Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Let's talk about caffeine, that wonderful elixir we clutch onto dearly from our morning coffee cup, afternoon tea break, or even that comforting mug of hot chocolate in the winter. Caffeine consumption is apparently doing more than just keeping our eyes peeled open, it's also improving heart health.



Recent findings published in Rheumatology by Oxford University Press show that this familiar friend might actually be doing our hearts a favor by improving vascular and heart health. Here's the scoop on this refreshing revelation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-disease-and-caffeine">Heart disease and caffeine</h2>



Vascular disease, or the harming of our blood vessels, and its grim companions -- heart attacks and strokes -- rank high on the mortality chart for the global population.



For those battling inflammatory rheumatic diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, the stakes are even higher. 



Their diseases, coupled with certain treatments like cortisone derivatives, make them vulnerable to aggravated vascular risks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-doctor-recommendations">Doctor recommendations</h2>



Until now, doctors often advised patients to evade these vascular and heart health risks by essentially shunning risk factors, such as caffeine intake.



This meant dialing down inflammation, reducing cortisone medications, and adhering to the age-old healthy lifestyle mantras -- no smoking, less cholesterol, and keeping high blood pressure in check.



But here's the exciting part. Scientists from <a href="https://www.uniroma1.it/en/pagina-strutturale/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sapienza University of Rome</a>, Italy, believe they've stumbled onto something truly unique. 



How about improving your vascular health with something enjoyable, something as simple as sipping on your favorite cup of joe?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-and-vascular-growth">Caffeine and vascular growth</h2>



The research team led by Fulvia Ceccarelli found that caffeine, a key component in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-has-a-protective-effect-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee</a>, tea, and cocoa, plays an active role in boosting endothelial progenitor cells. 



These cells are the good guys, regenerating the lining of our blood vessels, and taking part in vascular growth.



We're all pretty tuned into caffeine's stimulant prowess. But it turns out, it's been holding out on us. 



Caffeine also flexes its muscles in the anti-inflammatory department, thanks to its knack for bonding with receptors on the surface of immune cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lupus-patients">Lupus patients</h2>



To substantiate this hypothesis, the researchers conducted a study involving 31 lupus patients, all devoid of traditional cardiovascular risks. 



Across a span of a week, the investigators gauged their food intake using a questionnaire. Post this, they proceeded to examine the patient's blood to evaluate their vascular health.



So, what did they find? 



Patients who had consumed caffeine exhibited improved vascular health. This was measured via the endothelial cells, the vital inner layer of blood vessels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-and-heart-health-research">Caffeine and heart health research</h2>



“The present study is an attempt to provide patients with information on the possible role of diet in controlling the disease,” said the paper’s lead author, Fulvia Ceccarelli. 



“It will be necessary to confirm the results through a longitudinal study, aimed at assessing the real impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-consumption-may-lower-the-risk-of-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee consumption</a> on the disease course.”



However, there's more to this story that needs uncovering. A longitudinal study is necessary to validate these findings and assess the actual impact of coffee consumption on the course of the disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-rheumatic-disease">Implications for rheumatic disease</h2>



For individuals suffering from rheumatic diseases, this caffeine connection could herald a transformative shift in daily management strategies. 



While avoiding known vascular risk factors remains crucial, adding caffeine into the mix provides a potentially natural and enjoyable way to fortify vascular health. 



This discovery calls for a reassessment of dietary guidelines, encouraging patients and healthcare providers to consider how integrating caffeine could complement existing treatment protocols. 



However, as promising as these findings are, patients should consult with their healthcare providers before making any significant lifestyle changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-impact-on-public-health">Broader impact on public health</h2>



Beyond the immediate circle of those with rheumatic conditions, the broader implications of this study invite us to rethink our societal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-coffee-good-for-you-it-may-depend-on-your-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationship with caffeine</a>. 



A staple in global cultures, from bustling urban coffee shops to tranquil tea ceremonies, caffeine emerges as more than a simple daily ritual. 



Its potential role in promoting cardiovascular health could thereby influence public health policies, inspiring further research into dietary components that foster well-being. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caffeine-beyond-vascular-and-heart-health">Caffeine beyond vascular and heart health</h2>



As scientific investigation continues to uncover the myriad effects of diet on health, caffeine stands out as a compelling candidate for further exploration, promoting a vision of everyday choices that significantly enhance life quality.



While the quest for understanding caffeine's impact on cardiovascular health has encountered mixed results thus far, this new piece of the puzzle surely gives us food for thought. 



So, the next time you're enjoying a steaming cup of coffee, give a nod to those endothelial progenitor cells it might be helping out.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/rheumatology/advance-article-abstract/doi/10.1093/rheumatology/keae453/7814667?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rheumatology</a>.



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Caffeine is proven to boost heart health in many people

Let's talk about caffeine, that wonderful elixir we clutch onto...

Our human expressions hold the key to understanding emotions. A fascinating study reveals that recognizing emotions is not just a standalone act; it’s part of a larger process that includes our physical traits, cultural backgrounds, and the context we’re in. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotions-beyond-facial-expressions">Emotions: Beyond facial expressions</h2>



These insights come from a study led by Dr. Leda Berio and Professor Albert Newen of the Institute of Philosophy II at Ruhr University Bochum in Germany.



In the 1970s, a theory emerged proclaiming the face as our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-with-many-facial-expressions-seem-more-social-and-likeable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional gateway</a>. 



Renowned researcher Paul Ekman labelled basic emotions like fear, anger, joy, and sadness with typical facial expressions, remarkable for their cross-cultural uniformity.



However, as Berio and Newen point out, this isn't the full picture.



Take for instance a person whose reservation at a restaurant gets disregarded. Despite showing a facial expression typical of fear, most people would perceive the person as angry due to the situation. Emotion perception, they found, is deeply entrenched in context.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-s-not-always-in-the-face">It's not always in the face</h2>



Berio explains further that emotions can also reveal themselves without a facial guise. Consider a person in a defensive posture, being cornered by a growling dog. 



Even if their face is out of sight, fear is the emotion we readily infer from the situation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotion-recognition-vs-expressions">Emotion recognition vs expressions</h2>



The researchers propose that emotion recognition is a mere sub-process of our knack for forming a holistic impression of a person. 



This broader process considers not just facial expressions but an array of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-brains-can-subconsciously-respond-to-verbal-communication-while-sleeping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">characteristics</a> including physical traits such as skin color, age, and gender, cultural cues like clothing, attractiveness, gestures, and posture.



Snap judgments, they argue, are shaped by these myriad factors. 



"If we perceive a person as a woman and they show a negative emotion, we're more likely to attribute the emotion to fear, whereas with a man it's more likely to be read as anger," Newen notes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-background-information-vs-emotion">Background information vs. emotion</h2>



Moving beyond immediate perceptions, our assessment of emotions also taps into a reservoir of background knowledge about the person. 



“If a family member suffers from Parkinson’s, we learn to assess the typical facial expression of this person, which seems to indicate anger, as neutral, because we are aware that a rigid facial expression is part of the disease,” says Berio.



Stereotypical assumptions about various social roles also color our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perceptions</a>. 



“If we perceive a person as a woman and they show a negative emotion, we’re more likely to attribute the emotion to fear, whereas with a man it’s more likely to be read as anger,” Berio points out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-artificial-intelligence">Implications for Artificial Intelligence</h2>



In essence, humans draw from a rich pool of characteristics and background knowledge to decode the emotions of others. 



This complex process cannot be replicated accurately by artificial intelligence if it relies solely on facial expressions, as most systems do today, warns Newen.



So, the eyes may be the window to the soul, but we must not forget that the drapes, the walls, and the surrounding neighborhood also tell a captivating story. 



Is it time you looked beyond the obvious expressions in reading emotions?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-cultural-differences">Role of cultural differences</h2>



Navigating a multicultural landscape, one's ability to understand emotions becomes even more nuanced when acknowledging cultural variances. 



Different cultures can interpret facial expressions and situational cues in divergent ways, as highlighted in the study by Berio and Newen. 



For example, a subtle smile may signal happiness in Western cultures but could indicate embarrassment or even disapproval in some East Asian contexts. 



This suggests that our emotional interpretation mechanisms are not universally fixed but are instead malleable, shaped significantly by our societal contexts and cultural upbringing. 



Such understanding highlights the necessity for cross-cultural awareness in global communications, impacting fields from international business to multicultural social settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-for-neurological-research">Potential for neurological research</h2>



The findings from <a href="http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ruhr University Bochum</a> open enticing avenues for further exploration in neuroscience. 



The interplay between emotion recognition and broader impression formation invites questions about the specific neural pathways and regions of the brain engaged in this process. 



Investigating these biological underpinnings could enhance our understanding of neurological conditions and the emotional interpretation skills of individuals with autism spectrum disorders. 



Moreover, by going into how the brain processes these layers of emotional cues, scientists could advance technologies designed to better mimic human-like understanding of emotions, refining the development of more sophisticated, empathetic artificial intelligence systems. 



Such advancements hold promise for revolutionizing mental health diagnoses and interpersonal assistive technologies, ultimately fostering deeper connections within human societies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reading-emotions-and-expressions">Reading emotions and expressions</h2>



Decoding emotions, it seems, is far from being a cut-and-dry process. In this complex pattern, our ability to form a holistic impression plays a critical role. 



From immediate physical and cultural cues to deep-seated background knowledge, we leverage a diverse array of information to recognize emotions -- a process that artificial intelligence has yet to master fully.



While significant strides have been made in understanding and mimicking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-evokes-stronger-emotions-than-streamed-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human emotional recognition</a>, it appears there's still a long path ahead before AI can truly 'read' us like we read one another.



Always remember, the next time you find yourself puzzled over someone's emotions, you might just need a broader perspective.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/phpr.13113" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philosophy and Phenomenological Research</a>.



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Facial expressions aren't enough to understand human emotions

Our human expressions hold the key to understanding emotions. A...

3d,Rendering,,Meteor,Shower,,Aseroids,Burning,In,Earth,Atmosphere,Cinematic

Recent research brings us one step closer to understanding how Earth got the building blocks that were responsible for sparking life on the planet, and how were are all here now reading this article. 



The crux of the matter? Scientists recently discovered that zinc contained in meteorites and other 'unmelted’ asteroids, also known as planetesimals, holds the key to solving this puzzle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volatiles-like-zinc-hitched-a-ride">Volatiles like zinc hitched a ride</h2>



Volatiles are substances that easily turn into gases at relatively low temperatures. Think of things like water, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-dioxide-hydrogen-peroxide-discovered-on-plutos-moon-charon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-methane-emissions-threaten-earths-habitability/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methane</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-there-life-on-venus-the-possibility-cant-be-ruled-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ammonia</a>. 



In planetary science, we often refer to volatiles as elements or compounds with low boiling points that are key to the makeup of atmospheres and oceans. 



When planets form, they tend to trap these volatiles in their rocks or ice. Over time, heat and geological activity can release them, causing events like volcanic eruptions or even helping to form atmospheres.



Studying volatiles is super important for understanding planetary systems, including our own Earth. These substances can affect everything from climate to surface chemistry and are crucial for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-space-mission-saturn-moon-titan-gets-greenlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">potential of life</a>. 



That's why scientists search for volatiles when looking for signs of life on other planets -- they're usually tied to biological processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-s-building-blocks-and-zinc">Life's building blocks and zinc</h2>



Pinning down the origin of these volatile elements on Earth is no small feat. Still, our scientists aren't afraid of a good mystery. 



They've found that a particular composition of zinc, unique to meteorites, can help identify the sources of Earth's volatiles. 



Going into the complexities of our Solar System, scientists discovered that Earth's zinc has an intriguing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-building-blocks-of-life-replicate-on-their-own/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">origin story</a> of its own. 



“One of the most fundamental questions on the origin of life is where the materials we need for life to evolve came from,” said Dr Rayssa Martins from Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Earth Sciences</a>.



“If we can understand how these materials came to be on Earth, it might give us clues to how life originated here, and how it might emerge elsewhere.”



As it turns out, the answers to life's origins may lie in zinc and the tiny bodies that make up our rocky planets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-planetesimals">Role of Planetesimals</h2>



Planetesimals, the compact bodies formed through a process known as accretion, are the unsung heroes in the formation of rocky planets like ours. 



However, they are not all created equal. Early planetesimals exposed to high levels of radioactivity melted, losing their precious volatiles. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/life-building-blocks_iron-metorite_chondrite-meteorite_planetesimal_credit-Martins-Findlay_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/life-building-blocks_iron-metorite_chondrite-meteorite_planetesimal_credit-Martins-Findlay_1s.webp" alt="An iron meteorite from the core of a melted planetesimal (left) and a chondrite meteorite, derived from a 'primitive', unmelted planetesimal (right). Credit: Rayssa Martins/Ross Findlay" class="wp-image-1947212"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An iron meteorite from the core of a melted planetesimal (left) and a chondrite meteorite, derived from a 'primitive', unmelted planetesimal (right). Credit: Rayssa Martins/Ross Findlay</figcaption></figure>



But some planetesimals, the late bloomers that formed after the peak of radioactivity, survived the melting process, thereby preserving their volatile elements.



In a study published in Science Advances, Dr. Martins and her colleagues delved into the varying forms of zinc that arrived on Earth from these planetesimals.



Their research involved measuring the zinc content of a vast sample of meteorites from different planetesimals and tracing the path of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainwater-may-have-played-a-key-role-in-the-origin-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's</a> accretion, a journey spreading over tens of millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-zinc-s-tale-of-life-s-origins">Zinc's tale of life's origins</h2>



Their findings are nothing short of fascinating. The melted planetesimals, despite contributing about 70% to Earth's overall mass, seemed to have provided only around 10% of its zinc. 



Where did the rest come from? It appears that materials that did not melt and lose their volatile elements were rich in zinc. These unmelted, or 'primitive' materials, as they are called, were vital sources of volatiles for Earth.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/life-building-blocks_iron-metorite_chondrite-meteorite_planetesimal_credit-UCambridge_1m.webp" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/life-building-blocks_iron-metorite_chondrite-meteorite_planetesimal_credit-UCambridge_1s.webp" alt="An iron meteorite from the core of a melted planetesimal (left) and a chondrite meteorite, derived from a 'primitive', unmelted planetesimal (right). Credit: Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge." class="wp-image-1947214"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">An iron meteorite from the core of a melted planetesimal (left) and a chondrite meteorite, derived from a 'primitive', unmelted planetesimal (right). Credit: Sedgwick Museum of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge.</figcaption></figure>



“We know that the distance between a planet and its star is a determining a factor in establishing the necessary conditions for that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet</a> to sustain liquid water on its surface,” said Martins, the study’s lead author. 



“But our results show that there’s no guarantee that planets incorporate the right materials to have enough water and other volatiles in the first place – regardless of their physical state.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The implications of this research are far-reaching. Understanding the movement of elements like zinc through millions or even billions of years could be a critical instrument in the search for life elsewhere, such as on Mars or planets outside our Solar System. 



"The roles these different materials play in supplying volatiles is something we should keep in mind when looking for habitable planets elsewhere," Martins emphasized.



This research pushes us closer to understanding the complex interplay of elements that kick-started life on Earth. And, eventually, it might even lead us to discovering life in the vast expanse of the cosmos.



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This important study was supported in part by both <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a> and the European Research Council (<a href="https://erc.europa.eu/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ERC</a>), along with UK Research and Innovation (<a href="https://www.ukri.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UKRI</a>), 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado4121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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How the building blocks of life reached the early Earth

Recent research brings us one step closer to understanding how...

Most flowering plants rely on animals for pollination, and in tropical regions, over 90% of plant species are pollinated by animals. 



On the Caribbean island of Dominica, researchers have discovered a specific mutualistic relationship between two species of heliconia plants (Heliconia bihai and H. caribaea) and their primary hummingbird pollinator, the purple-throated carib (Eulampis jugularis).&nbsp;



This relationship is so specialized that it has been frequently cited in scientific literature as an example of plant-pollinator co-dependence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-of-hurricane-maria-nbsp">Impacts of Hurricane Maria&nbsp;</h2>



When Hurricane Maria, a Category 5 storm with sustained winds exceeding 250 kilometers per hour, devastated the region in 2017, it wiped out 75% of the entire E. jugularis population. 



This led scientists to fear that the two heliconia species might face extinction due to the loss of their primary pollinator.



However, a recent paper published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nph.19938" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a> reveals that other birds have stepped in to pollinate these heliconia plants. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evidence-of-a-resilient-ecosystem-nbsp">Evidence of a resilient ecosystem&nbsp;</h2>



Study co-author Fernando Gonçalves is an expert at the <a href="https://www.cbioclima.org/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Research on Biodiversity Dynamics and Climate Change</a> and a postdoctoral researcher affiliated with Jordi Bascompte’s laboratory at the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a> (UZH) in Switzerland.



“In 2022 we studied the region in great detail, analyzing bird-heliconia visitation types and rates, as well as pollen deposition and transportation patterns,” said Gonçalves.



“Our findings pointed to drastic changes: other hummingbird species and also the Bananaquit (Coereba flaveola) had begun to visit and pollinate heliconia flowers at similar rates to E. jugularis or even higher.”



According to Gonçalves, the analysis suggested that the decline in the population of E. jugularis resulted in a breakdown of the competitive exclusion of other species and allowed other birds to become effective pollinators.&nbsp;



“We concluded that specialized pollination systems can become generalized after natural disturbances such as hurricanes, showing that the ecosystem was resilient.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-hummingbird-pollination">Monitoring hummingbird pollination</h2>



The researchers used mist nets to capture birds near the heliconia <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-90-of-flowering-plant-species-rely-on-animal-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> and sampled pollen from their beaks and feathers using a special jelly. 



They also set up cameras to monitor the birds visiting the plants and inspected flower stigmas to measure pollen deposition after visits.



“E. jugularis is highly territorial and aggressive. When the population was large, no other bird species could get near the heliconias, but once the population had been reduced to only a quarter of its original size, there weren’t enough individuals to keep other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hummingbirds-have-an-amazing-sense-of-touch-for-precise-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hummingbird</a> species and the Bananaquit away from the plants,” explained Gonçalves.



“These new pollinators are generalists. They collect pollen from several plant species. And the Bananaquit feeds on fruit.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-research">Significance of the research</h2>



This discovery is significant for two main reasons. First, it had been thought that only E. jugularis could pollinate H. bihai and H. caribaea because the shape of their flowers fits the size and curvature of the hummingbird’s beak.&nbsp;



Female E. jugularis, with their long, curved beaks, are the primary pollinators of H. bihai, while both male and female birds pollinate H. caribaea, despite males having shorter and straighter beaks.



Second, the findings demonstrate that species extinction and ecosystem dynamics are more complex than often assumed. 



The destruction caused by Hurricane Maria disrupted the long-standing co-adaptation between the heliconias and their hummingbird pollinators, allowing other birds to take over.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crucial-insights-into-resilient-ecosystems">Crucial insights into resilient ecosystems</h2>



This suggests that evolutionary processes may not always follow a strict, linear path and can shift in unpredictable ways, especially in the context of the current climate crisis, where extreme events such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-causes-the-rapid-intensification-of-hurricanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hurricanes</a>, droughts, and floods are becoming more frequent, and species are at greater risk of extinction.



“If no other mass destructions occur on Dominica, we believe the two species of heliconia and E. jugularis may reestablish their exclusive mutualism in 15 to 20 years or so. The population of E. jugularis will have grown again, and there will be plenty of individuals defending their territory,” Gonçalves said.&nbsp;



His team is continuing to conduct research in the area to test this hypothesis and assess how natural events affect evolutionary behaviors in other species. “We’re on the lookout for hurricanes in the region so we can go back there and investigate the consequences.”



This study provides crucial insights into the resilience and adaptability of ecosystems following natural disasters and raises new questions about how species interactions evolve in response to environmental changes.



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Ecosystems are more resilient than expected after natural disasters 

Most flowering plants rely on animals for pollination, and in...

According to widely accepted models, a dramatic cooling event and significant drop in sea levels roughly 34 million years ago, during the Eocene-Oligocene transition, should have resulted in widespread erosion across the continents. This would have deposited vast amounts of sandy material onto the ocean floor.&nbsp;



The Eocene-Oligocene transition marked one of the most extreme climate shifts since the extinction of the dinosaurs, transforming Earth’s climate from a “greenhouse” into an “icehouse” one. 



Yet, a new review from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> reveals a surprising contradiction: across the margins of all seven continents, there is little to no <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-sediments-predict-future-stressors-for-cold-water-corals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sediment</a> from this period to be found.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-clues-in-the-geologic-record-nbsp">Climate clues in the geologic record&nbsp;</h2>



This unexpected finding, published in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012825224002393" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth-Science Reviews</a>, uncovers a puzzling global gap in the geologic record. 



“The results have left us wondering, ‘where did all the sediment go?’” said senior author Stephan Graham, a professor in the Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability.&nbsp;



“Answering that question will help us get a better fundamental understanding about the functioning of sedimentary systems and how climatic changes imprint on the deep marine sedimentary record.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-effects-of-climate-shifts">Environmental effects of climate shifts</h2>



The discovery challenges existing models of sediment deposition and erosion and offers new insights into the global environmental effects of significant climate shifts.&nbsp;



The findings may also provide a clearer understanding of how today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-happening-too-fast-for-some-species-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rapid climate change</a> might reshape Earth’s surface.



“For the first time, we’ve taken a global look at an understudied response of the planet’s largest sediment mass-movement systems during the extreme transition of the Eocene-Oligocene,” explained lead author Zack Burton, now an assistant professor of Earth sciences at Montana State University.&nbsp;



The Eocene-Oligocene transition was a period of profound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-cooling-wont-be-a-quick-fix-for-the-state-of-our-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary cooling</a>. Large ice sheets formed in Antarctica, which had previously been ice-free, global sea levels fell sharply, and there were significant die-offs among both marine and terrestrial species. 



Before this period, Earth had experienced some of the highest temperatures and sea levels since the age of the dinosaurs, according to climate proxy records. Burton and his colleagues initially set out to investigate the effects of these early Eocene warm conditions on deep-sea depositional systems. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-detailed-analysis-of-the-climate-shift">Detailed analysis of the climate shift</h2>



In a 2023 study published in <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/news/climate-patterns-shape-sand-deposits-deep-sea" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>, they found evidence of abundant sand-rich deposits along Earth's continental margins, which they attributed to intensified weather conditions that increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-climate-and-land-use-could-lead-to-catastrophic-levels-of-soil-erosion/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">erosion</a> from land. 



The team then decided to extend their study to cover the later Eocene and early Oligocene, during which Earth rapidly cooled and entered an “icehouse” climate.



To do this, the researchers conducted a meticulous review of hundreds of scientific papers spanning over a century. They analyzed studies that documented ancient sediment, often buried several kilometers beneath the ocean floor.&nbsp;



This comprehensive review included findings from offshore oil and gas drilling, onshore rock outcrops, and seismic data interpretations. Altogether, the study examined over 100 geographical sites worldwide, providing a detailed look at the geologic records from the margins of all continents.



As the team combed through the collected data, they found a baffling absence of sand-rich sediments from the Eocene-Oligocene transition.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-sediments-in-the-geologic-record-nbsp">Missing sediments in the geologic record&nbsp;</h2>



“We didn’t see abundant sand-rich deposition, as in our study of warm climates of the early Eocene,” Burton said.&nbsp;



“Instead, we saw that prominent, widespread erosional unconformities - in other words, gaps in the rock record - had developed during the extreme climatic cooling and oceanographic change of the Eocene-Oligocene.”



The researchers propose several theories to explain the missing sediments. One idea is that strong ocean bottom currents, driven by changes in temperature and salinity triggered by the climate shift, could have scoured the ocean floor, eroding sediments that flowed off the continents.&nbsp;



Another possibility is that the rapid drop in sea levels exposed continental shelves, allowing sediments to bypass nearer sedimentary basins and be deposited much farther out on the ocean's abyssal plains. Additionally, glacial erosion around Antarctica may have played a role in redistributing sediments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-profound-changes-across-land-and-sea">Profound changes across land and sea</h2>



These processes appear to have operated across the globe, suggesting that the sedimentary record was influenced by global climatic controls. The researchers believe that this global impact points to the profound climatic changes felt not only on land but also in the deepest oceanic basins.



The study’s findings provide a valuable perspective on how Earth's surface can respond to significant climate shifts.&nbsp;



The Eocene-Oligocene transition offers a window into the large-scale environmental transformations that can result from rapid climate change, something that is highly relevant to understanding today’s human-driven climate shifts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radical-changes-with-rapid-climate-change-nbsp">Radical changes with rapid climate change&nbsp;</h2>



Although the current climate change crisis is smaller in overall magnitude compared to the Eocene-Oligocene transition, it is unfolding at a much faster pace.&nbsp;



The researchers believe that studying these past events can help scientists better predict the kinds of drastic changes that may occur as Earth’s climate continues to change rapidly.



“Our findings can help inform us of the kinds of radical changes that can happen on the Earth’s surface in the face of rapid climate change,” Graham said. “The geologic past informs the present, and particularly the future.”



By reexamining past climatic events and sedimentary responses, scientists hope to gain insights that could guide our understanding of the challenges posed by modern climate change, and potentially help mitigate its effects on Earth's ecosystems and surface environments.



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Ancient climate shift sheds light on future global warming

According to widely accepted models, a dramatic cooling event and...

The human-driven extinction of hundreds of bird species over the past 130,000 years has led to a significant depletion in avian functional diversity, according to a new study.



But what does the term "functional diversity" mean? Simply, it refers to the various roles and functions that birds undertake within their environment. From pest control to pollination, our feathered friends play a critical part in maintaining a healthy planet.



The study further reveals that this extinction wave eradicated approximately 3 billion years of unique evolutionary history. That's like cutting off a limb from the tree of life, noted the researchers. But what does this mean for us?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-layers-of-bird-extinction">Layers of bird extinction</h2>



While it's true that humans have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-species-extinctions-are-far-more-impactful-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chipping away at the richness of species</a> for centuries, the knock-on effects of these extinctions are less understood.



Recent research led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a> sheds light on the severe implications of the ongoing biodiversity crisis and the need to recognize the environmental roles we're losing due to extinction.



Remember the Dodo? Or the more recent Kaua'i ōō songbird declared extinct in 2023? Scientists have verified at least 600 bird species lost due to human interference since the Late Pleistocene when modern humans began to disperse globally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-functional-diversity">Loss of functional diversity </h2>



Dr. Tom Matthews from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Birmingham</a> is the lead author of the study.



"The sheer number of bird species that have become extinct is of course a big part of the extinction crisis but what we also need to focus on is that every species has a job or function within the environment and therefore plays a really important role in its ecosystem," said Dr. Matthews.



From insects-eating birds controlling pests to scavenger birds recycling dead matter - these are just some of the functions birds perform in their respective ecosystems.



Some birds like hummingbirds are important pollinators. When they go <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinct</a>, these valuable contributions (the functional diversity) go with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cascading-impacts-of-bird-extinction">Cascading impacts of bird extinction </h2>



With the extinction of bird species, we're losing more than just unique creatures. 



The researchers found that the scale of human-induced bird extinctions has led to a loss of approximately 3 billion years of unique evolutionary history and 7% of global avian functional diversity - a significantly larger amount than suggested by the number of extinctions alone.



These losses may trigger a domino effect, leading to reduced flower pollination, weakened seed dispersal, an upsurge in pest populations, and disease outbreaks due to reduced consumption of carrion.



Moreover, the shrinking global bird population might hamper the ability of many plant species to adapt to current and future climate changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-public-awareness">Importance of public awareness</h2>



To truly address the crisis of bird extinction and its broader ecological impact, we must first tackle the knowledge gap surrounding biodiversity. Many people remain unaware of the complex ecological functions that birds fulfill and the implications of their loss. 



Public education and widespread dissemination of scientific findings are crucial in transforming how we approach biodiversity conservation. 



Informative campaigns and community engagement can foster an understanding of how interconnected our survival is with the natural world, prompting more support for conservation efforts. 



As awareness grows, so too does the potential for policy change and increased funding for conservation projects aimed at preserving our planet's natural heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversing-the-course">Reversing the course</h2>



In response to this crisis, scientists and conservationists are developing innovative strategies to halt further extinctions and restore avian biodiversity. Habitat restoration and the creation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-birds-moving-area-where-giant-moa-pachyornis-australis-went-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird-friendly environments</a> are critical components of these efforts. 



Policies that protect critical habitats from development and pollution are essential, as well as the restoration of degraded environments to support bird populations.



Additionally, breeding programs and wildlife corridors can encourage the reintroduction and dispersal of endangered bird species across regions. 



Technology also plays a significant role, with advancements in data collection and analysis helping identify priority areas for conservation. 



Collaborative international efforts are required to address the global nature of this crisis, emphasizing that a diverse and thriving avian population is vital for the health of our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-restoration">Conservation and restoration</h2>



“These results are a timely reminder that the current extinction crisis is not just about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-birds-moving-area-where-giant-moa-pachyornis-australis-went-extinct/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> numbers," said Dr. Matthews.



"By identifying declines in avian functional and phylogenetic diversity driven by human actions, our findings highlight the urgent need to understand and predict the impacts of past anthropogenic extinctions on ecosystem function in order to prepare for the magnitude of expected future loss from the projected 1,000 bird species that are expected to die out completely over the next two centuries."



"This information is vital for setting effective targets for global conservation strategies, as well as ecosystem restoration and rewilding efforts.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adk7898" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Bird extinctions shatter the harmonious balance of nature

The human-driven extinction of hundreds of bird species over the...

Picture this: An organism without a brain, making decisions. Sounds impossible? Scientists have proven that this is not some science-fiction fantasy, but a reality. They've been examining the fascinating world of fungi and their uncanny ability to display basal cognition, even without having a brain. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unseen-intelligence-of-fungi">Unseen intelligence of fungi</h2>



How does an organism without a brain exhibit signs of intelligence? The answer lies in their intricate network of mycelium - long, spidery threads that fungi use to grow. 



Most people only see the tiny mushrooms sprouting above the ground and are oblivious to the extensive network that lies beneath. 



"You'd be surprised at just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-fusion-turning-food-waste-into-culinary-delights/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">how much fungi are capable of</a>," said Yu Fukasawa of Tohoku University. "They have memories, they learn, and they can make decisions."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-knew-fungi-have-memories">Who knew? Fungi have memories</h2>



Believe it or not, fungi have memories. They learn and make critical decisions. They're out here solving problems in ways that are so unique, it boggles the mind. 



"Quite frankly, the differences in how they solve problems compared to humans is mind-blowing," said Fukasawa. It's almost like they're playing a game of chess against nature, and they're winning.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decision-making-in-fungi">Decision-making in fungi</h2>



The researchers engaged in a curious experiment. They wanted to see how a wood-decaying mycelial network would respond to two different scenarios: wood blocks placed in a circle versus a cross arrangement. The question was simple - How would the fungi <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-fungi-diversity-can-be-pulled-out-of-thin-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behave</a>?



In the cross arrangement, the outermost four blocks were the most populated. The researchers believe this is because the fungi see these outer blocks as outposts, helping the mycelial network branch out into further areas. Hence, denser connections were noticed here.



When it came to the circle arrangement, there was equal connection at all blocks, but the center remained untouched. The fungi did not see a benefit in extending its network into an area that already had plenty of company.



These actions suggest that fungi communicate information across the entire mycelial network, adjusting their growth direction depending on their surrounding shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigmatic-world-of-fungi">Enigmatic world of fungi</h2>



Our understanding of fungi pales in comparison to our knowledge about plants and animals. These underground organisms, with their intricate neural-like networks, are a mystery waiting to be solved. 



Their behavior paints a tantalizing picture of how different types of cognition evolved in organisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-and-resource-optimization">Fungi and resource optimization</h2>



Fungi exhibit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-all-fungi-matter-not-just-mushrooms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">remarkable efficiency</a> when it comes to resource optimization, a skill essential for their survival and growth. 



This ability to allocate resources is a result of intricate feedback mechanisms and environmental assessments conducted by the mycelial network. 



Researchers assert that fungi prioritize areas with abundant resources, indicating an advanced understanding of their surroundings. In resource-rich zones, mycelium growth accelerates, capturing nutrients and storing them for future use. 



This practice not only ensures the fungi thrive in fluctuating environments but also highlights their ecological significance as decomposers and nutrient recyclers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-human-technology">Implications for human technology</h2>



The unique problem-solving abilities and efficient networking strategies of fungi have inspired innovations in human technology. Scientists are exploring mycelial algorithms to develop more efficient networks, such as urban planning and telecommunications systems.



The fungi’s extraordinary capacity to communicate and coordinate across their networks offers insights into creating sustainable and resilient systems. 



By mimicking their resource allocation methods, researchers aim to devise solutions that enhance human infrastructure, leading to smarter and more adaptive frameworks.



This merging of biology and technology highlights the untapped potential within <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/intro-to-the-fungi-life-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature's vast repository of knowledge</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wonders-of-nature">The wonders of nature</h2>



The findings from this research fill a significant gap in our understanding of biotic ecosystems and how they function. They open up a whole new world of possibilities for us to explore.



Who would have thought that these small, often overlooked organisms could teach us so much? It's a testament to the wonders of nature and how much more we've got to learn.



So the next time you see a mushroom growing in your garden, remember there's a lot more than meets the eye. These tiny organisms are making decisions, sharing information and solving problems - all without a brain.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1754504824000588?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fungal Ecology</a>.



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Fungi can think and make smart decisions without a brain

Picture this: An organism without a brain, making decisions. Sounds...

A concerning number of Americans, approximately 130 million, suffer from various heart conditions. 



These conditions, beyond their immediate threats, may be secretly escalating a surge of dementia cases in the country, posing a severe health threat.



According to the American Heart Association, diseases such as coronary artery disease, heart failure, and atrial fibrillation could be a root cause of dementia.



These illnesses inhibit proper blood flow, inevitably leading to the demise of brain cells and tissues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heart-conditions-and-dementia">Heart conditions and dementia </h2>



Over 130 million Americans battle some form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-diet-may-save-your-life-six-key-foods-lower-the-risk-of-heart-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a>, making immediate prevention even more pertinent, especially considering the millions of dementia cases that emerge each year.



"Dementia is commonly seen as an incurable and relentless disease that cannot be prevented," said Dr. Fernando Testai, an expert affiliated with the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a>. 



"Evidence shows, however, that adopting a healthy lifestyle and identifying and treating vascular risk factors early may help preserve normal brain function and reduce the burden of Alzheimer’s disease and other related dementias."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-heart-condition-contributes-to-dementia">Common heart condition contributes to dementia </h2>



In a paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/STR.0000000000000476">Stroke</a>, the experts noted that coronary artery disease - the most common of American heart conditions and a leading cause of death - is a significant factor contributing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dementia-was-extremely-rare-in-ancient-times-so-why-is-it-now-so-prevalent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a>.



Essentially, the buildup of plaque inhibits blood flow to major organs, including the brain, ultimately leading to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/having-a-pet-leads-to-a-much-slower-rate-of-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive function deterioration</a>. 



Studies show that coronary artery diseases escalate dementia risk by 27 percent. This emphasizes the critical connection between a healthy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-finds-strong-correlation-between-heart-and-brain-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart and brain</a>.



Heart failure also adds to the growing list of culprits, potentially leading to cognitive decline affecting memory, language, and planning abilities. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-markers-of-heart-disease">Brain markers of heart disease </h2>



In an interview with CNN, Dr. Testai noted that the conditions that lead to heart failure, such as diabetes and coronary artery disease, can increase the levels of beta-amyloid in the brain. This protein is recognized as a key marker of Alzheimer's disease.



Atrial fibrillation (A-fib), a disease affecting millions of Americans with numbers on the rise, has also been linked to dementia. 



This condition may cause cerebral microhemorrhages - tiny brain bleeds that could potentially lead to a stroke. The risk of memory or thinking problems increases by 39 percent for those with A-fib.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adopting-a-heart-healthy-lifestyle">Adopting a heart-healthy lifestyle </h2>



"This call to action is especially critical right now because so many Americans have some form of heart disease and people are getting sicker and sicker earlier in life," said Dr. Andrew Freeman, an expert at National Jewish Health who was not involved in the study. 



To combat this, Dr. Freeman advises adopting a heart-healthy lifestyle before it's too late. This involves consuming anti-inflammatory nutrients as part of the Mediterranean diet, maintaining an adequate exercise regime, and ensuring rest and connection with others. 



Walking briskly for 30 minutes daily, for instance, can reduce dementia risk by a staggering 62 percent.



"<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/any-type-of-physical-activity-can-help-protect-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical activity</a> is just absolutely magnificent. And when if you blend that with eating a more plant-based diet, de-stressing, sleeping enough and connecting with others - that’s your magic recipe. It’s the fountain of youth, if you will," said Dr. Freeman. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regular-screening-for-early-risk-detection">Regular screening for early risk detection</h2>



Preventing heart disease and dementia begins with the early identification and management of risk factors. 



Regular screenings for key health indicators such as blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and blood sugar are crucial as they can uncover underlying health issues that might otherwise remain hidden. 



These assessments play a pivotal role in diagnosing conditions like hypertension and diabetes, which have profound impacts on both cardiac and cerebral health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-and-awareness">Prevention and awareness</h2>



For individuals already dealing with heart-related conditions, consistent monitoring and adherence to prescribed treatment regimens are vital. 



Medications aimed at controlling blood pressure, cholesterol, or heart rhythm can serve to maintain optimal blood flow and alleviate cardiac stress. 



This forward-thinking approach not only mitigates the risk of cardiovascular events but also protects the brain from the chronic effects of reduced blood supply.



Additionally, engaging in discussions about lifestyle practices with healthcare providers allows individuals to establish attainable goals for heart health improvement. 



By prioritizing routine health evaluations, individuals can significantly diminish the likelihood of developing dementia associated with heart disease.



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Heart conditions propel the rise of dementia

A concerning number of Americans, approximately 130 million, suffer from...

Cast your mind back to the year 1988. The Koster archipelago, a cluster of islands off the Swedish west coast near Norway, suffered a harsh attack from a significant bloom of toxic algae. This occurrence left an indelible mark on the marine snail populations residing in these islands - driving an impact on their evolution, and pushing them to near extinction.



But why should this matter to anyone but marine biologists or environmentalists? Well, this unfortunate turn of events would provide an opportunity to observe the fascinating process of evolution in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-long-experiment-with-snails">Decades-long experiment with snails</h2>



The Koster islands and the encompassing rocky islets known as skerries were habitats for dense and diverse populations of marine snails, specifically the species Littorina saxatilis. 



While the snail populations bounced back on the larger islands within two to four years, the populations on smaller skerries couldn't recover from this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pest-control-product-nemaslug-could-harm-beneficial-snails/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">catastrophic event</a>.



Kerstin Johannesson, a marine ecologist at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Gothenburg</a>, Sweden, saw an opportunity amidst this disaster. In 1992, she reintroduced the L. saxatilis snails to their original skerry habitat, thus initiating an experiment with profound implications that researchers could witness over three decades later.



Ultimately, the experiment enabled an international team led by the Institute of Science and Technology Austria (<a href="https://ista.ac.at/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ISTA</a>) to observe and predict evolution of snails in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snails-evolved-to-fit-their-environment">Snails evolved to fit their environment </h2>



The marine snail species L. saxatilis is spread across the North Atlantic shores. Evolved to adapt to their environment, these snails exhibit differences in size, shell shape, shell color, and behavior. 



The two distinct types that develop, most prominently known as the Crab- and Wave-ecotype, are particularly intriguing. The Wave snails tend to be smaller, with thin shells of unique colors and patterns, a large and rounded aperture, and bold behavior. 



In contrast, the Crab snails are noticeably larger, possess thicker shells without patterns, a smaller and more elongated aperture, and exhibit wary behavior due to their predator-filled environment.



Remarkably, the Koster archipelago served as a home to both these types of L. saxatilis. Following the deadly algae bloom, Wave snails perished, leaving the shores desolate. 



However, Crab snails were still abundant nearby. Capitalizing on this proximity, Johannesson decided to reintroduce the Crab snails to the wave snail’s old abode in 1992.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snails-reclaim-lost-traits-through-evolution">Snails reclaim lost traits through evolution</h2>



Johannesson's decision turned out to be a masterstroke. With the snails churning out one to two generations every year, scientists could witness the Crab snails adapt to their new environment in real-time. 



“Our colleagues saw evidence of the snails’ adaptation already within the first decade of the experiment,” said Diego Garcia Castillo, a graduate student in the <a href="https://ista.ac.at/en/research/barton-group/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Barton Group at ISTA</a> and a leading author of the study.



“Over the experiment’s 30 years, we were able to predict robustly what the snails will look like and which genetic regions will be implicated. The transformation was both rapid and dramatic."



But this evolution and transformation wasn't a case of the snails developing their traits from scratch. Some of the genetic diversity was already available in the starting Crab population, though at low prevalence. These findings indicate that access to a large gene pool can hasten the process of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slugs-and-snails-prefer-los-angeles-city-life-over-rural-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-diversity-in-snail-evolution">Genetic diversity in snail evolution</h2>



Over the duration of the experiment, the team examined the snails' phenotype, individual gene variabilities, and larger genetic changes that affect entire regions of the chromosomes called "chromosomal inversions."



They observed a rapid selection of traits already present at a low frequency in the transplanted Crab snail population, which may be further bolstered by gene flow from neighboring Wave snails.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-the-future">Implications for the future</h2>



This research on snail evolution opens a window into understanding how species can adapt to modern environmental challenges such as pollution and climate change. Not all species have access to large gene pools, and evolving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-snail-venom-possible-key-to-improving-diabetes-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new traits</a> from scratch is slow. 



Anja Marie Westram, a former postdoc at ISTA, now a researcher at Nord University, expressed her hope for the future. "Perhaps this research helps convince people to protect a range of natural habitats so that species do not lose their genetic variation."



Fast forward to the present day, and the snails Johannesson brought to the skerry in 1992 now have a thriving population of around 1,000 individuals. These humble snails, once victims of an environmental catastrophe, are now helping us understand the wonders of nature and evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp2102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Snails defy death and revive through evolution

Cast your mind back to the year 1988. The Koster...

Ever wondered where your energy comes from? Believe it or not, it's not from your morning coffee or your daily workout. It's from something far more deeply rooted - your mom's DNA.



One of the core principles of biology is that we inherit our DNA from our parents. However, the DNA inheritance from dad and mom isn't evenly split.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-mitochondrial-mystery">The mitochondrial mystery</h2>



A peculiar exception to the rule of inheritance has intrigued scientists for ages: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-mystery-50000-knots-found-in-the-human-genome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> found within mitochondria - the cell's powerhouses - is passed down exclusively from mothers.



In the event of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-body-prevents-multiple-sperm-from-fertilizing-an-egg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">egg fertilization</a>, any remnants of the father's mitochondrial genome are immediately eliminated.



Recent findings from a study at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a> are shedding new light on this fascinating phenomenon.



Published in the journal Science Advances, the study also pointed to potential consequences if this maternal inheritance was disturbed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-understanding-of-mitochondrial-disorders">Deeper understanding of mitochondrial disorders</h2>



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fathers-diet-impacts-the-health-of-his-future-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paternal mitochondrial DNA</a> sneaks into an embryo, the child may face serious neurological, behavioral, and reproductive issues as an adult. 



This research, carried out on roundworms, paves the way for a deeper understanding of mitochondrial disorders affecting around 1 in 5,000 people. It also introduces a promising treatment approach using a simple vitamin - Vitamin K2.



Study senior author Ding Xue is a professor in the Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology at the University of Colorado Boulder.



“These findings provide important new insights into why paternal mitochondria must be swiftly removed during early development," noted Professor Xue. He also expressed optimism about potential treatments for diseases caused by the compromise of this process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-energy-comes-from-mom">Cellular energy comes from mom</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mitochondria-cells-batteries-leaking-causes-inflammation-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mitochondria</a>, often referred to as cellular batteries, are responsible for producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - the powerhouse that fuels all cellular functions.



It was in 2016 when Professor Xue uncovered the mechanism of fathers' DNA elimination, known as “paternal mitochondria elimination."



"Our stuff is so undesirable that evolution has designed multiple mechanisms to make sure it is cleared during reproduction," joked Professor Xue.



Interestingly, some believe that sperm mitochondria are utterly drained and genetically harmed after the grueling process of fertilization, which might explain why evolution discards paternal mitochondrial DNA.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-impact-of-paternal-intrusion">The impact of paternal intrusion</h2>



Professor Xue, in his quest to understand the potential impact of paternal mitochondrial survival, examined C. elegans – a transparent worm with similar tissue structure to humans. 



His team could only delay, not halt, paternal mitochondria elimination (PME), thereby demonstrating the resilience of this evolutionary process.



Any delay in the elimination process led to a drastic decrease in ATP levels and impaired cognitive, motor and reproductive abilities in the worms.



However, treatment with Vitamin K2 (MK-4) brought ATP levels back to normal and improved the adult worms' cognitive, motor, and reproductive functions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-for-mitochondrial-disorders">Hope for mitochondrial disorders</h2>



Only a few cases have been documented where paternal mitochondrial DNA was found in adults. 



But, as the research indicates, even slight delays in PME could potentially cause hard-to-diagnose human diseases. "If you have a problem with ATP it can impact every stage of the human life cycle," said Professor Xue.



This research opens up new possibilities for diagnosing and treating mitochondrial disorders. Professor Xue envisions a future where families with mitochondrial disorders could take Vitamin K2 prenatally as a preventive measure.



"There are a lot of diseases that are poorly understood. No one really knows what is going on. This research offers clues."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-producing-machinery-comes-from-mom">Energy-producing machinery comes from mom</h2>



Every heartbeat, thought, and movement relies on energy generated by the mitochondria within our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anthrobots-scientists-create-tiny-biological-robots-from-human-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a>. These tiny organelles convert nutrients into ATP, the essential fuel that powers all bodily functions. 



Fascinatingly, this energy-producing machinery is inherited solely from moms, linking our daily vitality to our maternal lineage.



The study highlights the importance of maintaining this mitochondrial inheritance pattern. Any disruption to this process could interfere with our cells' ability to generate energy, potentially leading to neurological or metabolic issues. 



By focusing on the energy link between mitochondria and cellular health, researchers aim to uncover therapies that could help those affected by mitochondrial disorders, offering new hope for maintaining optimal cellular energy levels.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adp8351" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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All of your energy comes from mom - not dad

Ever wondered where your energy comes from? Believe it or...

Researchers have recently unlocked new insights into how the red milkweed beetle thrives on toxic plants, shedding light on the ecological, evolutionary, and potential economic impacts of insect-plant interactions.&nbsp;



While the relationship between the red milkweed beetle and milkweed plants has been studied for nearly 150 years, scientists have now taken a major step forward by sequencing the beetle’s genome and examining genes tied to plant-feeding and other biological traits.



The research was conducted by Rich Adams from the <a href="https://aaes.uada.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station</a>, in collaboration with colleagues from the <a href="https://www.memphis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Memphis</a> and the <a href="https://www.uwosh.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin Oshkosh</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-milkweed-beetle-genome">Red milkweed beetle genome</h2>



The researchers set out to sequence and assemble the entire genome of the red milkweed beetle (Tetraopes tetrophthalmus), a host-specialist.&nbsp;



The research allowed them to compare the genome of this beetle with that of the Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), a host-generalist and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/growing-threat-of-invasive-species-requires-immediate-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">invasive species</a> that feeds on a variety of important trees.



“From a biological standpoint, there is a lot of correspondence that suggests that longstanding interactions between milkweed beetles and their toxic milkweed hosts should influence the biology of both interacting partners,” explained Adams.&nbsp;



“But, to date, no one has assembled a milkweed beetle genome, which opens the door for targeting a lot of interesting questions at the interface between insect and plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co-evolution-of-plants-and-insects">Co-evolution of plants and insects</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milkweed-gardens-are-needed-to-save-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milkweeds</a> and milkweed beetles have long been valuable models for studying ecology, evolution, developmental biology, and the biochemistry of toxins. They have also provided compelling evidence of co-evolution between insect and plant species. 



The timing of their evolutionary histories aligns, meaning that milkweed plants and their beetle counterparts evolved in tandem.



In their research, the team found that the red milkweed beetle has an expansion of genes from the ABC transport family, which may allow the beetles to feed on the toxic milkweed and sequester the plant's toxins within their tissues.&nbsp;



Milkweed plants are well-known for producing toxic latex cocktails that affect the balance of sodium, calcium, and potassium necessary for heart function.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-interactions-with-a-toxic-plant">Safe interactions with a toxic plant</h2>



Adams emphasized that the genome analysis offers important insights into how the beetle has evolved to safely interact with its toxic host plants.



“Milkweeds produce a particularly nasty type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-caterpillars-turn-milkweed-toxin-into-a-survival-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxin</a> called cardiac glycosides alongside other types of toxins that come with it,” Adams said. 



“For many insects that eat it, the toxin will block their sodium-potassium pumps. But this beetle developed a way to not only resist the toxin, but also sequester it, hold on to it, to keep the beetles themselves safe from would-be predators.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-specialized-diet-of-milkweed-beetles">Specialized diet of milkweed beetles</h2>



The experts also discovered variations in genes responsible for the beetle's sense of smell, taste, and the metabolic enzymes needed to break down plant cell walls.&nbsp;



This new understanding provides a fresh perspective for studying how beetles, particularly long-horned beetles and other plant-eating insects, have specialized their diets over time.



The findings could have significant applications in agriculture and forestry, particularly for managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urgent-need-to-protect-earths-forests-from-non-native-pests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>. 



By identifying the genetic factors that allow agricultural and forestry pests to successfully feed on plants and evade control measures, researchers can develop better pest management strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-new-insights">Valuable new insights</h2>



Most animals capable of digesting woody plant material rely on gut microbes to help break down plant cell walls. However, many plant-eating beetles do not need these microbes.&nbsp;



Instead, they have evolved their own mechanisms, often acquiring the ability to break down plant material through horizontal gene transfers from microbes.



Adams pointed out that examining the diversity of proteins encoded within beetle genomes can provide valuable insights into the genomic basis of beetle biology, evolution, and interactions with plants.&nbsp;



“Nature has made an incredible diversity of genes and genomes already out there that we have not yet deciphered,” said Adams.&nbsp;



“Understanding this diversity holds great promise for informing agriculture, forestry, and human health. Herbivorous beetles would have a difficult time feeding on plants without their metabolic enzymes, because they can’t eat effectively without them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-milkweed-beetles-sense-their-environment">How milkweed beetles sense their environment </h2>



In addition to studying the beetle’s genomic DNA, the team collected RNA from both male and female beetle antennae to explore how the beetles use chemosensation - the ability to detect chemical signals in their environment - to find mates and food.



“Learning more about chemosensory biology - how an organism senses its environment, like sensing a host plant or reproductive partner - has broad relevance for understanding insect-plant interactions, which is intensively relevant to agriculture and forestry,” Adams explained.



The team’s RNA profiling provided the first transcriptomic resource for Tetraopes, offering new insights into the genes that are expressed in specific tissues or cells.&nbsp;



As Adams noted, while DNA provides the gene sequence, RNA allows researchers to gain a clearer picture of how genes are expressed and how often a particular gene is activated.



This research opens new doors to understanding specialized plant-feeding in beetles and could eventually help in developing pest control strategies to protect crops and forests from invasive species.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esae049" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Heredity</a>.



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How does the milkweed beetle safely feed on a toxic plant?

Researchers have recently unlocked new insights into how the red...

Moon,Structure,In,Front,Of,Planet,Earth,And,The,Milky

We've all spent countless nights gazing at the Moon, lost in its tranquility and splendor. But have you ever wondered what lies beneath the surface at the Moon's core? 



The answer is starting to come into focus, thanks to the work of French Astronomer Arthur Briaud and his team at the French National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en/the-cnrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeling-back-the-lunar-layers">Peeling back the lunar layers</h2>



Instead of old wives' tales about it being made of green cheese, the Moon's core, as Briaud's research shows, is a ball of solid metal encased by a liquid outer layer. 



But how did they ascertain this? 



They worked with existing data from NASA's Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/grail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GRAIL</a>) mission paired with Lunar Laser Ranging (<a href="https://ilrs.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/scienceContributions/lunar.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LLR</a>), which provides accurate measurements between Earth and specific lunar regions. 



This combination unveiled the Moon's interior with unmatched precision -- it has a core very similar to the Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-the-moon-s-core-matter">Why does the Moon's core matter?</h2>



This isn't a run-of-the-mill discovery. The existence of a molten outer layer and solid core inside the Moon forces us to rethink our understanding of the moon's magnetic field. 



"Our results question the evolution of the Moon’s magnetic field thanks to its demonstration of the existence of the inner core and support a global mantle overturn scenario that brings substantial insights on the timeline of the lunar bombardment," Briaud explained.



These revelations lay the groundwork for fresh insights into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-moon-had-active-volcanoes-just-120-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon's formative years</a>. Interestingly, the Moon's inner core has a density similar to iron. 



Measuring approximately 160 miles in radius with an outer core roughly 225 miles, the findings seem to suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-is-shrinking-moonquakes-potential-problems-for-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Moon</a> and Earth are more closely related than we previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploration-and-future-lunar-colonies">Exploration and future lunar colonies</h2>



Understanding the Moon’s core is practical knowledge that’s essential for planning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-to-build-house-on-the-moon-by-2040/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">future lunar expeditions</a>. 



This is especially true as more nations and businesses show interest in exploring, and possibly inhabiting, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moons-entire-surface-is-covered-with-water-and-hydroxyl-not-just-the-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the Moon's surface</a>. 



As Briaud points out, “knowing what is on the moon is a giant step in the right direction, both for the present and the future.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-earth-by-studying-the-moon">Understanding Earth by studying the Moon</h2>



These findings could also impact our understanding of the solar system. By comparing Earth's and the Moon's cores, we can recognize patterns and differences that help unravel the secrets of planetary formation. 



This raises intriguing questions about the composition of other celestial bodies. What does their internal structure look like, and how does it influence their geological behavior or life-supporting potential?



This research opens up new directions for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-magma-ocean-molten-rock-found-moons-surface-south-pole-chandrayaan-3/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">further lunar studies</a>. With an accurate model of the Moon's core on their hands, scientists can dive deeper into unanswered questions and polish existing theories. 



Looking forward, there's excitement about more detailed lunar mapping and confirming the solidity of Briaud's conclusions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-s-core-compared-to-earth-s-core">Moon's core compared to Earth's core</h2>



The Moon's core is a lot smaller and less dense than Earth's, which highlights a major difference in their make-up and thermal activities. 



While Earth has a molten, metallic core that helps create its strong magnetic field, the Moon's core is mostly solid with just a tiny molten layer.



Scientists think the Moon's core is only about 1-2% of its total mass, whereas Earth's core makes up around 15%. Both cores are mostly made of iron, but the Moon has less nickel and other metals.



Because its core is smaller and mostly solid, the Moon doesn’t experience the same geological activity as Earth. It doesn't have a <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">significant magnetic field</a>, which affects things like surface temperature and how it interacts with solar radiation.



Earth’s core drives plate tectonics and volcanic activity, shaping the landscape and supporting life. In contrast, the Moon’s core is pretty much inactive, leaving it geologically quiet and ancient, with surface features that have barely changed over billions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-the-moon-s-core">Future research on the Moon's core</h2>



Why should you, as a layperson, care about these discoveries? 



Apart from satisfying your intellectual curiosity, these findings could bolster technological advancement, improve our space exploration capabilities, and maybe even inspire innovations that directly benefit life on Earth.



Plus, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-moon-is-drifting-away-and-earth-will-never-be-the-same-without-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon plays a pivotal role</a> in maintaining our planet's stability -- influencing tides and potentially impacting climate patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-inside-matters">Why the inside matters</h2>



To sum it all up, the Moon has a complex core, remarkably similar to Earth's own. Arthur Briaud's research, utilizing NASA's GRAIL data and advanced laser ranging techniques, has given us a clearer view of what lies beneath the moon's surface. 



These discoveries have significant implications for future space exploration, technological advancements, and our understanding of the Moon and beyond. 



So the next time you look up at the moon, remember -- there's a world of wonders hidden beneath its silent façade.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-05935-7%5C" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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What's inside the Moon's core has long been a mystery, until now

We've all spent countless nights gazing at the Moon, lost...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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