Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Bacteria that reside in soil and help plant roots fix nitrogen can significantly boost the reproductive capacity of certain plants by making the flowers more attractive, according to new research.



The study focuses on Chamaecrista latistipula, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-legumes-solve-environmental-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">legume</a> in the Fabaceae family, which includes beans and peas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soil-bacteria-and-plant-flowers">Soil bacteria and plant flowers</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Soil bacteria</a> enhance the attractiveness of the plant's flowers to pollinators through a type of mutualistic relationship. In mutualism, both organisms benefit - plants receive more nutrients, and microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi thrive.



Chamaecrista latistipula is a shrub native to regions of Bolivia, Brazil, and northeast Argentina, where it grows in nutrient-poor soils. It relies on a specific pollinator to reproduce successfully.&nbsp;



“Its mutualistic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria increases the supply of the nutrient to its roots in exchange for the sugar on which they feed,” explained Anselmo Nogueira, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ufabc.edu.br/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal University of the ABC</a> (UFABC), in São Paulo, Brazil.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mutualistic-relationship-with-pollinators">Mutualistic relationship with pollinators</h2>



In addition to its relationship with bacteria, C. latistipula has a mutualistic relationship with specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-not-just-attracted-to-plants-by-scent-but-also-by-humidity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>. 



“The pollen stored in its flowers’ anthers is only released when they are made to vibrate, mainly by being shaken by females of some species of bumblebee in the genus Bombus,” Nogueira said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacteria-make-the-flowers-appealing-nbsp">Bacteria make the flowers appealing&nbsp;</h2>



In a greenhouse experiment conducted at the Plant-Animal Interaction Laboratory, led by Nogueira, it was revealed that these bacteria play a significant role in making the flowers more appealing to bumblebees, especially in nutrient-poor soils.&nbsp;



Unexpectedly, the researchers also found that nutrient-rich soil did not lead to healthy plants with attractive flowers.&nbsp;



“Because the association with bacteria is very costly for the plant, we assumed that in nitrogen-rich soil the plants would simply take <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-too-much-and-too-little-nitrogen-at-the-same-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a> directly from the soil, but in our experiments, nutrient-rich soil didn’t produce healthy plants with attractive flowers,” explained Caroline Souza, the first author of the article.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research</h2>



The experiment was part of a broader project examining how bacteria, ants, and bees contribute to the evolution of legumes.&nbsp;



The team monitored 60 C. latistipula plants over 16 months, from seed germination. Half were grown in nutrient-poor sandy soil, while the other half were in soil rich in organic matter, supplemented with potassium nitrate.&nbsp;



Both soil types were sterilized to remove any existing microorganisms, and the seeds were sterilized before sowing to prevent external bacterial influence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-nitrogen-fixing-bacteria-nbsp">The role of nitrogen-fixing bacteria&nbsp;</h2>



The experiment revealed that plants grown in sandy soil with added rhizobia (nitrogen-fixing bacteria) developed much better than those without bacteria or those grown in nutrient-rich soil.&nbsp;



“In the nitrogen-poor sandy soil with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, the plants were almost twice as tall and three times larger than those grown in nitrogen-rich soil with organic matter and rhizobia,” Nogueira said.&nbsp;



In contrast, plants grown without rhizobia, regardless of soil type, were smaller and less healthy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colors-that-attract-bumblebees-nbsp">Colors that attract bumblebees&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers analyzed the flowers of these plants using a surface spectrophotometer to measure how light was reflected, testing for color contrasts perceptible to bumblebees.&nbsp;



Significant differences were observed only in the plants grown in sandy soil with rhizobia, whose anthers displayed a pattern particularly attractive to bumblebees.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebees-showcase-smart-logical-reasoning-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bumblebees</a> perceive the color spectrum differently than humans, and the unique flower characteristics likely contributed to their attraction.



“The anthers contain the pollen and can be accessed only by insects capable of making them vibrate, which can’t be done by exotic species such as the European honeybee Apis mellifera,” Souza explained.&nbsp;



Pollen is a vital protein source for bee larvae, influencing their growth and development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-study-nbsp">Broader implications of the study&nbsp;</h2>



After the flower analysis, the researchers examined the roots of the plants and found that the plants grown in nutrient-poor sandy soil with rhizobia had the most root nodules.&nbsp;



These nodules are knob-like structures where nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in a symbiotic relationship with the plant. The bacteria help the plant produce amino acids needed for growth, while the plant supplies the bacteria with sugars for energy and reproduction.



The study suggests that the mutualistic relationship between plants and bacteria enhances the quality of the pollen, potentially increasing its protein and amino acid content, making the flowers more attractive to native bees.&nbsp;



“The heightened attractiveness of the flowers may be associated with larger amounts of high-quality resources, influenced by the roots’ high nitrogen fixation rate,” Nogueira concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.16363" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Botany</a>. 



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Soil bacteria makes flowers more attractive to pollinators

Bacteria that reside in soil and help plant roots fix...

We live in a world that is slowly but steadily beginning to realize the toll of climate change. The ticking clock of global warming no longer falls on deaf ears, especially in the realm of aviation, where the carbon footprint of jet fuels is anything but minuscule. 



Researchers at Washington State University (WSU) have potentially found a way to transform agricultural waste into jet fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-green-revolution-in-aviation-fuel">Green revolution in aviation fuel</h2>



The findings, published in the journal Fuel Processing Technology, reveal the remarkable possibility of of turning plant cell components - more specifically, lignin polymers - into sustainable jet fuel.



It's like hitting two birds with one stone - addressing waste disposal and creating an eco-friendly fuel source simultaneously.



The research team was led by Bin Yang, a renowned professor in WSU's <a href="https://bsyse.wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Biological Systems Engineering</a>.



“Our achievement takes this technology one step closer to real-world use by providing data that lets us better gauge its feasibility for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flying-has-never-been-safer-and-continues-to-improve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">commercial aviation</a>,” said Yang.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-based-jet-fuel">Plant-based jet fuel</h2>



Lignin, in simple terms, is a bunch of structural molecules that make plants sturdy and woody. 



The scientists have figured out how to obtain lignin from corn stover (what remains of the crop after harvest: stalks, leaves, cobs) and other similar agricultural waste. And they are finding very clever ways to repurpose it.



Now, you're probably thinking, how does the transformation occur? The team has developed a method they call “simultaneous depolymerization and hydrodeoxygenation." 



This method handles the task of breaking down the lignin polymer and getting rid of the oxygen element simultaneously, eventually resulting in lignin-based jet fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-more-sustainable-fuels">Cleaner, more sustainable fuels</h2>



The pressing question, of course, remains: why is it so crucial? In the year 2019 alone, about 100 billion gallons of aviation fuel were emitted into our skies.



Air travel is not set to slow down anytime soon, so these numbers are bound to climb higher in the coming years. 



"Jet fuel consumption has been hampered significantly in the last three years because of restricted air travel during the COVID-19 pandemic, however, demand is expected to be 32&nbsp;% higher in 2030 and more than double by 2050 of 2019 levels," noted the researchers.



Sustainable aviation fuels, like the one derived from plants, can be a game-changer in reducing our carbon emissions.



Lignin-based jet fuel could pave the way for much cleaner sustainable fuels that efficiently run <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-airplanes-are-worse-for-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jet engines</a>. Hydrocarbons sourced from lignin, given their density and efficiency, could stand in for fossil fuel-derived compounds known as aromatics effectively.



However, this path isn't a cakewalk. Challenges of significant scale lie ahead, particularly in standardizing lignin's composition for efficient yield and determining if it's economically viable for large-scale production. 



But the scientific community is optimistic. The researchers believe that continuous technological advancements will hammer down these hurdles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-minimizing-waste-and-energy-use">Minimizing waste and energy use</h2>



In the journey towards sustainable aviation fuel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-is-shifting-and-putting-navigation-at-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">commercialization</a>, the power of partnership cannot be overstated.



Sharing the limelight with university researchers are industries involved in aviation and fuel production, along with policy-makers championing clean energy. 



These strategic collaborations could lead to the development of optimized processing plants and refining methods that minimize waste and energy use.



“The aviation enterprise is looking to generate 100% renewable aviation fuel,” noted Josh Heyne, a fellow researcher and co-director of the <a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a>-PNNL Bioproducts Institute.



The ultimate goal is to make sustainable aviation fuels fully “drop-in” capable - fit to use in all existing engines, aircraft, and infrastructure just like the conventional fossil-derived jet fuel.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



This research was funded by organizations including the U.S. Department of Energy’s Bioenergy Technologies Office, the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a>, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and Advanced Refining Technologies LLC. 



The scientists now aim to perfect their process, striving for better efficiency and lower costs.



So, the next time you're soaring in the skies, take a moment to appreciate the scientific progress that's working zealously to make your trip eco-friendly. After all, in the fight against climate change, every step toward sustainability matters.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378382024000997?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fuel Processing Technology</a>.



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Plant-based jet fuel could revolutionize aviation

We live in a world that is slowly but steadily...

The intricate structure of coral reefs creates a vibrant underwater ecosystem, bustling with life. Ironically, this same complexity can hinder coral recovery after disturbances, as researchers studying reefs in Moorea, French Polynesia, have discovered. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-network-of-coral-skeletons-nbsp">Network of coral skeletons&nbsp;</h2>



The experts found that the network of dead coral skeletons left behind by bleaching events disrupts critical processes, ultimately preventing the reefs from regenerating.&nbsp;



These dead structures protect seaweed from herbivores, allowing it to rapidly colonize and outcompete young coral.&nbsp;



The findings, published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.17504" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>, highlight how the aftermath of disturbances can alter a reef's recovery trajectory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reef-disturbances">Coral reef disturbances</h2>



Coral reefs are dynamic systems that undergo constant change, and disturbances such as storms, coral predation, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/60-percent-global-coral-reefs-face-bleaching-rising-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bleaching</a> events can significantly impact their health. 



Historically, tropical storms and cyclones have caused the most damage to Moorea’s reefs.&nbsp;



“They tend to scrape all the coral off the reef and leave behind a flat surface,” said Kai Kopecky, lead author and a former doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Santa Barbara</a>’s Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology. 



However, more recent disturbances, such as coral bleaching and predation, have become increasingly prevalent. Unlike storms that physically remove coral, bleaching events leave the reef’s skeletons intact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bleaching-and-other-stressors">Bleaching and other stressors</h2>



Bleaching occurs when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-corals-can-help-them-recover-from-heat-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a>, usually from heat, causes coral to expel the symbiotic algae that supply it with food. 



While coral can sometimes recover if favorable conditions return, more often than not, the colony dies, particularly when other stressors like pollution are present.&nbsp;



For instance, a major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cyclones-impact-coral-reefs-as-far-as-1000-kilometers-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyclone</a> struck Moorea's reefs in 2010, clearing almost all the coral from the fore reef. “But within about five years, it recovered back to the amount of coral it had before the storm had hit,” Kopecky noted. 



However, following a bleaching event in 2019, Kopecky and his team observed a starkly different outcome.&nbsp;



The dead coral structure remained, but instead of recovering, the reef continued to decline, and seaweed (macroalgae) began to proliferate. Kopecky wanted to understand how these different disturbances affected the reef’s recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modeling-a-reef-system">Modeling a reef system</h2>



To explore this, the researchers conducted an experiment as part of their work at the <a href="https://lternet.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Long Term Ecological Research</a> (LTER) site at Moorea Coral Reef. 



The goal was to analyze the processes that were being disrupted after the bleaching event. In 2023, the scientists developed a mathematical model of the reef system, while their field study focused on examining the underlying mechanisms.



The research team cleared small patches of the reef to create experimental areas. They cemented controlled numbers of dead coral skeletons in these patches and added young, healthy coral that could be periodically removed and measured.&nbsp;



Trays of macroalgae were also placed on the reef to compare how herbivores interacted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-support-corals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a> in the presence of dead coral skeletons versus open areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-skeletons-limits-new-growth">Coral skeletons limits new growth</h2>



“We found that dead coral skeletons prevent herbivores from being able to remove macroalgae, enabling growth and preventing new corals from being able to settle and survive on the reef,” Kopecky explained.&nbsp;



These skeletons might theoretically offer some protection to young coral recruits if they arrived shortly after a bleaching event.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, coral tends to spawn only once a year, whereas algae reproduce continuously, giving seaweed the upper hand in colonizing newly available spaces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-for-resources">Competition for resources</h2>



Macroalgae directly compete with coral for resources like space and light. Algae grow much faster than coral, so when herbivores are unable to control seaweed growth, the algae can quickly overrun the reef.&nbsp;



This prevents new coral from settling, and even shades out existing colonies, making recovery difficult.&nbsp;



Young coral is particularly vulnerable to this competition, and once a reef flips from coral to algae dominance, it is challenging to reverse the process.&nbsp;



The researchers' previous studies have shown how hard it can be to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-coral-reefs-can-bounce-back-in-just-four-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restore</a> coral cover once this shift occurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dramatic-differences-in-reef-recovery">Dramatic differences in reef recovery</h2>



By comparing their experimental results with long-term data from Moorea, the researchers noted dramatic differences in reef recovery following different types of disturbances.&nbsp;



“Coral cover shot up on the reefs after the cyclone, while macroalgae cover went down,” Kopecky said. “After the bleaching event, it was just the opposite.”



These findings fit into the broader concept of ecological memory, which examines how past events shape an ecosystem’s response to current challenges.&nbsp;



As the nature of disturbances shifts, the way ecosystems like coral reefs respond also changes.&nbsp;



“As these disturbance regimes change, ecological memory is also changing,” Kopecky said.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-removing-coral-skeletons-nbsp">Removing coral skeletons&nbsp;</h2>



Unfortunately, the legacy of dead coral skeletons may not align with what these ecosystems are adapted to handle, which could alter long-standing relationships between coral, algae, and herbivores.



Kopecky is now considering whether removing dead skeletons could help coral recover or at least reduce the negative effects of bleaching.&nbsp;



“In coral reefs, this is a novel idea and strategy. But if you look to other ecosystems - like prescribed burns in forests to remove dead wood - people have been increasingly thinking about manipulating dead stuff in ecosystems for management purposes,” he concluded.



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Dead coral skeletons prevent reefs from recovering

The intricate structure of coral reefs creates a vibrant underwater...

Ever been on horseback, feeling the power of the creature below you and the wind in your hair? Of course, it's a bit hard on the body. But did you ever consider that horseback riding might have the power to change the shape of your skeleton?



It's a complex topic, but researchers from the University of Colorado Boulder are diving in headfirst. Their new study draws from a rich evidence - from modern medical studies of horse riders to records of human remains spanning millennia.



What they've found is that, yes, horseback riding can indeed leave traces on our skeletons, subtly changing the shape of our hip joints. But that doesn't mean you can point to a skeleton and definitively say, "Ah, a horse rider!"



We sit for long periods, we engage in various physical activities - all of which can also transform our bones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-horseback-riding">Impact of horseback riding</h2>



This bone-altering revelation comes from Lauren Hosek, an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado Boulder</a>, and the lead author of the study. 



"In archaeology, there are vanishingly few instances in which we can tie a particular activity unequivocally to skeletal changes," said Professor Hosek. 



So, what relevance does this hold? Well, for one, these findings might have major implications for those studying the origins of domesticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-horse-protection-day-respecting-the-needs-and-rights-of-horses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horses</a>. 



In addition, the research is casting some serious doubt on an archaeology theory that's been standing tall for quite a while - the Kurgan hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationships-between-humans-and-horses">Relationships between humans and horses</h2>



According to study co-author William Taylor, curator of archaeology at the CU <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/resources/museum-natural-history" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Museum of Natural History</a>, this research is smack dab in the middle of one of archaeology's oldest debates.



The earliest undeniable evidence of humans using horses for transport comes from the region around Russia's Ural Mountains, where scientists have found horses, bridles, and chariots dating back to around 4,000 years ago.



But here comes the Kurgan hypothesis, saying, "Hold your horses!" This theory, originating in the early 20th century, posits that the close relationship between humans and horses started much earlier. 



It suggests that around the fourth millennium B.C., the Yamnaya people living near the Black Sea were the first to gallop on horses across Eurasia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-impacts-of-horseback-riding">Cultural impacts of horseback riding</h2>



A popular belief is that these early horse riders may have spread early versions of languages that eventually evolved into English, French, and other languages.



“For decades, there’s been this idea that the distribution of Indo-European languages is, in some way, related to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horse-miscarriages-offer-insights-into-human-pregnancy-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domestication of the horse</a>,” said Taylor.



It has also been suggested that human remains from the Yamnaya culture, dating back to about 3500 B.C., show evidence of wear and tear from horse riding - which supports the Kurgan hypothesis.



But Hosek and Taylor are here to reign in the speculation. They argue that it's not so straightforward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-skeletal-changes">Complexity of skeletal changes</h2>



Professor Hosek has spent countless hours scrutinizing human bones to glean lessons about the past. She explains that the skeleton isn't fixed in place, but can change shape throughout an individual's lifetime.



Think about it: you pull a muscle, and where that muscle attaches to the bone, a reaction can occur, making the bone more porous or forming raised ridges. But interpreting these clues is a murky business at best.



For instance, let's talk about the hip joint. When you flex your legs at the hip for long periods - like during an extended horse ride - the hip joint's ball and socket may rub together along one edge.



Over time, this rubbing can cause the hip bone's socket to become more oval. But numerous other activities can result in the same elongation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternatives-to-horseback-riding">Alternatives to horseback riding</h2>



As it happens, humans used cattle, donkeys, and even wild asses for transport in certain areas of western Asia centuries before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/horses-demonstrate-an-unanticipated-level-of-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">horse</a> taming began. 



These ancient people likely attached these animals to carts or even smaller two-wheeled vehicles much like a chariot.



“This repetitive, intense pressure from that kind of jostling in a flexed position could cause skeletal changes,” said Professor Hosek. She has seen similar changes in the skeletons of 20th-century Catholic nuns, who despite never riding horses, took long carriage rides across the American West.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-current-evidence">Limitations of current evidence</h2>



In the end, Hosek and Taylor believe that human remains alone can't provide an exact date for when people started horseback riding - not with the current scientific tools anyway.



“Human skeletons alone are not going to be enough evidence,” said Hosek. “We need to couple that data with evidence coming out of genetics and archaeology and by looking at horse remains, too.”



As for the Kurgan hypothesis, Taylor claims that from their research, "none of these lines of evidence suggest that the Yamnaya people had domestic horses.” 



So, next time you go for a horse ride, remember: you're participating in an activity that's been shaping human history - and our very bones - for millennia. And who knows what scholars will uncover next in this fascinating field?



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.ado9774" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Horseback riding changes human skeletons, especially the hips

Ever been on horseback, feeling the power of the creature...

In the mesmerizing world of mammal evolution, an exciting discovery has emerged from Brazil, shedding new light on our understanding of the evolution of distinct mammalian traits.



Fossils of the mammal-precursor species, Brasilodon quadrangularis and Riograndia guaibensis, provide us with intriguing insights into the formation of the mammalian jaw and middle ear.



The fossils reveal that evolutionary experiments were taking place far earlier than previously theorized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-journey-of-mammal-ancestors">Evolutionary journey of mammal ancestors</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-mystery-why-are-mammals-the-only-vertebrates-to-have-only-one-lower-jawbone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mammals</a> are unique among vertebrates, boasting a distinct jaw structure and the presence of three middle ear bones. Earlier vertebrates only had a single middle ear bone, and scientists have been eager to uncover how this transition occurred.



The labyrinth of history guides us to mammalian ancestors known as cynodonts, revealing how they gradually evolved these unique traits. For the first time, cutting-edge CT scanning technology allowed researchers to digitally reconstruct the jaw joint of these cynodonts.



It became apparent that the connection between the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skull-evolution-why-some-mammals-have-long-faces/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skull</a> and the lower jaw, a widely recognized "mammalian-style" contact, was present in Riograndia guaibensis.



Astoundingly, this species lived a good 17 million years before the previously oldest recorded example of this structure.



But the plot thickens when we turn to another species. In Brasilodon quadrangularis, a species believed to be more closely related to mammals, there was no such contact. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daring-experimentalists-of-evolution">Daring experimentalists of evolution </h2>



The fossil findings paint a picture of our mammal ancestors as the daring experimentalists of evolution.



These animals tested the waters with varying jaw functions, leading to "mammalian" traits which manifested independently in different bloodlines. Thus, the early stages of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feredocodon-chowi-fossils-yield-clues-mammal-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian evolution</a> were far more diverse and intricate than what was previously believed.



James Rawson, the study's lead author based in <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/earthsciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bristol’s School of Earth Sciences</a>, emphasized the significance of this revelation.



"The acquisition of the mammalian jaw contact was a key moment in mammal evolution," said Rawson.



"What these new Brazilian fossils have shown is that different cynodont groups were experimenting with various jaw joint types, and that some features once considered uniquely mammalian evolved numerous times in other lineages as well.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-early-mammal-evolution">Understanding early mammal evolution</h2>



This astounding discovery creates a domino effect of implications for our understanding of the early stages of mammal evolution. 



It illustrates the evolution of features such as the mammalian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-habits-shaped-the-skulls-of-humans-and-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jaw joint</a> and middle ear bones in a patchwork fashion across various cynodont groups.



Dr. Agustín Martinelli, from the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Natural of Buenos Aires, remarked on the treasure trove of knowledge unveiled by these fossils.



“Over the last years, these tiny fossil species from Brazil have brought marvelous information that enriches our knowledge about the origin and evolution of mammalian features. We are just in the beginning and our multinational collaborations will bring more news soon," said Dr. Martinelli.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-south-american-fossil-record">South American fossil record</h2>



Meanwhile, the research team is thrilled to explore the South American fossil record, known for its richness and potential to enhance our understanding.



Professor Marina Soares of the Museu Nacional, Brazil, further emphasized the region's importance: “Nowhere else in the world has such a diverse array of cynodont forms, closely related to the earliest mammals.”



The team aims to integrate these new findings with existing data to explore how the early jaw joints functioned and contributed to the development of the mammalian form.



According to Rawson, the study opens new doors for paleontological research, as these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossils-capture-a-turning-point-in-the-evolution-of-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> provide invaluable evidence of the complex and varied evolutionary experiments that ultimately gave rise to modern mammals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-ancient-ancestors-to-modern-mammals">From ancient ancestors to modern mammals </h2>



The discovery of these fossils opens up new avenues for exploring other fossil records worldwide, allowing scientists to re-examine previous finds with fresh insights.



The story of mammal evolution is now more complex and intricate than ever before, reminding us that evolution is not a straight path but a winding journey full of surprises.



New fossil discoveries are changing our understanding of the transition from ancient ancestors to modern mammals. With continued exploration in Brazil and beyond, the mysteries of our evolutionary past are beginning to unfold in fascinating ways.



The study is published in the journal Nature.



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Mammal evolution kicked off with daring 'experiments'

In the mesmerizing world of mammal evolution, an exciting discovery...

Have you ever sworn under your breath as your flight is delayed or you've been sitting on the runway for ages? Or maybe you have vibrated with unease just thinking about being so high up in the air in a chunk of metal, especially with the thought of a slower flight?



You are not alone, and you may not find comfort in recent research on air travel. Scientists propose that we should all sit a little longer in that seat in the skies for the sake of our planet.



The researchers suggest that aircraft should fly 15% slower to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-hidden-carbon-footprint-of-long-distance-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">curb carbon emissions</a>. This might sound like a recipe for higher anxiety and restless leg syndrome, but, it's for the greater good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slower-flights-longer-travel-time">Slower flights, longer travel time</h2>



Here's how it works -- flying slower could increase transatlantic flight times by 'about 50 minutes', according to the report from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



This reduction in speed can help planes burn about 7% less fuel, and that's a big saving when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-footprints-of-the-wealthy-are-vastly-underestimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon footprint</a>. 



The idea seems to find a nice balance between our nerves, our hectic schedules, and our need to protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survey-mother-nature-is-more-likely-to-solve-climate-change-than-geoengineering/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mother Earth</a>.



This bold plan is part of a report, titled 'Five Years to Chart a New Future for Aviation'. This document lays out three 'bold efficiency measures' designed to reduce the aviation industry's fuel burn. 



Now, let's take a closer look at these three measures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bold-measures-for-a-cleaner-future">Bold measures for a cleaner future</h2>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Accelerated replacement: The report suggests increasing aircraft production to cut the average age of the fleet in half. That's one way to have a mid-life crisis.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Fly slower: As we've already discussed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flying-has-never-been-safer-and-continues-to-improve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reducing flight speed</a> can increase our in-flight time.</li>
</ul>



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Match range: More aircraft should operate closer to their design range by introducing new types of aircraft and tweaking purchasing and operating practices.</li>
</ul>



<ol class="wp-block-list"></ol>



These aren't just hot air proposals. The report goes on to explain that conventional measures such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-airplanes-are-worse-for-the-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new aircraft and engine technologies</a> and operational efficiency can lead to up to a 22% reduction in fuel burn by 2050. 



But, several daring efficiency measures that are currently out of reach could reduce fuel burn by up to 50% by 2050. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-the-catch">What's the catch?</h2>



Well, the first bold measure involves accelerated fleet replacement, aiming to cut the aircraft retirement age from 30 to 15 years by 2050. 



According to our Cambridge experts, this change alone could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-and-machine-learning-enhance-airplane-performance-and-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cut back on fuel burn</a> by around 14%.



The slower flying speed already discussed could reduce fuel burn by roughly 7%. But here is the kicker -- the scientists understand this might not be so popular among passengers.



"One drawback of reducing speed is the potential negative impact on airline productivity and passenger acceptance, especially for longer flights," they warn. 



Even the smartest minds know that passengers aren't going to be thrilled about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-caused-more-severe-turbulence-on-airplanes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">longer flights</a>, but they remind us that this change could potentially mean less time spent twiddling thumbs at the airport.



The third measure involves ensuring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revolutionizing-aerodynamics-airplane-emissions-ai-deep-learning-tool/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more aircraft</a> are flown close to their designed range, which could knock down fuel burn by another 7%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-passenger-concerns-on-slower-flights">Passenger concerns on slower flights</h2>



While the proposed strategies promise significant environmental benefits, they also invite a host of passenger concerns that must be thoughtfully navigated. 



The potential inconvenience of extended flight durations might be mitigated by enhanced in-flight experiences.



Airlines could invest in diversifying entertainment options or improving seating comfort to ensure passengers enjoy their journeys. 



Regular communication about the environmental impact of these measures could promote a sense of participation in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-aircraft-batteries-pushing-the-boundaries-of-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global sustainability efforts</a> among travelers. 



Ultimately, bridging the gap between passenger expectations and sustainable aviation practices requires innovative approaches that prioritize both comfort and conscientiousness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As the world grapples with the urgent need to address climate change, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aviations-contribution-to-climate-change-is-expected-to-intensify/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aviation industry</a> stands at a critical juncture to redefine its future. 



The bold measures outlined in the Cambridge report present a compelling case for transformative action within the sector.



However, achieving these goals requires concerted collaboration among aviation stakeholders, policymakers, and innovators. 



Investments in research and development, policy incentives, and public awareness campaigns will be crucial in overcoming technical and societal barriers.



By embracing the potential of these efficiency measures, the aviation industry can lead the way toward a cleaner, more sustainable future that aligns with global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/travelers-are-ready-for-more-affordable-eco-friendly-options/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental stewardship goals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fear-of-flying">Fear of flying</h2>



The idea of slower and longer flights might not sit well with those of us who get anxious about air travel. Known as aerophobia, this fear affects about one in 10 people.



According to <a href="https://www.anxietyuk.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anxiety UK</a>, the fear of flying can be linked to a fear of airplanes themselves or could be part of other psychological problems such as panic attacks, claustrophobia, or post-traumatic stress disorder.



The report is published in <a href="https://report.aiazero.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aviation Impact Accelerator</a>.



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Airline flights may be slowed down intentionally to fight climate change

Have you ever sworn under your breath as your flight...

Near the curve of Chile's shoreline, in regions of the ocean teeming with krill and anchovy, lies a world inhabited by a relatively obscure population of orcas.



Here, right under the Humboldt Current's life-giving hum, scientists are unraveling the mysteries of these magnificent beasts, starting with their gastronomic indulgences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orcas-hunting-dolphins">Orcas hunting dolphins</h2>



Dr. Ana Garcia Cegarra's team from <a href="https://www.uantof.cl" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad de Antofagasta</a> had previously observed these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orcas-rely-only-on-one-breath-between-dives-to-conserve-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a> ingeniously exploiting fishing vessels to ensnare sea lions. The researchers have now recorded them successfully hunting dusky dolphins.



What's more, the food is shared among the pod - a testament to their social camaraderie. These fresh revelations could give us valuable insight into the relation between different orca populations in the southern hemisphere.



“Studying orcas in their natural environment is very challenging as they are marine top predators, traveling long distances and living offshore, which makes observation difficult,” said Cegarra.



“But understanding their role in the marine environment is crucial for the conservation of this poorly-known species in the Humboldt Current.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-habits-of-orcas">Dietary habits of orcas</h2>



Orcas, often regarded as apex predators, boast an incredibly varied diet. However, not all orca populations share the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culinary preferences</a>. They can be segmented into different ecotypes depending upon their food choices, acoustics, and genetics. 



Hence, comprehending the dietary habits of the orcas in the Humboldt Current is a crucial step toward understanding their niche within the global orca community.



Five diverse ecotypes have been identified in the southern hemisphere. While some, like Type A and Type B1 orcas, are partial towards marine mammals, others favor fish.



Figuring out where the Humboldt Current orcas fit in this intricate food web is key to understanding the broader relations between these populations and, in turn, preserving them for the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-patterns-of-orcas">Hunting patterns of orcas</h2>



In order to monitor the population and track their food choices, Dr. Garcia Cegarra and her associates utilized their own surveys as well as data collected from whale-watching trips and fishing vessels.



Orcas sightings were documented, and group compositions and locations were recorded. Pictures and video footage captured on the scene were later cross-checked with catalogues of known individuals.



This data, in combination with regular surveys and drone footage, allowed the scientists to map the presence of orcas in the area and track the pods' <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mothers-care-linked-to-the-evolution-of-longer-lifespans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavioral patterns</a> and prey preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-menacho-pod-of-orcas">Menacho pod of orcas</h2>



The researchers managed to record the Menacho pod of orcas hunting dusky dolphins - a feat previously unreported for orcas in the region. The images are nothing short of dramatic. They show Dakota, the matriarch, flinging a dusky dolphin into the air.



These sightings hint at the possibility of the orcas belonging to the mammal-hunting Type A ecotype. Their choice of prey and comparatively smaller pod size align well with this hypothesis, although their white eye patches are smaller than the typical Type A orcas.



Furthermore, these orcas have never been spotted in Patagonia, the typical haunt of Type A orcas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orcas-on-a-dolphin-hunt">Orcas on a dolphin hunt</h2>



Of course, all these findings only highlight the need for more research. Dr. Garcia Cegarra said that while the team wishes they could retrieve skin biopsy samples to conduct genetic analysis, the fact that these orcas are elusive and highly intelligent makes it difficult to approach them for biopsies.



What's more, the observations of the dolphin hunt revealed the Menacho pod sharing their spoils - a display of food sharing common among many orca populations. 



The Menacho orcas likely feed their kin, similar to Type A orcas who hunt sea lions through deliberate stranding. Female orcas have been observed sharing meat with group members, allowing closer relations to eat first.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Dr. Garcia Cegarra emphasized the need for more systematic study to fully understand and protect this secretive orca <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-sea-lizard-khinjaria-had-teeth-like-daggers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.



"We have observed newborn calves, which indicates that they are having offspring, but their survival rate remains unknown," she noted. 



Citizen scientists have monitored killer whales along thousands of kilometers of the Chilean coastline, but these sightings are largely opportunistic.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2024.1450624/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Orcas have hunting and eating habits that we never imagined

Near the curve of Chile's shoreline, in regions of the...

Imagine listening to your favorite song and seeing bursts of color with each note. Or think of a number that tastes like your favorite candy. For individuals with synesthesia, these experiences are not mere flights of fantasy, but their everyday reality.



They inhabit a sensory wonderland where sight meets sound, taste intertwines with touch, and their brain functions as a gifted maestro, skillfully orchestrating this magnificent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-can-change-the-colors-we-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">symphony of senses</a>.



Each moment becomes an intricate tapestry woven from the threads of their heightened perceptions, allowing them to experience the world in ways that most can only dream of.



Colors resonate with sounds, flavors burst into visual patterns, and the beauty of life unfolds in a brilliant kaleidoscope of sensations that enriches their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-digital-technology-influence-our-sense-of-self/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding of existence</a> itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-size-of-synesthesia-does-not-fit-all">One size of synesthesia does not fit all</h2>



Synesthesia, unlike most conditions, is charmingly varied. Synesthesia isn’t a one-size-fits-all condition. It <a href="https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/symptoms/24995-synesthesia" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comes in various forms</a>, each with its own intriguing twist:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Grapheme-Color Synesthesia: Ever noticed letters or numbers seem to carry specific colors? For instance, the letter "A" might always appear red to you. </li>



<li>Chromesthesia: This type links sounds to colors. A particular musical note or voice might evoke shades like blue or green. </li>



<li>Lexical-Gustatory Synesthesia: Words or sounds trigger taste sensations. Hearing someone’s name could make you taste chocolate. </li>



<li>Spatial Sequence Synesthesia: Numbers, dates, or sequences form visual patterns in your mind’s eye, like seeing months arranged in a circular layout around you. </li>



<li>Mirror-Touch Synesthesia: Feeling a similar sensation on your body when you see someone else being touched.</li>
</ul>



Each form offers a different lens through which synesthetes experience the world, making their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory interactions</a> uniquely personal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exactly-how-does-it-work">Exactly how does it work?</h2>



Where does this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emotions-sensory-perception-brain-fascinating-interplay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory magic</a> come from? After all, most of us, the 'neurotypical' majority, live in a world where the senses operate independently.



Scientists think synesthesia happens because of extra connections between different areas of the brain, showcasing its amazing plasticity and adaptability. 



These additional neural links let one type of sensory input, like sound or color, trigger another, leading to the fascinating experiences that synesthetes often talk about.



Genetics also play a big role in synesthesia, as this interesting condition tends to run in families, hinting at a hereditary aspect. 



Research shows that people with synesthesia often have family members who also experience it, suggesting that genetic factors might help shape its development.



Plus, advanced studies using brain imaging techniques have found that people with synesthesia have structural differences in various brain regions that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-perception-speed-varies-greatly-among-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">process sensory info</a>. 



These differences might include variations in the density of neural pathways or the size of certain brain areas, helping to explain why their brains create these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-perception-we-see-the-world-based-on-what-we-expect-to-see/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique sensory experiences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synesthesia-as-a-blessing-and-a-curse">Synesthesia as a blessing and a curse</h2>



For many people with synesthesia, it’s not just a quirky condition -- it’s a fantastic source of creativity and better memory. 



Artists, musicians, and writers often find inspiration in their synesthetic experiences, using their unique perceptions to create rich and multidimensional work. 



Picture a musician who sees colors while composing tunes or a painter who hears sounds as vibrant shades. These mixed senses can lead to art that connects on multiple levels, providing a depth that others might miss.



But living with synesthesia can be a bit tricky sometimes. Some folks feel overwhelmed by their perceptions, especially in busy, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-nose-perceives-the-scent-that-lingers-after-rain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory-filled environments</a>. 



Balancing these heightened experiences can be tough, affecting how synesthetes go about their daily lives. Still, many embrace their unique way of seeing the world, finding strength and inspiration in their sensory connections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-well-known-people-with-synesthesia">Well known people with synesthesia</h2>



Several beloved figures from history have worn their synesthetic experiences proudly.



Renowned author Vladimir Nabokov associated each alphabet and numeral with a unique hue that ultimately seeped into his evocative literary descriptions.



The abstract artist Wassily Kandinsky had a colorful symphony playing in his mind, which found expression in his rhythm-filled paintings.



Today, musician Pharrell Williams blends colors and sounds to create his exuberant music.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-common-is-it">How common is it?</h2>



Synesthesia affects around 4% of people, but that number could actually be higher since some experiences are pretty subtle and might go unnoticed. 



It shows up in all genders and cultures, though certain types may pop up more in specific groups.



There’s such a wide variety of synesthetic experiences that while some are famous, others are still pretty rare and not as well understood. 



This variety really highlights how complex synesthesia is and how important it is to keep researching its many aspects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-the-synesthetic-life">Living the synesthetic life</h2>



Synesthetes experience a range of reactions towards their condition, some embrace it while others grapple with it. 



For those who experience it, synesthesia shapes normal daily life in both good and bad ways. 



It boosts creativity and memory, helping synesthetes shine in art and intellectual pursuits. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aphantasia-research-results-people-who-cant-visualize-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unique way of experiencing the world</a> makes learning and creating more vivid and fun.



On the flip side, having senses constantly interacting can feel a bit overwhelming, especially in busy or noisy places. 



Many synesthetes find ways to manage sensory overload, balancing their heightened experiences with everyday demands. 



This balance affects how they connect with the world, influencing everything from personal relationships to work life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-synesthesia-teaches-us">What synesthesia teaches us</h2>



To sum it all up, synesthesia and synesthetes give us a rare glimpse into the brain’s amazing ability to connect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasomnia-awake-dream-exploring-sleepwalking-deep-mind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different sensory inputs</a>, showing us that there is no single way to perceive reality. The synesthetic blending of senses can help us understand how our own brain interprets the world.



In addition, studying synesthesia gives us a peek into the incredible world of sensory fusion. It helps us appreciate the diversity of human perception and the nuanced neurological choreography that shapes our reality.



Irrespective of whether you are a synesthete or just fascinated by the human mind, synesthesia reminds us of the richness and complexity of our sensory experiences.



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Synesthesia: How some people taste words and see music in color

Imagine listening to your favorite song and seeing bursts of...

Imagine a gusty wind, not just any wind, but a solar wind. It's a constant flow of charged particles, primarily electrons and protons, that the Sun continuously spews into space. This wind, originating from our Sun's corona, travels in every direction, extending way past the orbit of our very own Earth.



The solar wind shapes the environment of our entire solar system as it influences the atmospheres of all planets and contributes to the formation of things like comet tails. 



It plays a crucial role in shaping the magnetic landscapes of planets and celestial bodies by carrying the Sun’s magnetic field through space.



Daniel Müller, the <a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Solar_Orbiter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar Orbiter</a> Project Scientist from ESA, is one of the experts on the job of studying this enigmatic solar wind. The solar wind, as you'll soon find out, has a significant impact on us here on Earth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geomagnetic-storms-and-pretty-lights">Geomagnetic storms and pretty lights</h2>



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-solar-wind-directly-to-its-source-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solar wind</a> interacts with the Earth's magnetic field creating geomagnetic storms that have the potential to impact satellite operations, communication systems, and even our power grids. 



These same interactions also paint the skies near the polar regions with brilliant, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/steve-phenomenon-looks-like-an-aurora-acts-like-an-aurora-but-what-is-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colorful auroras</a> which have left onlookers awestruck throughout history.



Enter high-tech space missions like NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/parker-solar-probe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parker Solar Probe</a> and ESA’s Solar Orbiter, which collect detailed data on the speed, density, and composition of the intriguing solar wind. 



Understanding the solar wind helps scientists predict these types of space weather events, alerting the public and dampening their effects on our technology-centric lifestyle. It also gives us a glimpse into the processes driving our Sun.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-corona-acts-as-the-sun-s-crown">The corona acts as the Sun's crown</h2>



The Sun’s corona, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-the-suns-corona-hotter-than-its-surface/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forming the outermost layer</a> of the big ball of energy's atmosphere, extends onto millions of kilometers into space. 



Compared to the Sun's surface, the photosphere with temperatures around 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit, the corona's temperatures exceed a million degrees.



This mystery of the drastic rise in temperature in this remote layer of the Sun piques the curiosity of our scientists. 



The corona, made up typically of ionized gases known as plasma, is shaped continually by the Sun's ever-changing magnetic fields. 



These magnetic structures create complex patterns, giving birth to phenomena like solar flares and coronal mass ejections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-of-the-trade">Tools of the trade</h2>



Studying the Sun's corona is made possible through specialized instruments like coronagraphs, which block out the bright light of the Sun's surface to reveal the faint corona. 



Solar eclipses also offer natural opportunities to observe the corona directly.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-powers-the-suns-supersonic-solar-wind/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Data from the Solar Orbiter</a> spacecraft, equipped with the Metis coronagraph, show that small disturbances within the corona grow as they move outward, leading to turbulent flow in space. 



This turbulence, interestingly, begins in the corona, confirming long-held suspicions among scientists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turbulence-and-the-sun-s-corona">Turbulence and the Sun's corona</h2>



Turbulence in the solar wind affects how it is heated and how it travels through the solar system. It also influences how it interacts with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/earths-magnetic-field-origin-structure-and-impact-on-humanity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic fields</a> of planets and moons.



Daniel Müller describes that this new analysis provides the first-ever evidence for the onset of fully developed turbulence in the Sun’s corona. 



Solar Orbiter’s Metis coronagraph was able to detect it very close to the Sun, closer than any spacecraft could approach the Sun and make local measurements.



The Solar Orbiter mission, on October 12, 2022, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/see-the-sun-in-exquisite-detail-in-rare-solar-orbiter-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">captured detailed images</a> of the corona from about 27 million miles away -- less than a third of the distance between the Sun and Earth. 



The Metis blocked direct sunlight and observed the fainter visible and ultraviolet light from the corona, providing clear images of its structure and dynamics.



The understanding of solar wind turbulence is crucial for predicting space weather, which can affect our satellites, communication systems, and power grids. 



Turbulent solar wind can influence the strength and direction of space weather events, helping scientists better forecast their potential impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-data-captured-on-video">Dynamic data captured on video</h2>



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3jpfe5CoC5-3877796-12187" type="single"]</div>



In the above video captured by Metis, the Sun appears in the center with a ring of data around it showing variations in the corona’s brightness.



These variations indicate a change in the density of charged particles, demonstrating the turbulent movement of solar wind particles. 



The video, which loops three times, shows how these particles behave in a jumbled manner as they leave the Sun. It was created by the European Space Agency (<a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>).



"Metis observation of the onset of fully developed turbulence in the solar corona" by Daniele Telloni et al. was published today in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ad5a8c" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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Severe turbulence inside the Sun’s corona captured on video

Imagine a gusty wind, not just any wind, but a...

In an unprecedented achievement, experts at Kyushu University have presented an easily understandable numerical target in order to tackle marine plastic pollution around the world.&nbsp;



With ocean current maps that record the flow and fate of plastic litter, the research team quantified the needed prevention of marine ecosystems from future damage: at least a 32% reduction in plastic littering by 2035.



Marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-plastic-pollution-has-become-a-global-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastic pollution</a> has attained the status of a global problem, and this situation is likely to deteriorate further in the absence of significant interventions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-ocean-plastic-pollution-nbsp">Monitoring ocean plastic pollution&nbsp;</h2>



For years, Professor Atsuhiko Isobe from Kyushu University’s <a href="https://www.riam.kyushu-u.ac.jp/en/index-e.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Institute for Applied Mechanics</a> has been monitoring and tracking plastic pollution in the ocean. 



In 2022, the team reported that an estimated 25.3 million metric tons of plastic waste had already entered the oceans, and nearly two-thirds of that amount cannot be tracked.



“My research focuses on tracking where plastic waste goes after being released into water sources such as rivers and oceans. We use computer models to track how plastics move and break down over time,” explained lead author Chisa Higuchi, a postdoctoral fellow in Isobe's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microplastics-will-continue-to-rise">Microplastics will continue to rise</h2>



Plastic waste remains in the environment for extended periods, gradually breaking down into smaller particles.&nbsp;



While larger plastics can be collected and removed more easily, they eventually degrade into particles smaller than 5 mm, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-infiltrating-the-human-body-even-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microplastics</a>, which are far more challenging to retrieve. 



These microplastics are particularly concerning because they are more likely to be ingested by marine life. Even if plastic littering stopped today, the amount of microplastics in the oceans would continue to rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-halting-marine-plastic-pollution-nbsp">Halting marine plastic pollution&nbsp;</h2>



At the 2019 G20 Osaka Summit, global leaders introduced the Osaka Blue Ocean Vision, with the aim of halting the increase in marine plastic pollution by 2050. This initiative focuses on improving waste management strategies through international collaboration.



“We wanted to figure out what would be the ideal scenario for the Osaka Blue Ocean Vision to succeed. So, we utilized computational modeling along with fieldwork studies to understand where and how plastics flow into the oceans,” Higuchi explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-projecting-plastic-emission-routes">Projecting plastic emission routes</h2>



The researchers studied how long different types of plastics take to break down and collected data from plastic emission routes, including rivers and other sources that transport waste into the ocean.



“What we came up with are something akin to weather forecast maps, but instead of showing when and where it will rain, these maps show different scenarios on when and where plastics will end up,” Higuchi said.



Their projections suggest that reducing the amount of plastic entering the oceans by 32%, or around 8.1 million tons, by 2035 could lead to more than a 50% reduction in ocean plastic by 2050.&nbsp;



The impact is even more significant in heavily polluted areas such as the Yellow and East China Seas, where plastic waste could be reduced by up to 63% according to their models.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stopping-new-waste-from-entering-oceans">Stopping new waste from entering oceans</h2>



“Not only does this give the Osaka Blue Ocean Vision concrete targets, but it also gives governments and businesses metric goals,” said Higuchi. “Naturally, we need to go beyond cleaning existing pollution; we must cut new plastic waste entering our oceans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-plastic-pollution-lurks-beneath-the-surface-of-rivers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>.”



According to Isobe, this target is attainable if we use strategies like improving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-highlights-desperate-need-for-electronic-waste-management/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waste management</a>, promoting reusable alternatives to single-use plastics, and enhancing public awareness.



“Many people can be pessimistic when hearing about the ongoing plastic waste problem in our lives. But I remain optimistic that we can find our way out of this predicament,” said Isobe.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-fisheries">The role of fisheries</h2>



The researchers noted that plastic emissions from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-oceans-fisheries-fish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fisheries</a>, which were not included in this study, are also a major concern for marine pollution. 



The experts emphasized that the 32 % reduction scenario is only based on land-based mismanaged plastics, so different reduction scenarios are needed for fisheries.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-ocean-plastic-from-rivers">Reducing ocean plastic from rivers</h2>



“Among all the concerns, plastic waste management should be prioritized. Reducing the emissions of macroplastic waste from rivers into the ocean is the most important solution that humans can manage,” the researchers concluded.&nbsp;



“We must note that ocean plastics have inertia, so microplastics will continue to increase even if we suddenly stop increasing land-based plastic emissions because of the legacy plastics accumulated on land.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116791" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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Is it still possible to save the ocean from plastic pollution?

In an unprecedented achievement, experts at Kyushu University have presented...

Experts at UCLA Health have begun to uncover one of the fundamental mysteries in neuroscience - how the human brain encodes and interprets the flow of time and experiences.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-cell-activity-reflects-experiences-nbsp">Brain cell activity reflects experiences&nbsp;</h2>



The experts directly recorded the activity of individual neurons in humans and revealed that specific brain cells fire in a way that reflects the order and structure of a person’s experiences.&nbsp;



Notably, the brain retains these firing patterns after the experience has ended and can rapidly replay them during periods of rest.&nbsp;



The brain also utilizes these learned patterns to prepare for future stimuli, offering the first empirical evidence of how brain cells integrate “what” and “when” information to retain representations of experiences over <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-and-adults-perceive-time-differently/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">time</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognition-in-the-human-brain">Cognition in the human brain</h2>



Dr. Itzhak Fried, the study's senior author, noted that these findings could be pivotal in developing neuro-prosthetic devices designed to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgetting-things-is-a-natural-part-of-the-memory-process/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> and other cognitive functions. 



The study's results may also provide insights into artificial intelligence’s understanding of cognition in the human brain.



“Recognizing patterns from experiences over time is crucial for the human brain to form memory, predict potential future outcomes and guide behaviors,” said Fried, director of epilepsy surgery at <a href="https://www.uclahealth.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA Health</a>.



“But how this process is carried out in the brain at the cellular level has remained unknown – until now.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-map-in-the-brain">Cognitive map in the brain</h2>



Previous research, including work by Fried, used brain recordings and neuroimaging to explore how the brain processes <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-smell-spatial-navigation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spatial navigation</a>.



The studies showed that two regions of the brain - the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex - play key roles. These areas, both critical for memory, work together to create a “cognitive map.” 



Hippocampal neurons function as “place cells,” marking specific locations like an 'X' on a map, while entorhinal neurons act as “grid cells,” measuring spatial distances. Initially discovered in rodents, these cells were later found to also exist in humans.



Further studies have demonstrated that similar neural processes are involved in representing non-spatial experiences such as time, sound frequency, and object characteristics.&nbsp;



One of Fried’s seminal findings was the discovery of “concept cells” in the human hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, which respond to specific individuals, places, or distinct objects and are essential for memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-the-brain-processes-experiences-nbsp">Studying how the brain processes experiences&nbsp;</h2>



To study how the brain processes experiences over time, the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA</a> team recruited 17 participants with intractable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-reduces-epileptic-seizures-by-86-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epilepsy</a>, all of whom had depth electrodes implanted in their brains for clinical treatment.



The researchers recorded the neural activity of these participants as they performed tasks involving pattern recognition and image sequencing.&nbsp;



The experiment began with an initial screening phase where about 120 images of people, animals, objects, and landmarks were shown repeatedly over a 40-minute period.&nbsp;



Participants were instructed to complete various tasks, such as determining whether an image showed a person. The images included famous actors, musicians, and places, based partly on the participants’ preferences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modifications-in-neural-activity">Modifications in neural activity</h2>



The main experiment involved three phases, during which six images were displayed in random or structured order across a pyramid-shaped graph.&nbsp;



Participants were tasked with behavioral responses unrelated to image positioning, such as identifying whether an image showed a male or female or if the image was mirrored from previous phases.



In their analysis, Fried and his team found that hippocampal-entorhinal neurons began to modify their activity in alignment with the image sequence on the pyramid graph.&nbsp;



Remarkably, these patterns formed without any direct instruction to the participants. The neuronal patterns also reflected the likelihood of upcoming stimuli and remained encoded even after the tasks were completed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-representing-space-and-time">Representing space and time</h2>



“This study shows us for the first time how the brain uses analogous mechanisms to represent what are seemingly very different types of information: space and time,” said Fried.&nbsp;



“We have demonstrated at the neuronal level how these representations of object trajectories in time are incorporated by the human hippocampal-entorhinal system.”



These findings provide an unprecedented glimpse into how the brain processes the flow of time, potentially opening doors to new research in memory and cognition.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07973-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How does the brain process experiences over time?

Experts at UCLA Health have begun to uncover one of...

Phytoplankton, the microscopic flora that drive nearly half of the world's primary production, are thriving in an "invisible forest" beneath the surface of our warming oceans.



These tiny organisms, responsible for converting sunlight into living cells through photosynthesis, are now revealing crucial insights into some of today’s most pressing environmental concerns, such as ocean acidification, biodiversity loss, and disruptions to the global carbon cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-phytoplankton-s-response-to-climate-variability">Phytoplankton’s response to climate variability</h2>



Researchers from the University of Exeter have explored the behavior of phytoplankton within the ocean's surface and the unique subsurface layer, while investigating the potential impacts of climate variability on these lifeforms.



According to the study, recently published in the journal Nature Climate Change, phytoplankton in surface and subsurface communities are responding to environmental variations in different ways.



Dr. Johannes Viljoen from Exeter's <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/about/cornwall/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penryn Campus</a> in Cornwall emphasized the importance of understanding these trends.



"Phytoplankton are the foundation of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-restructures-marine-food-webs-in-unexpected-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine food web</a>, and play a key role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/removing-carbon-dioxide-from-seawater/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">removing carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere," said Dr. Viljoen.



"Deep-living phytoplankton, which thrive in low-light conditions, respond differently to ocean warming and climate variability compared to surface phytoplankton."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-subsurface-phytoplankton-growth">Subsurface phytoplankton growth</h2>



Significant increases in the total "biomass" of subsurface phytoplankton have been observed over the past decade, an adjustment believed to be a response to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-threatens-the-oceans-most-diverse-regions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceanic warming</a>. 



In contrast, the surface phytoplankton's chlorophyll concentration (responsible for their green hue) has decreased, though the total biomass remains steady.



The analysis of 33 years of data from the Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS) in the Sargasso Sea reveals a notable trend: the depth of the "surface mixed-layer" has become shallower due to rapid ocean warming.



"Our study highlights the limitations of satellite observations and underscores the urgent need for improved global monitoring of phytoplankton below what satellites can see," said Dr. Viljoen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vital-role-of-phytoplankton">The vital role of phytoplankton </h2>



Dr. Bob Brewin, a co-author of the study, explained the broader implications of the research.



"Changes at the base of the food web can have cascading effects on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>, from tiny zooplankton to large fish and marine mammals. So the future of phytoplankton will have major implications for biodiversity, as well as climate change."



According to Dr. Viljoen, continued monitoring of these deep-living phytoplankton will help scientists better understand ongoing changes in the ocean that might otherwise go unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changes-in-the-distribution-of-phytoplankton">Changes in the distribution of phytoplankton </h2>



While satellite observations regularly provide valuable information about surface phytoplankton, they cannot detect the hidden subsurface community. 



This revelation stresses the limitations of current monitoring technologies and calls for enhanced global tracking of underwater phytoplankton.



"Marine phytoplankton are photosynthetic, single-celled microscopic organisms that form the base of the marine food-web," wrote the researchers. "They are essential in the regulation of global ocean biogeochemical cycles and climate."



"Physical and chemical changes in the ocean are modifying the distribution, phenology, abundance and composition of phytoplankton, impacting higher trophic levels and biological carbon export."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-implications-for-marine-ecosystems">Future implications for marine ecosystems </h2>



As ocean temperatures continue to rise, understanding how different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-help-predict-ocean-biodiversity-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton communities</a> adapt will be crucial for predicting shifts in the marine food web.



"Considering the relevance of subsurface communities, it is essential to improve our understanding of how phytoplankton vertical structure may be impacted by upper-ocean warming and stratification as a result of climate variability," noted the study authors. 



Changes at the base of the food chain can trigger cascading effects, influencing everything from the smallest zooplankton to larger marine mammals and fish populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-mitigation-efforts">Climate mitigation efforts</h2>



Moreover, the ability of phytoplankton to absorb and sequester carbon dioxide has significant consequences for future climate change mitigation efforts. 



If phytoplankton communities are disrupted by warming seas, the ocean’s capacity to act as a carbon sink may diminish, exacerbating atmospheric carbon levels.



To address these challenges, scientists are calling for enhanced monitoring systems that go beyond surface-level observations, using more sophisticated technologies to track subsurface phytoplankton populations. 



This approach will provide deeper insights into how these organisms are responding to rapid environmental changes, offering valuable data for future conservation and climate strategies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-024-02136-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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'Invisible forest' of phytoplankton thrives in a warming climate

Phytoplankton, the microscopic flora that drive nearly half of the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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