on Europa and beyond Earth</h2>



The Europa Clipper mission represents a significant step in our quest to find life beyond our planet. 



Discovering even the simplest life forms on Europa would have profound implications for science and philosophy. 



It would suggest that life might be common in the universe, especially in environments once considered inhospitable.



As with any pioneering mission, Europa Clipper is expected to raise new questions. 



"It’s almost certain Europa Clipper will raise as many questions or more than it answers -- a whole different class than the ones we’ve been thinking of for the last 25 years," Vance said. 



The findings could pave the way for future missions, perhaps even landing probes on Europa's surface.



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NASA is set to find out this week if life exists in the alien ocean of Jupiter's moon Europa

NASA is gearing up for an ambitious mission that could...

The sun's heat is one of the most fascinating mysteries of the solar system. While the surface of our star burns at an intense 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit, its outer atmosphere - known as the solar corona - reaches a staggering 2 million degrees Fahrenheit. That’s about 200 times hotter than the surface.



This strange phenomenon, first discovered in 1939, has puzzled scientists for decades. Despite many studies and countless hours of research, the mechanism behind this drastic temperature increase has remained elusive.



But now, researchers may have found a clue. A team led by Sayak Bose at the U.S. Department of Energy’s <a href="https://www.pppl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory</a> (PPPL) believes they have unlocked part of the sun’s mystery. 



The research suggests that the extreme heating in regions called coronal holes - areas of the corona with lower density and open magnetic field lines - may be driven by reflected plasma waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-puzzle-of-the-sun-s-mysterious-heat">The puzzle of the sun's mysterious heat</h2>



In a significant step forward, the team discovered that reflected Alfvén waves could explain the mysterious heat of the sun’s atmosphere.



“Scientists knew that coronal holes have high temperatures, but the underlying mechanism responsible for the heating is not well understood,” said Bose. 



“Our findings reveal that plasma wave reflection can do the job. This is the first laboratory experiment demonstrating that Alfvén waves reflect under conditions relevant to coronal holes.”



Alfvén waves, predicted by Nobel laureate Hannes Alfvén, act similarly to the vibrations of a plucked guitar string, except they’re plasma waves driven by oscillating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-galaxy-is-surrounded-by-massive-magnetic-fields/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a>. 



The research provides the first experimental evidence that these waves can reflect back under the unique conditions around coronal holes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-heating-of-coronal-holes">Strange heating of coronal holes </h2>



Using the Large Plasma Device (LAPD) at UCLA, Bose and his team generated Alfvén waves within a 20-meter plasma column, carefully simulating the conditions present around <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-coronal-hole-from-geomagnetic-storm-prompts-aurora-alert-for-northern-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar coronal holes</a>. 



The experiment revealed that, under specific conditions of plasma density and magnetic field strength, these waves could indeed reflect off the boundaries and travel back toward their origin.



This reflected wave movement generated turbulence within the plasma, which, in turn, could heat the surrounding particles, offering a plausible explanation for the intense temperatures observed in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-storm-alert-auroras-radio-blackouts-expected-weekend-august-9-11-2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sun’s outer atmosphere</a>.



“Physicists have long hypothesized that Alfvén wave reflection could explain the strange heating of coronal holes," said Jason TenBarge, a visiting research scholar at PPPL.



"This work offers the first experimental verification that Alfvén wave reflection is not only possible, but also that the reflected energy is sufficient enough to heat the coronal holes.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-our-understanding-of-the-sun">Improving our understanding of the sun</h2>



To further validate their findings, the team conducted detailed computer simulations that replicated the experimental setup and confirmed the results observed in the lab. 



The simulations reinforced the team's conclusions by demonstrating that Alfvén wave reflections could occur under conditions akin to those in the solar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-the-suns-corona-hotter-than-its-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">corona</a>, providing a robust model for the heating mechanism.



“We regularly conduct multiple checks to ensure the accuracy of our observed results, and simulation was one such step," said Bose.



"The physics of Alfvén wave reflection is intricate and utterly fascinating! It’s incredible how rudimentary physics lab experiments and simulations can significantly improve our understanding of natural systems like our sun.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-space-weather">Implications for space weather</h2>



Understanding the mysterious heat of the sun's atmosphere has practical implications beyond academic interest. 



This phenomenon affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-solar-wind-which-creates-beautiful-auroras-on-earth-is-now-less-mysterious/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar winds</a>, which are streams of charged particles emitted from the sun that can influence Earth’s magnetic field. These winds impact satellite operations, GPS accuracy, and even power grids.



By shedding light on the role of Alfvén waves in coronal heating, this research could improve predictions of solar activity and help protect critical technology here on Earth.



Moreover, the confirmation of Alfvén wave reflection in the lab marks a significant step forward in solar research. This breakthrough allows scientists to refine their models of solar phenomena like solar flares and coronal mass ejections.



Thanks to this experimental leap, researchers now have a powerful new tool to better understand the complex dynamics of our closest star.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ad528f" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



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Mysterious heat of the sun's atmosphere is finally explained

The sun's heat is one of the most fascinating mysteries...

Weather forecasting is a tricky business. We rely on it to plan our daily activities, prepare for natural disasters, and even to decide what to wear each day. Yet, despite advances in technology, we only get forecasts about 10 days into the future.



Why so? Small changes in atmospheric and surface conditions can trigger larger, unpredictable shifts in weather patterns. 



For example, consider the devastating Pacific Northwest heat wave in June 2021. Power lines melted, crops were destroyed, and hundreds of people lost their lives. A longer lead time on forecasts could have helped communities better prepare for the extreme heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjoint-models-in-weather-forecasting">Adjoint models in weather forecasting</h2>



Weather scientists commonly turn to adjoint models to gauge how susceptible a forecast is to errors in initial conditions. Ever wondered how a slight tweak in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scorching-summer-of-2024-could-make-it-the-hottest-year-on-record/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> or atmospheric water vapor can alter forecast results?



These models help answer that. They clarify the linkage between initial conditions and forecasted errors. Thus, scientists can adjust until they discover the set of initial conditions that yield the most accurate forecast.



However, there is a hitch. Running these models demands substantial financial and computing resources. And they can only measure sensitivities up to five days ahead.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deep-learning-in-weather-forecasting">Deep learning in weather forecasting</h2>



Researchers in the <a href="https://atmos.uw.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Atmospheric Sciences</a> at the University of Washington have been exploring whether deep learning could offer an efficient and more precise method to determine the optimal set of initial conditions for a 10-day forecast.



To test their hypothesis, the experts modeled forecasts of the disastrous June 2021 Pacific Northwest heat wave. They utilized two different forecasting models: Google DeepMind's GraphCast model and Huawei Cloud's Pangu-Weather model.



The scientists wanted to check if the models operated similarly and how they stacked up against the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-records-shatter-2024-set-to-be-hottest-year-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">actual events of the heat wave</a>. To ensure unbiased results, they excluded the heat wave data from the dataset used to train the models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evaluation-of-advanced-models">Evaluation of advanced models</h2>



The researchers carried out a rigorous comparison between the output of the GraphCast and Pangu-Weather models and actual meteorological data from the period of the June 2021 heat wave. 



They focused on the accuracy of temperature predictions, the models' ability to anticipate extreme conditions, and their computational efficiency. 



Preliminary results revealed that both models exhibited a high degree of accuracy, with Pangu-Weather displaying a slight edge in long-term temperature prediction. 



The advanced models showed promising potential in enhancing forecast accuracy and retiming their delivery, offering valuable insights for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/auroras-and-severe-solar-storms-will-continue-through-tomorrow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emergent situations</a> such as heat waves.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-weather-forecasting">Future of weather forecasting</h2>



The implementation of deep learning models like GraphCast and Pangu-Weather marks a pivotal shift in the realm of meteorology, promising more accurate and timely forecasts. 



Yet, challenges persist, particularly in ensuring these models can process vast datasets in real-time scenarios and integrate seamlessly into existing forecasting frameworks. 



Additionally, there is a growing need for collaboration between meteorologists, data scientists, and policymakers to maximize the utility of these technological advancements. 



As research continues to unfold, these novel approaches hold the potential to revolutionize weather forecasting, resulting in better community preparedness and resilience against climate anomalies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-deep-learning">Scaling deep learning</h2>



Scaling deep learning approaches for global weather forecasts requires a comprehensive strategy to manage data heterogeneity, computational intensity, and energy consumption. 



The vast and varied data sources - from satellite imagery to oceanic sensor readings - demand that models harmonize inputs with differing resolutions and formats.



The computational power needed to handle such voluminous and diverse datasets is substantial, raising concerns about environmental impact due to energy-intensive processes. 



Consequently, researchers are exploring energy-efficient algorithms and innovative hardware solutions to mitigate these challenges. Additionally, there is a critical need for robust validation frameworks to ensure these models' generalizability across diverse climatic regions and conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-driven-weather-forecasting">AI-driven weather forecasting</h2>



The integration of artificial intelligence in weather forecasting introduces several ethical considerations that warrant careful examination. 



Predominantly, the question of data privacy emerges, as intricate datasets often include sensitive geolocation information. Additionally, there is an inherent risk of algorithmic bias, where disparities in data collection can skew predictions, disproportionately affecting certain populations or regions. 



Transparency and accountability in AI decision-making processes are imperative to ensure equitable access to advanced forecasting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2024-is-expected-to-exceed-the-1-5c-warming-limit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technologies</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reduction-in-forecast-errors">Reduction in forecast errors</h2>



The results were nothing short of astonishing. Employing deep learning to pinpoint optimal initial conditions led to a massive 94% reduction in 10-day forecast errors in the GraphCast model.



A similar drop in errors was noted when the method was applied to the Pangu-Weather model. Remarkably, the new technique improved forecasts as much as 23 days in advance.



So, do we stand at the threshold of a new era in weather forecasting? Can we look forward to forecasts that are not just more accurate, but also offer longer lead times? If the findings are any indication, this might not be too far off.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110651" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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New era in forecasting: AI will improve extreme weather warnings

Weather forecasting is a tricky business. We rely on it...

Seed dispersers are becoming a scarce resource in Europe. A new study reveals that nearly one third of the region's plant species faces an unsettling future due to the decreasing numbers of these essential creatures.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uc.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Coimbra</a>, <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, and the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a> teamed up to explore the world of plant propagation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dwindling-numbers-of-seed-dispersers">Dwindling numbers of seed dispersers</h2>



Many plants depend on animals - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-increase-forest-recovery-by-dispersing-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a>, mammals, reptiles, or insects - to carry their seeds across the landscape, helping them reduce competition and expand their territory.



However, a notable decline in the number of common seed dispersers has raised the question: what impact might this have on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-disperse-their-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> that rely on them? 



The experts have unearthed some alarming information. Published in the journal Science, the findings present a daunting outlook for European plant species.



By establishing a comprehensive seed dispersal network spread across Europe, and comparing it with the population numbers of dispersers, the researchers were able to identify major challenges that European plant life is presently confronting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symbiotic-relationships-between-plants-and-animals">Symbiotic relationships between plants and animals </h2>



The team dug deep into extensive literature, searching for instances of interactions between plants and their European <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-it-comes-to-seed-survival-trees-have-friends-and-enemies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal dispersers</a>. 



This process led them to identify an astonishing 592 species of plants native to Europe, all of which appear to have evolved alongside their designated seed dispersed. 



Further investigation revealed a list of 398 animals known to disperse seeds, many of whom do so for more than one plant type. 



To add perspective to their findings, the experts compiled over 5,000 pairings of plants and their respective dispersers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-threatened-seed-dispersers">Impact of threatened seed dispersers </h2>



Moving on to the animals, the study made another chilling revelation. Roughly one third of the dispersers identified were classified as threatened or dwindling.



And, as anticipated, the researchers concluded that the same proportion of plant species in Europe could also be experiencing similar declines or even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/increasing-plant-extinction-threatens-the-future-of-medicine-and-human-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">face extinction</a>.



Looking forward, there is a dire need to observe and research changes in ecosystems across Europe, especially transformations already occurring due to the shortages of dispersed. 



Furthermore, in-depth exploration of plant and disperser pairs, particularly involving rare species, remains crucial not just in Europe, but in other regions worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-seed-disperser-decline">Consequences of seed disperser decline</h2>



The decline in seed dispersers doesn’t only affect the plants that rely on them - it has ripple effects across entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-can-lead-to-total-ecosystem-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>.



As plants struggle to reproduce, other creatures - from herbivores and pollinators to predators - could face shortages of food and habitat.



This cascading effect could disrupt delicate ecological balances, leading to a decline in biodiversity that extends far beyond plants and seed dispersers alone.



The researchers warn that the loss of plant diversity can result in the degradation of soil quality and reduced resilience against climate change.



Plants are essential for capturing carbon, regulating water, and stabilizing soil. If they decline, it could worsen the environmental challenges that Europe and the world are already facing.



Recognizing these ripple effects highlights just how urgent it is to focus conservation efforts on protecting seed dispersers and the plants that depend on them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-the-trend">Reversing the trend</h2>



In light of these findings, conservationists are emphasizing the need for targeted action. Protecting existing habitats and restoring areas where seed dispersers thrive are key strategies to halt the decline.



Governments and environmental organizations are called upon to implement policies that preserve biodiversity and promote the recovery of endangered disperser species. 



This may involve creating wildlife corridors, reducing habitat fragmentation, and regulating land use to minimize the impact on critical ecosystems.



Public awareness and community involvement are also important. Engaging local communities in conservation efforts and educating them on the importance of seed dispersers can build strong community backing for biodiversity protection.



Reversing the trend will require collaboration across borders, as well as a renewed commitment to safeguarding the intricate relationships that allow Europe’s plant life to flourish.



By investing in these efforts, Europe can help ensure a future where both its plants and the creatures that sustain them thrive together.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado1464" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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One third of Europe's plants at risk due to decline in seed dispersers

Seed dispersers are becoming a scarce resource in Europe. A...

Did you know our oceans naturally contain tiny quantities of toxic metal elements like lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium? It sounds a bit concerning. But these trace elements typically aren’t an issue. 



However, human activities such as industry and agriculture have been contributing heftier amounts.



To make matters worse, a new study has found climate change already has an impact on how these elements are distributed and accumulated in our seas. As we move forward, this could have significant implications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-changes-in-the-ocean">Understanding changes in the ocean</h2>



We are well-versed in the impacts of climate change on our oceans: warming temperatures, growing acidity, and loss of oxygen. The newest twist in the tale however is the way climate change affects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-it-still-possible-to-save-the-ocean-from-plastic-pollution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contaminants in ou</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-it-still-possible-to-save-the-ocean-from-plastic-pollution/">r seas</a>.



The research was led by Dr. Rebecca Zitoun, a marine chemist at <a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEOMAR</a> Helmholtz Center for Ocean Research Kiel, and Dr. Saša Marcinek from the <a href="https://www.irb.hr/eng/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ruđer Bošković Institute</a> in Zagreb.



Lead, mercury, cadmium, and other metals don't just enter our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> through industrial or fossil fuel burning activities. 



As it turns out, natural sources of these elements are undergoing changes due to climate factors such as rising sea levels, rivers overflowing, or drying up, and melting sea ice and glaciers. The result? Increased flow and mobilization of contaminants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-metal-contaminants-in-the-ocean">Metal contaminants in the ocean</h2>



The research is the product of a working group of the UN Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection (<a href="http://www.gesamp.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GESAMP</a>), with a focus on metal contaminants in the ocean. 



Dr. Sylvia Sander, professor of marine mineral resources at GEOMAR and former head of the Marine Environmental Studies Laboratories at IAEA in Monaco, initiated this working group. German contributor Christoph Völker from the AWI is another member of this group.



"Our working group has focused on the effects of climate change and greenhouse gases on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hotspots-of-microplastic-pollution-found-in-the-north-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contaminants</a> in the ocean," explained Dr. Sander.



This rise is mainly due to melting glaciers, thawing permafrost, and coastal erosion. Such an increase in mercury levels poses a significant risk to communities dependent on traditional fishing, as mercury accumulates in the food chain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-contribution-of-human-activities">The contribution of human activities </h2>



"Human activities have increased the global flow of toxic metals such as lead by tenfold and mercury by three to seven times compared to pre-industrial levels," said Dr. Sander.



"Toxic elements like silver are increasingly detectable in&nbsp;coastal waters, originating from coal combustion and the growing use of silver nanoparticles in antibacterial products."



It's not just these elements, but even silver is increasingly detectable in coastal waters, thanks to coal combustion and the growing use of silver nanoparticles in antibacterial products.



The proliferation of plastics and shipping have further contributed to this issue. They can bind heavy metals such as copper, zinc, and lead, which can then enter the food chain. With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-diversity-takes-a-hard-hit-near-offshore-platforms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">increasing exploitation of the oceans</a>, the human contribution of these heavy metals could rise even further.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-climate-and-metals">Changing climate and metals</h2>



Climate changes, like warming sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and oxygen depletion, impact trace elements in a variety of ways.



For instance, water temperatures directly influence the bioavailability and uptake of trace elements like mercury in marine organisms. 



With higher temperatures, metabolism increases, oxygen solubility reduces, and gill ventilation improves, leading to more metals entering organisms and accumulating in their bodies.



Additionally, as our oceans absorb more human-emitted CO2, their pH levels drop, thus increasing the solubility and bioavailability of metals like copper, zinc, and iron. 



This can be particularly damaging with copper, which is highly toxic to many marine organisms at increased concentrations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-ocean-contaminants">Changes in ocean contaminants </h2>



Human activities have a two-pronged effect on the amount of contaminants in our coastal regions. There is the direct impact where we release pollutants into the environment, and then there is the indirect effect of climate change on natural sources of these elements.



What's concerning is that there is a significant lack of data on how climate change influences contaminants in the ocean. 



The working group argues that we need more research into new and under-studied contaminants. They also stress on the need for better models, as well as updating legislation that controls the impact of contaminants in the seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emerging-challenges">Emerging challenges</h2>



The dual threat of climate change and environmental contamination presents a formidable challenge requiring innovative solutions and collaborative strategies. 



One burgeoning area of research is the development of advanced models that provide comprehensive insights into the interaction between climate variables and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">contaminant behavior in marine eco</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/">systems. </a>



Such models would enable scientists to predict shifts in contaminant distribution and, more importantly, devise mitigation strategies that prioritize environmental and human health.



In addition, the integration of satellite technology and big data analytics offers unprecedented opportunities to enhance our understanding and monitoring of marine pollution on a global scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-oceans-from-toxic-metals">Saving oceans from toxic metals</h2>



"To better understand the impacts on ecosystems and human health, we need to close knowledge gaps on the interactions between pollutants and climate change and develop standardized methods that provide globally comparable data," said Dr. Zitoun.



While there is much we still need to learn, the importance of strengthening marine protection and developing sustainable solutions for vulnerable coastal areas cannot be overstated. Climate change and pollution are complex issues, but addressing them is essential for preserving our oceans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01679-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Climate change makes metals in the ocean more toxic

Did you know our oceans naturally contain tiny quantities of...

Have you ever stopped to consider the moon's earthly influence on humans and wildlife? Sure, we're familiar with its role in tides, but it's far from just a celestial object that adorns our night sky.



In a recent twist, a study has found something surprising. The research reveals a startling 45.8 percent spike in wildlife-vehicle collisions during full moon nights.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-collisions-during-full-moon">Wildlife collisions during full moon</h2>



Kentaro Iio, a former Texas A&amp;M student, together with Dr. Dominique Lord, a faculty member in the Zachry <a href="https://engineering.tamu.edu/civil/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering</a>, dug into a decade's worth of Texas collision data.&nbsp;



By comparing full-moon nights to new-moon nights and the respective <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>-vehicle collisions, they found that non-wildlife collisions during the same timeframes showed no significant change.



This research highlights the importance of being extra careful while driving on full moon nights. It also gives policymakers food for thought about potential improvements to transportation policy and infrastructure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-full-moon-s-impact-on-wildlife">Full moon's impact on wildlife</h2>



"I compared really dark nights without moon illumination (new moon) to really dark nights with the full moon illumination," Iio said. 



"If you include other lunar phases in the analysis, they appear on the horizon at different times each day, making it more difficult for true apples-to-apples comparisons."



Interestingly, this isn't an isolated finding. Other studies conducted in areas such as Spain, Canada and Lithuania reflect similar trends.&nbsp;



"Although the illumination is better, it's still nighttime," said Dr. Lord. "When you drive at night, I'm not sure the illumination from the various perspectives is so much greater compared to daytime."



Although, the suggested explanations vary in each case. Iio and Lord believe the rise in wildlife-vehicle collisions is likely tied a mix of elements, like driver fatigue and increased wildlife activity at night, that play their parts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-city-lights-and-rural-routes">City lights and rural routes</h2>



The study's data was also broken down to illuminate rural and urban areas. Interestingly enough, the capital area of Texas was the only one with a lower relative risk of wildlife-vehicle collisions during a full moon, although the difference wasn't significant.&nbsp;



"Rural areas tended to have higher collision ratios concerning the&nbsp;full moon&nbsp;than&nbsp;urban areas," Iio said.



Despite the study's compelling findings, several areas remain unexplored. For instance, the study didn't identify the types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-wildlife-day-using-technology-to-protect-our-natural-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a> involved or account for variations in illumination intensity over the years.&nbsp;



However, incoming studies could fill these gaps and provide a more comprehensive picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildlife-collision-prevention-during-full-moon">Wildlife collision prevention during full moon</h2>



Let's not forget, each statistic represents a real-life incident. Hence, potential improvements like increased lighting in rural areas, wildlife warning reflectors or boosted emergency services during full moon nights could save lives.&nbsp;



As technological advancements continue to reshape our world, emerging innovations hold promise in mitigating wildlife-vehicle collisions. For instance, smart road technology integrates sensors and cameras that can detect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-adversity-reduces-life-expectancy-of-most-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife presence</a>, alerting drivers in real-time.&nbsp;



Additionally, advances in vehicle technology, such as automatic braking systems and enhanced night vision capabilities, are playing crucial roles in preventing accidents.&nbsp;



Harnessing these innovations, combined with data-driven approaches, can provide a more robust defense against collision-related incidents on full moon nights and beyond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-animal-behavior">Understanding animal behavior</h2>



A key component to addressing wildlife-vehicle collisions during full moon nights involves a deeper understanding of animal behavior in different environmental contexts. 



Wildlife activity often escalates during nights illuminated by the full moon, as animals capitalize on the increased visibility for foraging and social interactions. This behavior can vary significantly based on species and local ecological conditions.



By studying these patterns, researchers can develop targeted strategies to mitigate collision risks, such as timing vehicle alerts or implementing seasonal warning systems to correspond with periods of heightened wildlife movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-awareness-and-education">Public awareness and education</h2>



Beyond technology and data, public awareness and education are critical in reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemists-could-be-key-to-prevent-animal-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>-vehicle collisions during full moon. 



Educating drivers about the specific risks and challenges posed by driving during full moon nights can empower them to make informed decisions. 



Campaigns aimed at highlighting the importance of slowing down in high-risk areas and adopting defensive driving techniques can be particularly effective. 



Furthermore, involving community stakeholders in these educational efforts can foster a collaborative approach to problem-solving, encouraging local initiatives that tailor preventive measures to specific regional needs.



Ultimately, the Texas A&amp;M study has opened our eyes to an often overlooked realm - how the moon indirectly influences daily lives of humans and wildlife.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1361920924003432?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment</a>.



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Wildlife-vehicle collisions surge during full moon nights

Have you ever stopped to consider the moon's earthly influence...

We all know that food is central to survival, but have you considered how the diversity and abundance of food in our surroundings might have played a significant role in our evolution? 



A recent study suggests that food diversity in steep mountainous terrains had a significant impact on early human species. The research was led by a team at the IBS Center for Climate Physics (ICCP) at <a href="https://pusan.ac.kr/eng/Main.do" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pusan National University</a> in South Korea



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-allure-of-mountain-diversity">The allure of mountain diversity</h2>



The research team analyzed an extensive dataset of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hominin-fossils-are-a-million-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hominin fossils</a>, artifacts, high-resolution landscape data, and a simulation of Earth’s climate dating back 3-million-years. 



The goal was to answer an intriguing question: Why were our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-evolution-was-shaped-by-competition-not-just-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary ancestors</a> more inclined towards mountainous regions than flat landscapes?



Archeological sites show that early human settlements, primarily hominins, were often nestled in or near mountain regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-humans-in-the-mountains">Early humans in the mountains</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mountains</a> are rich in biodiversity due to the climatic shifts caused by variations in elevation. Flora and fauna thrive under diverse environmental conditions, and mountainous regions host a myriad of ecosystems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-vegetation-are-a-key-driver-of-global-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a> types, also known as biomes.



Such ecological prosperity drew our early ancestors to these landscapes, providing them with an abundant supply of food resources and a means to withstand climate changes. This concept is the basis of the Diversity Selection Hypothesis.



Elke Zeller is a PhD student from the IBS Center for Climate Physics and lead author of the study.



"When we analyzed the environmental factors that controlled where human species lived, we were surprised to see that terrain steepness was standing out as the dominant one, even more than local climate factors, such as temperature and precipitation," noted Zeller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balanced-equation-of-mountain-diversity">Balanced equation of mountain diversity</h2>



However, living in these steep regions wasn't exactly easy. The rugged terrain posed considerable challenges, from difficulty navigating the land to high energy consumption.



The researchers assessed how human adaptations over time gradually swayed the cost-benefit equilibrium of residing in such challenging environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-steeper-environments">Adapting to steeper environments</h2>



Human resilience is evident in the adaptive journey of early Homo habilis, Homo ergaster, and Homo erectus, who gradually acclimated to steeper environments until about 1 million years ago.



After a brief disappearances, the topographic signal resumes around 700,000 years ago, with the emergence of more culturally advanced species such as Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis. These groups demonstrated higher tolerance for colder and wetter climates and also learned to control fire.



“Whether it’s all a coincidence, or the intensifying glacial climate shifts contributed to the genetic transitions in early humans, remains an open question," said Axel Timmermann, co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-puzzle-of-human-evolution">Puzzle of human evolution </h2>



The debate on human evolution and how we adapted to environmental challenges continues to spark scientific discussions worldwide. However, this South Korean team's findings shed light on one piece of the human evolution puzzle.



The analysis suggests that it was indeed beneficial for early human groups to populate mountainous regions, despite the increased energy consumption needed to navigate these environments.



"Our results clearly show that over time hominins adapted to steep terrain and that this trend was likely driven by the regionally increased biodiversity," said Zeller. 



The data - averaged over hundreds of thousands of years, spanning different species and continents - confirm that our ancestors were, indeed, “steeplanders.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mountain-life-and-social-bonds">Mountain life and social bonds</h2>



Mountainous regions not only presented a diverse array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-help-reduce-food-insecurity-in-rural-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food resources</a> but also likely influenced early hominin social structures and innovations. 



The rugged terrain and varied ecosystems would have required early humans to develop cooperative strategies for survival, as foraging and hunting in these challenging environments often demanded group effort. 



This need for collaboration may have encouraged the development of early social bonds and the sharing of resources, leading to more complex social behaviors over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-tool-innovation-in-the-mountains">Human tool innovation in the mountains</h2>



In addition to social adaptation, the challenging environment of mountainous areas likely spurred the invention and refinement of tools. 



Early hominins in these regions may have relied on rudimentary tools to navigate the terrain, hunt diverse prey, and process different plant materials. 



These innovations allowed them to exploit a broader range of food sources and adapt to the ever-changing conditions found at higher altitudes.



By pushing hominins to adapt both socially and technologically, these steep and varied landscapes may have been a driving force behind some of the earliest forms of human innovation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp2809" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Early humans preferred the mountains, and it changed our evolution

We all know that food is central to survival, but...

An unexpected and obscure phenomenon in the Arctic could dramatically accelerate climate change: the weathering of rocks.



This natural process in the Canadian Arctic could potentially trigger a feedback loop, accelerating the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere as global temperatures continue to rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-rock-weathering">Arctic rock weathering</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-rock-weathering-is-a-co2-source-comparable-to-volcanoes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rock weathering</a> is a process where certain minerals and rocks react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This results in a series of chemical reactions that ultimately release CO2.



As an example, the weathering of sulfide minerals - like fool's gold - produces an acid that forces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/met-office-2024-co2-levels-will-surpass-the-point-of-no-return/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> out of other rock minerals.



The scary part? This largely overlooked weathering process is increasing in the Arctic because of rising temperatures.



The Arctic is warming nearly four times faster than the global average, which means we urgently need to understand the potential contribution of CO2 emissions from rocks.



Until recently, our knowledge about the response of rock weathering to changing temperatures. as well as the amount of additional CO2 that could be released. was quite limited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-acceleration-of-arctic-weathering">Alarming acceleration of Arctic weathering</h2>



A recent study has provided some fascinating insights. The investigation focused on 23 sites across the Mackenzie River Basin, Canada's largest river system.



The researchers examined the sensitivity of sulfide weathering - the process behind these CO2 emissions - to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-biodiversity-will-get-a-boost-from-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a>. They used records of sulfate, a product of sulfide weathering, to trace the speed of the process.



The findings were alarming. Over the past 60 years, from 1960 to 2020, as temperatures increased by 2.3°C, sulfide weathering increased by 45 percent. This suggests that the CO2 released could trigger a feedback loop, accelerating warming in the Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-increases-in-sulfide-oxidation">Dramatic increases in sulfide oxidation </h2>



Drawing from past river records, the researchers forecasted that by 2100, carbon dioxide released from the Mackenzie River Basin could double to 3 billion kg/year under a moderate emission scenario.



To put this into perspective, this would be equivalent to half the total annual emissions from Canada's domestic aviation sector.



"We see dramatic increases in sulfide oxidation across the Mackenzie with even moderate warming," said study co-author Dr. Ella Walsh.



"Until now, the temperature sensitivity of CO2 release from sulfide rocks and its main drivers were unknown over large areas and timescales.”



What's more, not all parts of the river catchment were affected equally. Weathering was much more sensitive to temperature in rocky mountainous areas and those covered with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/abrupt-permafrost-thaw-releases-more-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost</a>. 



Conversely, regions blanketed with peatland showed lower increases in sulfide oxidation with warmth because the peat protects the bedrock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfide-weathering-and-climate-models">Sulfide weathering and climate models</h2>



The implications of this study, conducted by experts in the Department of Earth Sciences at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>, are far-reaching beyond the Mackenzie River Basin.



Similar environments across the Arctic - characterized by rock types, high proportions of exposed bedrock, and extensive permanently frozen ground - could also see rapid increases in sulfide weathering.



According to the researchers, this highlights the urgent need to consider sulfide weathering in large-scale emission models, which are extremely useful for making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-experts-predict-global-warming-will-far-exceed-paris-goals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change predictions</a>. 



As we continue to grapple with the impacts of climate change, understanding these lesser-known factors and their potential to accelerate the process is more important than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-ecosystem-resilience-in-the-arctic">Building ecosystem resilience in the Arctic </h2>



Given the potentially widespread effects of sulfide weathering, leveraging the natural resilience of Arctic ecosystems may provide a partial solution. 



Arctic regions contain unique biomes, like tundra and peatland, which can act as natural carbon buffers. These ecosystems not only absorb CO2 but also moderate temperatures and shield underlying bedrock from rapid warming. 



Expanding conservation efforts to protect these areas could help slow down the feedback loop triggered by sulfide weathering.



Addressing the issue also requires international cooperation. The Arctic spans multiple countries, each facing unique challenges as climate change accelerates. 



Collaborative research initiatives, involving Arctic nations and global scientific organizations, could help standardize monitoring practices and improve data-sharing on sulfide weathering. 



By pooling resources and expertise, these partnerships can enhance predictive models, leading to more effective climate policies.



Furthermore, an increased focus on reducing global greenhouse gas emissions remains essential. While the impact of sulfide weathering is significant, its long-term consequences will depend on the overall trajectory of global warming. 



 The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq4893" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Rock weathering drives further warming in the Arctic

An unexpected and obscure phenomenon in the Arctic could dramatically...

The potential role of climate change in escalating harmful emissions worldwide has expanded into the Amazon rainforest.



Climate extremes predicted for the Amazon region, such as excessive rain and prolonged drought, could significantly impact the emission and uptake of methane, a potent greenhouse gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-emissions-from-amazon-floodplains">Methane emissions from Amazon floodplains</h2>



For half the year, steady rainfall and rising river levels result in over 800,000 square kilometers of Amazon rainforest's floodplains being submerged. These swaths of land comprise 20 percent of the total <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-animals-will-suffer-as-the-rainforest-turns-into-savanna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainforest</a> area.



The submerged organic matter, broken down by microbial communities, increases methane production. Shockingly, Amazon's floodplains contribute almost a third of methane emissions from global wetlands. 



In stark contrast, the forested regions of higher ground, or "upland forests," operate as methane sinks. They make an invaluable contribution to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions by removing methane from the atmosphere. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functionality-of-soil-microbial-communities">Functionality of soil microbial communities </h2>



The research, led by experts at the University of São Paulo (<a href="https://www5.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USP</a>) in Brazil, is published in the journal <a href="https://environmentalmicrobiome.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40793-024-00596-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Microbiome</a>.



"Seasonal floodplains in the Amazon basin are important sources of methane (CH4), while upland forests are known for their sink capacity," explained the study authors.



"Climate change effects, including shifts in rainfall patterns and rising temperatures, may alter the functionality of soil microbial communities, leading to uncertain changes in CH4&nbsp;cycling dynamics."&nbsp;



The findings highlight the urgent need for conservation and management plans that account for Amazon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-methane-flow-in-the-amazon">Methane flow in the Amazon</h2>



Júlia Brandão Gontijo, the study's first author, is a postdoctoral researcher at the University of California, Davis.



"Although it’s already been shown that factors such as air temperature and seasonal flooding can influence the composition of microbial communities and hence affect the flow of methane in these environments, what should we expect in the context of climate change and the projected alterations in rainfall and temperature patterns, with more intense extremes?" said&nbsp;Brandão Gontijo.



The research team designed a 30-day experiment to find answers, testing soil samples from two floodplains and an upland forest in two municipalities located in the west of Pará state.



"To investigate the microbial feedback under climate change scenarios, we performed a microcosm experiment," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-amazon-s-methane-balance">The Amazon's methane balance</h2>



The samples were subjected to extreme temperatures and humidity. The findings revealed that the number of methane-producing microorganisms increased in both floodplains, potentially indicating future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-arctic-glaciers-are-releasing-a-new-source-of-potent-methane-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a> emission concerns.



Additionally, methane consumption by the upland forest soil plummeted by 70 percent during warm and dry conditions. 



On the contrary, methane production surged significantly during periods of heavy rain. Since the soil is not routinely exposed to extreme humidity, the research shed light on its responsiveness to these conditions. This scenario is particularly concerning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



"Taken together, our data indicate that CH4&nbsp;cycle dynamics and microbial communities in Amazonian floodplain and upland forest soils may respond differently to climate change effects," wrote the study authors. 



"We also highlight the potential role of CH4&nbsp;oxidation pathways in mitigating CH4&nbsp;emissions in Amazonian floodplains."



The floodplain microbiome could adapt to climate change, while the upland forest microbiome appears sensitive to its effects. This potential disparity could seriously disrupt the balance of greenhouse gas emissions in the Amazon region in the future. 



Considering the enormous significance of the Amazon rainforest biome on a global scale, this could pose a severe problem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-interactions-in-the-amazon">Complex interactions in the Amazon</h2>



The study also revealed a glimmer of hope - methanotrophic microorganisms. These methane-consuming life forms use methane as an energy source, giving them the potential to offset an increase in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-reductions-in-methane-emissions-are-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane emissions</a>.



This is just the beginning. The team is planning to conduct field experiments and laboratory trials with these microorganisms to deepen their understanding of methane cycling dynamics. 



The experts noted that the findings emphasize the importance of considering both environmental factors when assessing the dynamics of methane&nbsp;in these distinct ecosystems.



This contributes to our understanding of the complex interactions between climate, hydrology, and microbial processes in the Amazon region, concluded the researchers.



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Climate extremes will boost methane emissions in the Amazon

The potential role of climate change in escalating harmful emissions...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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