Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A groundbreaking study led by the <a href="https://www.sussex.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sussex</a> reveals how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-intelligence-earth-data/">artificial intelligence</a> (AI) and social media are becoming invaluable tools in detecting threats to wildlife around the world. 



The research team employed AI to sift through online data from various platforms including Facebook, X/Twitter, Google, and Bing, to unveil the global scope of hunting and trade threats facing bats.



The study sheds light on the power of social media and online news, contributed by both journalists and the public. These platforms enhance our comprehension of wildlife threats on a global scale, thereby steering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conservation-efforts-are-not-enough-to-save-antarctic-wildlife/">conservation efforts</a> in new directions. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bat-exploitation-for-hunting-and-trade-nbsp">Bat exploitation for hunting and trade&nbsp;</h2>



The Sussex researchers pinpointed 22 countries previously unrecognized by conventional academic studies as participants in bat exploitation for hunting and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-trade-threatens-the-most-evolutionarily-and-functionally-distinct-animals/">trade</a>. 



Notably, countries like Bahrain, Spain, Sri Lanka, New Zealand, and Singapore were identified, with Singapore having the highest number of new records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-large-scale-searches-for-bat-exploitation-nbsp">Large-scale searches for bat exploitation&nbsp;</h2>



By developing an automated system, the team was able to execute large-scale searches across several platforms efficiently.&nbsp;



AI technology played a crucial role in filtering through tens of thousands of results to isolate pertinent data, compiling a comprehensive global database of "bat exploitation records" from observed or anecdotal evidence.



The comparison of these online records with traditional academic findings highlighted the influence of global events and internet accessibility on the information shared online regarding bat threats.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-up-to-date-with-current-wildlife-threats-nbsp">Keeping up to date with current wildlife threats&nbsp;</h2>



"Using data sources like this provides a low-cost way to help us understand threats to wildlife globally," said lead author Bronwen Hunter, a PhD student in conservation and data science at Sussex.



"AI allowed us to access the data at scale and complete a global analysis, which isn’t something we would have been able to achieve using traditional field studies."&nbsp;



“Another benefit of using online data combined with automated data filtering is that more information can be obtained in real-time, ensuring that we can keep up to date with current threats.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-threats-to-bats">Mitigating threats to bats</h2>



Highlighting the critical role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-play-an-active-role-in-plant-pollination/">bats</a> in ecosystems as pollinators, seed dispersers, and pest controllers, the study emphasizes the urgency of understanding and mitigating threats to these mammals.&nbsp;



Despite making up about a fifth of all mammal species globally, over half of bat species are classified as "threatened with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-winter-dinosaurs-were-likely-killed-by-dust/">extinction</a>" or "data deficient."



The slow reproductive rates and long lifespans of bats, often spanning 10-30 years, render them susceptible to pressures akin to those faced by larger mammals.



Study senior author Fiona Mathews, a professor of environmental biology at Sussex, expressed concern over bat hunting and trade, especially during the Covid pandemic, and the importance of identifying exploitation hotspots.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vital-evidence-from-the-internet-nbsp">Vital evidence from the internet&nbsp;</h2>



“The hunting and sale of bats for meat was highlighted during the Covid pandemic. But there is also a worrying trade of bats as curios or medicines," said Mathews.



"It is vital that we understand where bat exploitation is happening, and this has been very difficult historically because it often happens in remote places, and illicit trade can be hidden. This research shows that posts on the internet and social media can provide vital evidence, that can now be followed up on the ground.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-conservation-strategies-nbsp">Future conservation strategies&nbsp;</h2>



The experts advocate for the integration of social media and online platform contributions into future conservation strategies, offering a more holistic view of bat exploitation and other wildlife threats.&nbsp;



“Unsustainable wildlife trade can pose a threat to bat species being hunted or harvested. Often, species are sold much further afield from where they are found. This trade can undermine bat conservation directly and pose a wider threat in terms of increasing the risk of zoonosis," said Kit Stoner, the CEO of the <a href="https://www.bats.org.uk/">Bat Conservation Trust</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"We welcome the results of this research in providing a possible new low-cost way of detecting trade in bats which could offer a way of monitoring how this wildlife trade operates and examining ways of disrupting it."&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14242" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



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Wildlife threats can be identified using AI technology

A groundbreaking study led by the University of Sussex reveals...

For those struggling with the aftermath of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-life-stress-alters-brain-genes-more-than-a-head-injury/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trauma</a>, fear lingers as a constant companion, even in stress-free situations. But why does our brain, meant to keep us safe, sometimes turn against us? 



New research from the <a href="https://ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, San Diego</a> sheds light on how our brains can sometimes rewire themselves to feel fear without real threats, leading to mental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-response-to-stress">Brains response to stress</h2>



"Our results provide important insights into the mechanisms involved in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fear-and-anxiety-share-a-common-network-in-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fear</a> generalization," said Professor Nick Spitzer from UC San Diego's Department of Neurobiology.



To understand how stress leads to fear, the scientists conducted experiments on mice. They focused on a specific part of the brain that is involved in fear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fear-in-stressed-mice-and-humans">Fear in stressed mice and humans</h2>



When we experience intense stress, something unexpected happens inside our brains. In a specific area known as the dorsal raphe, the way our brain cells (neurons) talk to each other changes dramatically.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embracing-stress-mindset-is-actually-a-good-thing-for-athletes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Normally</a>, these cells use certain chemicals, called neurotransmitters, to send messages. One of these neurotransmitters, glutamate, typically tells other brain cells to become more active. However, after intense stress, the brain starts using a different neurotransmitter called GABA instead.



GABA has the opposite effect; it tells brain cells to become less active. The shift from excitatory signals to inhibitory signals causes our brain to overreact, leading to feelings of fear or anxiety that persist long after the stressful event has passed.



The discovery isn't just about mice. Examining the brains of individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-drug-mdma-shows-promise-for-reducing-post-traumatic-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PTSD</a>), the researchers found the same glutamate-to-GABA switch. This means the change in brain chemistry that creates pervasive fear in animals is likely the same in humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stopping-the-cycle-of-fear-and-stress">Stopping the cycle of fear and stress</h2>



The scientists didn't just find where the fear switch occurs – they also traced the connections of these cells to other brain areas known as the central amygdala and lateral hypothalamus. These regions are already linked to the creation of fearful reactions, adding further pieces to the puzzle.



So, can we stop this switch and prevent generalized fear? The scientists took an innovative approach using mice. They injected a special virus into the dorsal raphe region to suppress the gene responsible for making GABA. 



Surprisingly, this simple procedure prevented the mice from developing generalized fear after a stressful event. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-antidepressants">Role of antidepressants</h2>



Furthermore, the researchers tested the common antidepressant fluoxetine (Prozac) as a way to stop the transmitter switch. Remarkably, when given to mice right after they experienced stress, it prevented the onset of widespread fear. 



"Now that we have a handle on the core of the mechanism by which stress-induced fear happens and the circuitry that implements this fear, interventions can be targeted and specific," said Spitzer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



This study offers new hope for those suffering from the debilitating effects of stress-induced fear. By understanding the specific changes within the brain, scientists can begin to design treatments that target the root of the problem rather than just the symptoms. The potential for real, lasting relief from conditions like PTSD is a tremendously exciting prospect.



This research marks a significant step forward, reminding us that even the most complex and frightening mental experiences have a biological basis. By continuing to unravel the mysteries of the brain, we move closer to a future where the lingering shadows of fear can finally be lifted.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj5996" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>. 



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.

Our brains turn intense stress into constant fear

For those struggling with the aftermath of trauma, fear lingers...

A disturbing study conducted between 2001 and 2020 has unveiled crucial insights into the shifts in global forests' composition and their carbon stocks, offering a fresh perspective on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> management practices are <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/global-forest_spatial-distribution_map_1m.png" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transforming around the world</a>. 



By harnessing state-of-the-art machine learning and change detection technologies, this research provides an unparalleled detailed look at the changing landscape of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-exactly-what-happens-to-nature-when-forests-are-cut-down/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest management</a> and its implications for carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-forests-at-the-climate-change-frontline">Global forests at the climate change frontline</h2>



Forests play a pivotal role in combating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/americas-forests-are-in-a-race-against-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Strategies such as reforestation have been recognized for their potential to enhance carbon storage. 



However, the impact of these managed forests on soil diversity and overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-forests-are-unexpected-heroes-of-carbon-capture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon retention</a> has been a matter of ongoing debate. 



Given the complex nature of global forest patterns and the challenges in differentiating between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boreal-and-temperate-forests-have-emerged-as-the-main-carbon-sinks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest types</a> using satellite imagery, there is a pressing need for detailed mapping and analysis of forest management practices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-closer-look-at-forest-management-dynamics">Closer look at forest management dynamics</h2>



The recent study represents a significant advancement in this area, employing the latest advancements in satellite imagery and machine learning to dissect the evolution of forest management practices worldwide meticulously. 



It identifies six distinct management types, offering new insights into the complex interplay between human activity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-is-better-planting-forests-or-building-solar-farms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest ecosystems</a>.



This comprehensive analysis sheds light on a nuanced landscape of change. It reveals that while natural forest carbon stocks have diminished, there has been compensatory growth in managed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-of-south-east-asia-are-more-resilient-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a>, including planted forests, oil palm plantations, and agroforestry systems. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-development-vs-environmental-stewardship">Economic development vs. environmental stewardship</h2>



This suggests a delicate balance between economic development and environmental preservation, underscoring the complexity of global forest management and its impact on the environment.



Lead researcher Hongtao Xu of <a href="https://english.bnu.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beijing Normal University</a> highlights the significance of these findings. "Our findings underscore the dynamic nature of global forests and highlight the significant role of forest management practices in addressing climate change," Xu explained.



"This study marks a pivotal step toward understanding and optimizing the contribution of forests to carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policy-impacts-and-conservation-opportunities">Policy impacts and conservation opportunities</h2>



The insights gleaned from this study are invaluable for policymakers, conservationists, and researchers alike, providing a solid, data-driven foundation for improving forest management strategies. 



By offering a detailed understanding of the spatial and temporal changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complex-canopies-help-forests-recover-from-disturbances/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest composition</a>, this research empowers stakeholders to tailor reforestation and conservation efforts more effectively to meet global climate objectives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-nurturing-and-conserving-global-forests">Importance of nurturing and conserving global forests</h2>



In summary, this important study spanning has significantly advanced our understanding of global forest management, revealing a nuanced interplay between human intervention and forest ecosystems. 



By leveraging cutting-edge technology, researchers have illuminated the dynamic shifts in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earthquakes-have-long-lasting-impacts-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> composition and their critical role in carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. 



Their research underscores the importance of strategic forest management practices in the fight against climate change, offering a data-driven roadmap for policymakers, conservationists, and researchers to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-fate-of-our-forests-new-tool-predicts-tree-survival-amidst-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest stewardship</a>. 



As we move forward, the insights from this study empower us to align our conservation efforts more closely with global climate objectives, marking a pivotal step toward safeguarding our planet's green heritage for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-the-importance-of-global-forests">More about the importance of global forests</h2>



As discussed above, global forests stand as the earth's lungs, playing a pivotal role in sustaining the planet's health and well-being. They absorb carbon dioxide, release oxygen, and provide a home to over 80% of terrestrial biodiversity. 



Beyond their ecological functions, forests support the livelihoods of 1.6 billion people, offering food, fuel, and fibers. As climate change accelerates, the importance of forests in carbon sequestration and as buffers against extreme weather becomes ever more critical.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-facing-our-forests">Challenges facing our forests</h3>



Despite their importance, global forests face unprecedented threats from deforestation, land degradation, and climate change. Illegal logging, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure development are leading causes of forest loss. 



Climate change compounds these threats, increasing the frequency of wildfires and pest outbreaks. The loss of forests not only contributes to global warming but also diminishes biodiversity and disrupts water cycles, affecting millions of people worldwide.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-to-sustainable-forest-stewardship">Path to sustainable forest stewardship</h3>



Sustainable forest stewardship is the cornerstone of preserving and enhancing the health of global forests. It involves managing forests in a way that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, and capacity to regenerate. 



This approach includes practices like selective logging, controlled burns to prevent larger fires, and reforestation efforts that restore degraded lands. By adopting sustainable management practices, communities can harness the benefits of forests while ensuring their conservation for future generations.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaborative-conservation-efforts">Collaborative conservation efforts</h3>



Conservation efforts require global collaboration among governments, NGOs, local communities, and the private sector. International agreements like the <a href="https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paris Agreement</a> and the <a href="https://www.un-redd.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations' REDD+</a> program aim to reduce emissions from deforestation and promote forest conservation as a climate action strategy. Grassroots initiatives and community-based management have also proven effective in protecting forests and enhancing the livelihoods of indigenous and local communities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-stewardship-of-global-forests">Future stewardship of global forests</h3>



Looking ahead, the future of forest stewardship hinges on integrating technology, policy, and community engagement. Innovations in satellite monitoring and data analysis offer unprecedented opportunities for tracking deforestation and forest health in real-time. 



Meanwhile, policies that promote sustainable land use, protect indigenous rights, and incentivize conservation can create the framework necessary for effective stewardship. Engaging local communities in conservation efforts ensures that forest management practices are culturally appropriate and economically beneficial, securing the health of global forests for generations to come.



In summary, global forests are indispensable to life on Earth, offering essential ecological services and supporting diverse communities. The path to their preservation lies in sustainable stewardship, international cooperation, and the integration of traditional knowledge with modern technology. By committing to these principles, we can safeguard the future of our planet's green legacy.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/remotesensing.0119" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Remote Sensing</a>.



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Global forests are rapidly changing and repercussions are looming

A disturbing study conducted between 2001 and 2020 has unveiled...

Killer,Whale,Group,Traveling,In,The,Wild

Researchers believe they have identified a new population of killer whales, a revelation that highlights the rich and largely unexplored biodiversity of our planet's largest habitat. 



This potential new group of 49 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-orca-day-the-crucial-role-of-the-oceans-apex-predator/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a> has been observed off the coasts of California and Oregon engaging in unique hunting behaviors, targeting marine mammals such as sperm whales and even a sea turtle.



The study from University of British Columbia (<a href="https://www.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UBC</a>), published in the journal Aquatic Mammals, presents compelling evidence that these orcas may either form a subpopulation of transient killer whales or constitute an entirely new oceanic population. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-giants-a-new-orca-population-discovered">Hidden giants: A new orca population discovered</h2>



Josh McInnes, a master's student at the UBC Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries (<a href="https://oceans.ubc.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOF</a>) and the study's first author, emphasizes the rarity of such observations in the open sea. 



"The open ocean is the largest habitat on our planet, and observations of killer whales in the high seas are rare. In this case, we’re beginning to get a sense of killer whale movements in the open ocean and how their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/southern-resident-killer-whales-endangered-by-inbreeding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecology and behavior</a> differs from populations inhabiting coastal areas," explained McInnes.



Typically, three ecotypes of killer whale are found along the coasts of California and Oregon: residents, transients, and offshores. The newly observed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-prey-is-changing-the-behavior-of-killer-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a>, documented through nine encounters from 1997 to 2021, could not be matched with any known animals, sparking the hypothesis of a new population. 



Dr. Andrew Trites, a professor at the IOF and co-author of the study, notes the significance of such a find, stating, "It’s pretty unique to find a <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/orcas_unique-killer-whale-population_hunting-sharks_graphic_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new population</a>. It takes a long time to gather photos and observations to recognize that there's something different about these killer whales."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-behavior-of-this-killer-whale-population">Deciphering the behavior of this killer whale population</h2>



One of the most striking behaviors observed was the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group's hunting tactics</a>. In one encounter, researchers witnessed the pod attacking a herd of nine adult female sperm whales, a behavior not previously reported on the west coast. 



Other encounters included attacks on a pygmy sperm whale, a northern elephant seal, Risso’s dolphin, and a leatherback turtle.



A distinctive clue to this new population's habitat comes from the cookiecutter shark bite scars observed on almost all of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-skin-disease-threatens-endangered-killer-whales/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a>. This detail suggests that the killer whales primarily inhabit deep waters far from land, as cookiecutter sharks are known to live in the open ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unique-traits-help-identify-new-orcas">Unique traits help identify new orcas</h2>



Furthermore, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-dietary-preferences-expose-them-to-pollutants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a> exhibit physical characteristics that set them apart from the known ecotypes. Their dorsal fins and saddle patches (the grey or white patches by the fin) show variations that hint at a genetic distinction. 



"While the sizes and shapes of the dorsal fins and saddle patches are similar to transient and offshore ecotypes, the shape of their fins varied, from pointed like transients to rounded like offshore killer whales," McInnes elaborated. 



"Their saddle patch patterns also differed, with some displaying large uniformly grey saddle patches and others having smooth narrow saddle patches similar to those seen in killer whales in tropical regions," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-contributions-from-citizen-scientists">Contributions from citizen scientists</h2>



The discovery has sparked interest among the maritime community, including fishermen and passengers on whale-watching tours, some of whom have taken up photographing these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whale-mothers-protect-their-sons-from-injury-in-the-years-post-menopause/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a> as a hobby. 



Dr. Trites highlights the collaborative nature of this research, with sightings and data provided by those who spend significant time at sea.



Moving forward, the researchers aim to document more sightings and gather additional data, including acoustic recordings of the orcas' calls and genetic samples, to further explore how this potential new population may differ from or align with already documented killer whale populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-of-this-killer-whale-population">Future studies of this killer whale population</h2>



In summary, the discovery of a potential new population of killer whales marks a significant leap forward in our understanding of the complexities of marine life. 



By combining rigorous scientific research with observations from the maritime community, researchers have revealed the unique behaviors and characteristics of these enigmatic creatures, underscoring the vast, unexplored wonders of the ocean. 



This study enriches our knowledge of killer whale populations and emphasizes the critical need for continued exploration and conservation efforts in our planet's largest and most mysterious habitat. 



As we move forward, the ongoing study of these orcas promises to reveal more about their lives, offering insights into the intricate balance of marine ecosystems and the vital role these apex predators play within them.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.aquaticmammalsjournal.org/article/evidence-for-an-oceanic-population-of-killer-whales-orcinus-orca-in-offshore-waters-of-california-and-oregon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aquatic Mammals</a>.



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Killer whales seen with shark bites may be a completely new population

Researchers believe they have identified a new population of killer...

The pervasive nature of anthropogenic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unprecedented-increase-in-global-ocean-plastic-pollution-since-2005/">plastic pollution</a> extends beyond the often-visualized scenes of marine wildlife entangled in debris, reaching the remote and pristine polar regions of the Arctic and Antarctica.&nbsp;



Here, not only macroplastics but also microplastics (0.1 µm—5 mm) and nanoplastics (&lt;0.1 µm) find their way onto floating ice and terrestrial landscapes, transported vast distances or ingested by migratory species from more populous areas.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-and-microplastics-nbsp">Seabirds and microplastics&nbsp;</h2>



In a comprehensive review led by <a href="https://www.uniroma3.it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roma Tre University</a> in Italy, scientists have synthesized four decades of studies, from 1983 to the present, on the ingestion of microplastics by seabirds residing in these regions.



“The Arctic and Antarctica represent two of the most inhospitable and poorly investigated biomes in the world. Although polar regions are still perceived as some of the most pristine places still in existence, these remote places are no longer immune to anthropogenic pollution, in particular, micro- and nanoplastics," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Seabirds, avian species feeding mainly at sea, are indicators of change in the environment and represent an early study group of ecological indicators for plastic pollution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study-nbsp">Focus of the study&nbsp;</h2>



Analyzing over 1,100 samples, the team investigated the presence of microplastics in various components including stomach contents, crop pouches (used for temporary food storage during foraging trips), guano (a mixture of food and metabolic waste), and regurgitated pellets containing undigested food and other particles. 



Predominantly, the study focused on pellets, with stomach contents and guano following in frequency, and minimal data on pouch contents.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabird-species-from-polar-regions">Seabird species from polar regions</h2>



In their review, the researchers identified 13 seabird species from polar regions reported to have ingested microplastics.



These species encompass little auks, northern fulmars, glaucous gulls, thick-billed murres, white-chinned petrels, great shearwaters, sooty shearwaters, king penguins, Adélie penguins, chinstrap penguins, gentoo penguins, brown skuas, and south polar skuas. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-staggering-presence-of-microplastics-nbsp">Staggering presence of microplastics&nbsp;</h2>



From these birds, a total of 3,526 microplastic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-linked-to-risk-of-stroke-and-heart-attack/">particles</a> were extracted, revealing a staggering prevalence of at least one microplastic particle in 90% of Arctic samples and 97% of Antarctic samples.&nbsp;



The study noted a median of 31.5 and 35 microplastic particles per sample in the Arctic and Antarctica, respectively, with a single bird harboring up to 36 particles.



The composition of these ingested plastics spanned 14 polymer types, with polyethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene being the most common, often manifesting as fragments from the breakdown of larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plastic-items-found-in-deceased-sea-turtles/">plastic items</a> such as bags, food containers, and foam packaging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-ecological-implications-nbsp">Broader ecological implications&nbsp;</h2>



The ingestion of these microplastics poses significant risks to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seabirds-need-ocean-wide-protection-to-survive-human-impacts/">seabirds</a>, including gastrointestinal blockage, toxicity, oxidative stress, and immune reactions. 



Moreover, the presence of microplastics in krill, a primary food source for certain penguin species, underscores the broader ecological implications and the potential disruption of trophic webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-conservation-efforts-nbsp">Urgent need for conservation efforts&nbsp;</h2>



With 64 seabird species in the Arctic and 43 in Antarctica, witnessing declining populations, there's an urgent call for enhanced conservation efforts.&nbsp;



The Arctic, covering about 6% of Earth's surface, faces additional anthropogenic pressures from tourism, commercial fishing, increased maritime activity, and the consequences of global warming on ice melt and subsequent environmental changes.



This review underscores the global reach of human activity, impacting even the most remote and untouched parts of our planet. It emphasizes the need for continuous dialogue and action to mitigate environmental stressors and protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-biodiversity-will-get-a-boost-from-rising-temperatures/">biodiversity</a> in the Arctic and Antarctica from the encroaching threats of plastic pollution and beyond.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1343617" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Nearly all seabirds have ingested microplastics

The pervasive nature of anthropogenic plastic pollution extends beyond the...

With the demands of daily life increasingly encroaching on our peace and quiet, the significance of sleep cannot be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-reset-sleep-restores-the-balance-between-order-and-chaos/">overstated</a>. This is the central message of World Sleep Day, an annual event dedicated to raising public awareness about the critical importance of sleep.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-journey-of-world-sleep-day">The journey of World Sleep Day</h2>



Since its inception in 2008, World Sleep Day not only celebrates rest but also aims to provide education to individuals with sleep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daylight-saving-time-changes-are-directly-linked-to-sleep-disorders/">disorders</a>. 



Marked on the Friday before the Spring Equinox, World Sleep Day has grown in both scope and reach. Last year, there were 155 events held across more than 70 countries.



This day is more than just a call to action; it is a global congregation that brings together individuals from varied backgrounds to share, learn, and support each other in the quest for better sleep.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reality-of-sleep-disorders">The reality of sleep disorders</h2>



The <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/american-sleep-association-asa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Sleep Association</a> reports that 50 to 70 million people suffer from a sleep disorder, over 25 million have sleep apnea, and countless more struggle with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insomnia-increases-heart-attack-risk-by-69-percent/">insomnia</a>. These numbers emphasize the widespread nature of sleep disorders and the effect they have on so many lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-world-sleep-day-nbsp">Origins of World Sleep Day&nbsp;</h2>



World Sleep Day was set into motion by founders of the <a href="https://worldsleepsociety.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Sleep Society</a>, including Dr. Liborio Parrino and Dr. Antonio Culebras. Their vision was to unify individuals and healthcare providers in the battle against sleep disorders, offering solutions, prevention, and hope.



In partnership with news organizations across the globe, the World Sleep Society strives to keep the conversation about sleep vibrant and informative, ensuring that everyone, everywhere, knows where to find help.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-2024-a-call-for-sleep-equity">2024: A call for sleep equity</h2>



The theme for World Sleep Day 2024, "Sleep Equity for Global Health," highlights a critical aspect of sleep that often goes unnoticed – its inequality. Just as health disparities persist globally, so do disparities in sleep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-is-determined-by-daily-activities/">quality</a> and duration.&nbsp;



By focusing on sleep equity, the World Sleep Society aims to bridge these gaps, promoting sleep health as a cornerstone of overall well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-sleep-so-important">Why is sleep so important?</h2>



Sleep is crucial for various reasons, impacting nearly every type of tissue and system in the body. Given its wide-ranging benefits for both mental and physical health, prioritizing adequate sleep is a key component of a healthy lifestyle.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-function-nbsp">Brain function&nbsp;</h3>



Sleep helps your brain work properly. While you're sleeping, your brain is preparing for the next day by forming new pathways to help you learn and remember information.&nbsp;



Adequate sleep improves learning, decision-making, and problem-solving skills. It also helps regulate mood, making you better equipped to cope with stress and emotional challenges.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-health">Physical health</h3>



Sleep plays a significant role in physical health, involved in the healing and repair of your heart and blood vessels. It affects processes that maintain your heart health, blood sugar levels, and blood pressure.&nbsp;



Sleep also supports growth and stress hormones, boosts muscle mass, and helps repair cells and tissues in people of all ages.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-function">Immune function</h3>



Adequate sleep is crucial for the proper functioning of the immune system. It enhances the body's ability to fend off infections and illnesses, making you less susceptible to common viruses and more able to recover when you do get sick.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weight-management">Weight management</h3>



Sleep affects the levels of hormones that control appetite. Lack of sleep is related to an increase in hunger and appetite and possibly to obesity.&nbsp;



People who don't get enough sleep may have a bigger appetite and tend to eat more calories, partly because sleep affects the levels of leptin and ghrelin, hormones that control feelings of hunger and fullness.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safety">Safety</h3>



Sleep deficiency increases the risk of accidents. Being sleepy can slow down reaction times as much as driving drunk. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration estimates that fatigue is a cause in 100,000 auto crashes and 1,500 crash-related deaths a year in the U.S.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-health">Long-term health</h3>



Chronic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-increases-the-risk-of-stroke-by-70-percent/">sleep deprivation</a> can contribute to health problems, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and even early mortality.



Sleep also impacts mental health. Chronic sleep deprivation can lead to mood swings, anxiety, depression, and other mental disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-united-front-for-sleep-health">A united front for sleep health</h2>



World Sleep Day is not just a day; it's a movement. By banding together, sleep health professionals and advocates amplify their message, ensuring that it reaches every corner of the globe. Together, we can elevate the conversation around sleep, making it a priority for all.



As we commemorate World Sleep Day, let's remember that sleep is not a luxury but a necessity. It is time to prioritize our sleep health, advocate for sleep equity, and support the global quest for a well-rested world.



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World Sleep Day 2024: The quest for a well-rested society 

With the demands of daily life increasingly encroaching on our...

In today's information-rich society, identifying effective memory strategies, such as the "spacing effect," for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-learning-how-the-brain-stores-new-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memorizing and retaining</a> knowledge is increasingly vital.



In a fascinating new study conducted by psychologists from <a href="https://www.temple.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Temple University</a> and the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Pittsburgh</a>, new insights have been unveiled about the mechanisms of learning and memory in real-world contexts. 



Published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, this research illuminates how diversifying study materials and spacing out learning sessions can significantly impact our ability to remember information, albeit in different ways depending on the nature of what's being memorized.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enduring-impact-of-spaced-learning">Enduring impact of spaced learning</h2>



<a href="https://www.psychology.pitt.edu/people/benjamin-m-rottman-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Benjamin Rottman</a>, an associate professor of psychology at the University of Pittsburgh and director of the Causal Learning and Decision-Making Lab, emphasizes the longstanding recognition of the benefits of spacing study sessions. 



"Lots of prior research has shown that learning and memory benefit from spacing study sessions out. For example, if you cram the night before a test, you might remember the information the next day for the test, but you will probably forget it fairly soon,” Rottman explains. 



“In contrast, if you study the material on different days leading up to the test, you will be more likely to recall it for a longer period of time," he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-spacing-effect-and-learning-variability">Studying the spacing effect and learning variability</h2>



However, the new research challenges the traditional assumption underlying the "spacing effect" -- that the material learned is identical across sessions. Real-life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgetting-may-actually-be-a-form-of-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a> often involves variations. 



For instance, repeated visits to a coffeeshop may involve interactions with different baristas. The study explores how memory responds to this variability.



Conducted through two large-scale experiments, the research team investigated the impact of spacing and variability on memory. 



The first experiment took advantage of smartphones to test memory over 24 hours, mirroring the sporadic nature of real-world <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cultural-learning-begins-in-infancy-during-parent-child-imitation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a>. The second gathered data online in a single session, allowing for a comparison of short and long intervals between learning sessions.



This approach enabled the researchers to simulate real-world repetition, where some aspects remain constant while others change. <a href="https://sites.temple.edu/adaptivememorylab/people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Emily Cowan</a>, lead author and a postdoctoral fellow in Temple’s Adaptive Memory Lab, sheds light on the methodological innovations of the study. 



“In other words, using these two designs, we could examine how having material that more closely resembles our experiences of repetition in the real world -- where some aspects stay the same but others differ -- impacts memory if you are exposed to that information in quick succession versus over longer intervals… from seconds to minutes, or hours to days," Cowan expounded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-variation-and-stability-in-the-learning-process">Role of variation and stability in the learning process</h2>



The findings confirm that spaced learning enhances memory for isolated items, particularly when those items are associated with varying contexts. For instance, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/random-noise-may-provide-a-new-path-to-faster-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a> a new person’s name is more effective when the name is linked with different pieces of information about the person across sessions.



Conversely, associative memory -- remembering an item and its context -- benefits from stability and exact repetition, especially when study sessions are spaced over longer periods. 



"If you are trying to remember the new person’s name and something about them, like their favorite food, it is more helpful to repeat that same exact name-food pairing multiple times with spacing between each," Rottman elaborates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-taking-a-personalized-approach-to-learning-strategies">Taking a personalized approach to learning strategies</h2>



These discoveries underscore the complexity of memory and the challenge of offering one-size-fits-all advice for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/handwriting-increases-brain-connectivity-and-promotes-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning strategies</a>. Rottman cautions against oversimplification, noting the diversity of learning tasks, from memorizing names to studying for exams or learning a new language.



“Because of how nuanced memory is, it is hard to provide clear advice for things like studying for a test because the sort of material can be so different,” Rottman said. “But in theory our findings should be broadly relevant to different sorts of tasks, like remembering someone’s name and things about them, studying for a test, and learning new vocabulary in a foreign language."



As Cowan sees it, their work reveals that the benefits of spaced learning on memory are not fixed but rather rely on the variability in content across repetitions. In addition, the timing between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electrical-noise-stimulation-enhances-math-learning-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a> opportunities. It extends our understanding of how our learning methods affect memory retention.



"Our work suggests that both variability and spacing may present methods to improve our memory for isolated features and associative information, respectively, raising important applications for future research, education, and our everyday lives," Cowan concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory-learning-and-the-spacing-effect-in-everyday-life">Memory, learning, and the spacing effect in everyday life</h2>



In summary, this collaborative research brings to light the nuanced intricacies of memory, highlighting how both the variability of study material and the timing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/remote-learning-causes-sleep-and-behavior-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learning</a> sessions can significantly affect memory retention. 



By demonstrating that spaced learning, or the "spacing effect," enhances memory for items associated with varying contexts, while associative memory benefits from stability and exact repetition, this study challenges conventional learning strategies and opens the door to more effective, personalized approaches. 



Through its innovative methodology and insightful findings, this study advances our understanding of memory processes and has profound implications for educational practices and daily learning routines, encouraging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/students-brains-sync-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learners</a> to embrace both variation and spacing as powerful tools for memory improvement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-spaced-learning-and-the-spacing-effect">More about spaced learning and the "spacing effect"</h2>



Spaced learning, an evidence-based study technique, has revolutionized our understanding of memory retention. By integrating intervals between study sessions, learners can significantly improve their ability to recall information over longer periods. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-spacing-effect">Science behind the spacing effect</h3>



At its core, spaced learning leverages the psychological spacing effect to enhance memory retention. Research shows that introducing gaps between study sessions -- contrasting with massed learning, where content is crammed in a short period -- promotes stronger neural connections related to the learned material. This method not only aids in better recall but also facilitates a deeper understanding of the content.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-spaced-learning">Benefits of spaced learning</h3>



The advantages of spaced learning are manifold. It significantly reduces the likelihood of forgetting, making it an ideal strategy for long-term retention. 



Moreover, spaced learning has been shown to improve comprehension and application of knowledge, enabling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dopamine-regulates-both-learning-and-motivation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">learners</a> to perform better in assessments and real-world applications alike.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-harness-the-spacing-effect">How to harness the spacing effect</h3>



To harness the power of spaced learning, consider the following strategies:



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plan-your-study-schedule">Plan Your Study Schedule</h4>



Divide your study material over several days or weeks, depending on your timeline. Ensure that each session revisits previous topics, gradually increasing the interval between reviews.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-active-recall-techniques">Use Active Recall Techniques</h4>



Combine spaced learning with active recall practices, such as flashcards or self-testing, to reinforce memory retention. Active engagement with the material helps solidify knowledge.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leverage-technology">Leverage Technology</h4>



Take advantage of spaced repetition software (SRS) and apps designed to optimize your study schedule. These tools automatically adjust the timing of review sessions based on your performance, ensuring that you revisit material at optimal intervals.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapt-to-your-learning-needs">Adapt to Your Learning Needs</h4>



Customize the length and frequency of your study sessions according to the complexity of the material and your personal learning pace. Remember, the goal is to find a balance that maximizes retention without leading to burnout.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-spacing-effect-a-stepping-stone-to-lifelong-learning">The spacing effect: A stepping stone to lifelong learning</h3>



In summary, spaced learning offers a robust framework for enhancing memory retention, empowering learners to achieve their academic and personal development goals. 



By incorporating the spacing effect into your study habits, you embrace a scientifically backed approach that not only improves recall but also fosters a deeper, more meaningful engagement with the material. 



As we continue to unravel the mysteries of the human brain, spaced learning stands out as a testament to our capacity for growth and learning, one interval at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2311077121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Learning new things with the ‘spacing effect’ and its long-term impact on memory

In today's information-rich society, identifying effective memory strategies, such as...

Moths fluttering around streetlamps are a familiar, if eerie, urban sight. But the bright lights of our cities may be doing more than attracting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luna-moth-tails-have-only-one-purpose-evading-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">these insects</a> -- they might be changing them. Scientists from Belgium and Switzerland have discovered something peculiar about city-dwelling moths: they seem to have smaller wings than their rural cousins. 



What's more, they're not as easily lured into the blinding glare of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-pollution-disrupts-entire-ecological-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial lights</a>. Researchers believe it could be an adaptation to survive the challenges of brightly lit cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-light-pollution-on-city-moths">Impact of light pollution on city moths</h2>



Light pollution, a constant companion of cities, has a devastating impact on moths and the ecosystem they support. Moths use the moon and stars to navigate. However, bright city lights confuse them, causing problems with feeding and mating, which puts their entire population at risk.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-is-luring-birds-to-their-death/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Artificial light</a> also makes moths easy targets for predators since they are no longer hidden by the darkness of night. This increased hunting further damages moth populations and throws off the balance of the entire ecosystem. 



Light pollution also disrupts moths' internal clocks, which impacts their hormones and how they behave. This can affect their feeding, mating, and migration patterns. These problems further reduce moth populations and serve as a reminder of how light pollution hurts the environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-vs-rural-moth">Urban vs rural moth </h2>



If a moth lives in the countryside, the night sky is their map. But in the city, it's a confusing mess of streetlights, billboards, and porch lamps. This is where the shrinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moth-wings-have-structures-that-help-them-avoid-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wings</a> come in. 



Urban moths, with their smaller wings, were less likely to be drawn towards artificial lights. This change may be an evolutionary response to the challenges of city life. 



Scientists believe smaller wings might make urban moths more agile. This increased agility could help them avoid the distracting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-light-exposure-is-extremely-harmful-to-our-mental-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial lights</a> and better evade predators. Smaller wings might also help them more efficiently find food in the fragmented city environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-challenges-faced-by-city-moths">Other challenges faced by city moths</h2>



City moths face a maze of challenges beyond the problem of light pollution. The city is a harsh landscape of concrete, metal, and limited plant life – a far cry from the natural world they evolved to survive in. This presents them with unique difficulties that affect their ability to survive.



Roads, buildings, and other parts of cities break up natural areas, leaving moths with smaller, disconnected patches of green space. This makes it harder for them to find mates, food, and places to lay eggs, which drastically disrupts their life cycle and lowers their population.



Moreover, the "heat island" effect, where cities are much warmer than rural areas, is another challenge. Moths, like many insects, depend on their surroundings to control their body temperature. Hot city temperatures can disrupt their body functions, which affects how well they grow, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-moths-use-an-aphrodisiac-during-mating-to-feel-macho/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reproduce</a>, and survive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-conserving-moths">Importance of conserving moths</h2>



Saving moths is much more than just protecting another kind of insect. It's essential to keep our ecosystems healthy and balanced. Moths may not be as well-known as butterflies, but they play a vital role in the natural world that benefits both wild areas and places humans live.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-moth-wings-absorb-big-sounds-to-evade-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moths</a> pollinate plants, especially ones that bloom at night. They help fertilize a wide variety of plants, including some we use for food, medicine, and clothing. Fewer moths mean these plants wouldn't reproduce as well, leading to less food for people and animals and, ultimately, a loss of diverse species.



Protecting moths means protecting the services they provide to the environment. Reducing light pollution, saving natural habitats, and promoting a variety of species are some ways we can help ensure moths thrive, along with everything else they support. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-insights">Study insights</h2>



The mystery of city moths highlights the incredible persistence of evolution, even within our concrete and brightly lit modern world. Could their smaller wings be a survival strategy against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mountain-lions-actively-avoid-artificial-light-in-southern-california/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">artificial light</a>? Only time and further research will reveal the answers. 



Perhaps the next time you see a moth fluttering by, you'll pause to consider the incredible adaptations it might be developing to survive in our human-shaped environment.



The study is published in <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0486#d1e1593" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>. 



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City moths develop smaller wings to survive light pollution

Moths fluttering around streetlamps are a familiar, if eerie, urban...

In the dynamic realm of coral reefs, the rich tapestry of reef sounds - marked by the croaks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poo-from-fish-that-eat-coral-is-beneficial-for-coral-reefs/">fish</a> and the crackling of snapping shrimp - plays a pivotal role in maintaining the ecosystem's health and diversity. Yet, when these reefs suffer damage, their once lively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">soundscapes</a> fade. This reduction weakens their ability to support marine life.



Pioneering research from the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) has unveiled a promising strategy. Reintroducing the vibrant sounds of healthy reefs can significantly boost the settlement and growth of coral larvae in impaired regions. This approach heralds a new era for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-songs-are-proof-of-coral-restoration-success/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral restoration</a> efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sound-of-recovery-whoi-s-pioneering-research">The sound of recovery: WHOI's pioneering research</h2>



The research demonstrates how sound can actively induce coral settlement. "What we're showing is that you can actively induce coral settlement by playing sounds," explained Nadège Aoki, a doctoral candidate at WHOI and the lead author of the study. 



This innovative approach could play a crucial role in the coral life cycle. It is particularly effective in rejuvenating reefs that have suffered from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deepest-known-coral-reef-bleaching-discovered-alarming-scientists/">bleaching</a>, disease, or human impact.



Corals, which are immobile as adults, rely on their larval stage to find a suitable habitat. Traditionally, researchers believed that chemical and light cues primarily influenced their settlement decisions. However, this study reveals that the acoustic environment is equally significant. 



By broadcasting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-songs-are-proof-of-coral-restoration-success/">sounds</a> of a healthy reef, the researchers observed coral larvae settling at rates up to seven times higher compared to silence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underwater-experimentation-a-sound-success">Underwater experimentation: a sound success</h2>



The team conducted this experiment in the U.S. Virgin Islands, using larvae from the mustard hill coral, a resilient species recognized by its lumpy shape and distinct yellow color. They tested this method across three different reefs. 



The findings revealed that the areas where healthy reef sounds were played experienced the most significant increase in larval settlement.



Interestingly, the study also highlights the nuanced challenges of reef restoration. Despite the expectation that healthier reefs would naturally facilitate higher settlement rates, the researchers found little difference between the degraded and healthier reefs in their study. 



This suggests a complex interplay of factors affecting coral settlement and underscores the importance of continuous monitoring and intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-of-hope-a-new-tool-for-reef-restoration">Echoes of hope: A new tool for reef restoration</h2>



Aran Mooney, a marine biologist at WHOI and the study's lead researcher, emphasized the importance of this discovery, stating, "This gives us a new tool in the toolbox for potentially rebuilding a reef." 



The decline in coral reefs poses a dire threat to marine biodiversity, coastal protection, and human livelihoods. Estimates indicate that half of all coral reefs have been lost in the last three decades. 



The WHOI team's work offers a ray of hope, showcasing a scalable solution that could enhance coral restoration efforts worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-simple-sound-of-restoration-a-scalable-solution">The simple sound of restoration: a scalable solution</h2>



Amy Apprill, a microbial ecologist at WHOI and co-author of the study, further elaborated on the significance of this finding. She noted that replicating an acoustic environment is a relatively simple yet highly effective method compared to other cues influencing coral settlement. 



This approach could significantly aid in the restoration and maintenance of coral populations, marking a critical step forward in the battle to preserve these vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reef-study-proves-humans-are-major-ecosystem-disruptors/">ecosystems</a>.



As the world grapples with the pressing issue of coral reef degradation, the research by WHOI presents a novel and promising avenue for restoration efforts. By harnessing the power of sound, we can potentially revitalize these underwater sanctuaries, ensuring their survival for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.231514" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Reef sounds: The melodic key to coral restoration

In the dynamic realm of coral reefs, the rich tapestry...

Scientists from <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> have revealed that some viruses known as bacteriophages (ones that target bacteria) make sophisticated life-or-death decisions. These viruses can infect a bacteria's immune system and either live peacefully within it or become a microscopic killing machine. 



What makes them switch tactics? Surprisingly, the viruses tap into the very immune system their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-method-for-classification-of-bacteria-includes-all-strains/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial</a> host uses to fight them off. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-relationship-of-virus-and-bacteria">Relationship of virus and bacteria</h2>



Bacteriophages, or phages for short, have a surprising amount of flexibility when they encounter a new bacterium. Instead of always going on a rampage, they can integrate their own genetic code into the bacterium's DNA. 



Sometimes, this turns into a surprisingly beneficial partnership. The phage gets a cozy home, and the bacterium may even pick up some advantages from the viral genes. 



But it's not always a happy ending – phages can turn destructive in the blink of an eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viruses-control-the-immune-system">Viruses control the immune system</h2>



Bacteria use their own immune system during phage attacks. Now, the scientists have discovered that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-create-viruses-to-combat-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">viruses</a> essentially manipulate this immune system and use it to control their own fate. 



It's a bit like a burglar disabling the security system before deciding whether to fully rob the house.



"We discovered that in this process the phage actually uses a system that the bacteria developed to kill phages," says Polina Guler, a PhD student involved in the research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virus-harming-host-s-immune-system">Virus harming host's immune system</h2>



Phages aren't just attackers; they're also surprisingly sneaky spies. They eavesdrop on chemical signals released by other phages in the area. 



If there aren't many signals, they realize there might be greener pastures – other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-bacterium-discovered-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> to infect where they won't face competition. That's when they pull their most devious trick. 



The phage sabotages the bacterium's defenses, essentially launching a hostile takeover that ends in the bacterium's destruction and the virus multiplying to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-loss-could-promote-the-spread-of-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spread</a> further.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viruses-helping-host-s-immune-system">Viruses helping host's immune system</h2>



If the bacteria is "crowded" with rival phages, the virus plays nice to avoid losing its current home. In this case, instead of disabling the immune system, the virus manipulates it into triggering a dormant mode.



“The phage switches to its violent mode, and with the defense system neutralized, it is able to replicate and kill its host," describes Guler.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance</h2>



“This finding is important for several reasons... some bacteria... become more violent if they carry dormant phages inside them." explains Professor Avigdor Eldar, who led the research team. 



This discovery isn't just about bacteria-infecting viruses. It has far-reaching implications:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-disease">Fighting disease</h3>



Some bacteria, like those that cause cholera, become much more dangerous if they're carrying dormant phages. Understanding how phages turn these bacteria into toxins factories could lead to new disease-fighting strategies.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alternatives-to-antibiotics">Alternatives to antibiotics</h3>



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-livestock-are-major-drivers-of-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antibiotic resistance</a> on the rise, scientists are desperate for alternatives. Phages, with their ability to target specific bacteria, could be the solution we need.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-viruses">Understanding viruses</h3>



Many human-infecting viruses can go dormant and reactivate later. This phage research could offer vital clues into how we might manipulate that behavior.



This discovery reveals that viruses, even the tiniest ones, might be far more strategic than we ever suspected. The line between mindless destroyer and calculating survivor is much blurrier than we once thought.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-023-01551-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a>.



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.

Viruses can either help or harm their hosts' immune systems

Scientists from Tel Aviv University have revealed that some viruses known...

The dream of growing food in space is edging closer to reality. Space farming has always faced multiple challenges. These include cramped quarters, unusual gravity, and the vast distances that separate astronauts from traditional resources. 



That's where the ingenuity of scientists at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a> comes into play. They've developed a a stretchy sensor for plants that could transform how we think about growing food beyond our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-a-space-farming-tool">Developing a space farming tool</h2>



"This work is motivated by the needs of astronauts to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-lettuce-and-salads-in-space-is-a-bad-idea-according-to-a-new-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">grow vegetables</a> sustainably while they are on long missions,” explained chemical and biomolecular engineering professor <a href="https://chbe.illinois.edu/people/profile/yingdiao" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ying Diao</a>, who leads the research team.



Developing a sensor that could withstand both the flexibility required for plant growth and the harsh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-space-radiation-affect-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space environment</a> was challenging. In fact, it took this team three years of dedicated work to get it right. 



"Honestly, we began this work thinking that this task would only take a few months to perfect," admits graduate student Siqing Wang, a key member of the team. This is because traditional sensor materials weren't designed with leaves and shoots in mind. 



They struggled to stretch as plants grew and were often too rigid. The sensors potentially damaged the very crops they were meant to monitor. 



Hence, the team had to completely reimagine their approach to space farming, reformulating components and even developing new printing techniques to get the flexibility and durability they needed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spears2">SPEARS2</h2>



The result of their experiments is the SPEARS2 – the Stretchable-Polymer-Electronics-based Autonomous Remote Strain Sensor. This impressive bit of wearable plant tech is resilient enough to handle the humidity and rapid growth cycles of crops in a space farming environment.



Made from stretchy polymers, the sensor can cling to plants as they grow, even stretching over 400%. Moreover, SPEARS2 can wirelessly transmit growth data back to scientists, all without needing someone to constantly check it. 



"It is an exciting technical advance in our ability to perform precise, noninvasive measurements of plant growth in real-time," says plant biology professor Andrew Leakey. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-space-farming">Beyond space farming</h2>



This research opens up exciting possibilities. While the study focuses on vertical crops like corn, the team aims to expand the technology to monitor a wider <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watermeal-may-become-an-essential-food-for-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variety of plants</a>. 



Moreover, the innovation has the potential to sprout benefits right here on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tackling-malnutrition-new-satellite-can-monitor-nutrients-in-crops-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>. These stretchy sensors could have major applications in precision agriculture. 



Interestingly, farmers could use them to track delicate crops. They might detect early signs of disease, stress due to drought, or even help ensure optimal growing conditions for maximum yield.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-significance">Study significance </h2>



This work highlights the power of collaboration, bringing together experts in bioengineering, crop sciences, material science, and more. With support from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> and the <a href="https://beckman.illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Beckman Institute</a>, this study represents a major step towards sustainable farming, both in space and on Earth. 



Professor Diao sums it up perfectly: "I think the wearable electronics research community has ignored plants for too long. We know that they are experiencing a lot of stress during climate adaptation, and I think soft electronics can play a bigger role in advancing our understanding so we can ensure that plants are healthy, happy and sustainable in the future -- whether that is in space, on other planets or right here on Earth.”



The future may hold a world where high-tech sensors ensure food security for explorers and Earth-dwellers alike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.device.2024.100322" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Device</a>. 



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Space farming takes a big leap forward with new stretchy sensors

The dream of growing food in space is edging closer...

Scientists have unveiled a critical mechanism in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/semen-has-its-own-microbiome-and-it-may-be-the-cause-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human reproduction</a>, learning exactly how the human body ensures that just a single sperm fertilizes an egg, thus preventing a condition known as polyspermy. This condition, characterized by the fusion of multiple sperm with an egg, can be detrimental to embryo development. 



This fascinating study, which also sheds light on the atomic structure of the egg coat and its implications for infertility and contraception, was conducted at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (<a href="https://www.esrf.fr/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESRF</a>) by a team of researchers from the <a href="https://ki.se/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Karolinska Institutet</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-root-causes-of-infertility">Understanding the root causes of infertility</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-sperm-structure-offers-new-insights-on-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Infertility</a> is a challenge affecting approximately 15% of couples globally, as reported by the World Health Organization (<a href="https://www.who.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHO</a>). A notable cause of infertility is linked to genetic mutations affecting the egg coat, formally known as the zona pellucida (ZP). 



The ZP is a vital extracellular matrix that nurtures the egg and plays a crucial role in fertilization and embryo protection until implantation into the uterus. It is composed of proteins that assemble into filaments, creating a protective mesh around the egg. 



Mutations in the genes responsible for these proteins can result in defects or an absence of this protective mesh, leading to infertility. However, the prevalence of such pathogenic mutations among infertile women remains unclear, primarily due to the lack of comprehensive genomic sequencing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sperm-egg-and-the-zona-pellucida-zp">Sperm, egg, and the zona pellucida (ZP)</h2>



Luca Jovine, a professor at Karolinska Institutet and the study's lead researcher, emphasizes the importance of understanding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-testicles-created-in-a-lab-will-eventually-produce-sperm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilization processes</a> at the molecular level. The collaborative effort aimed to elucidate how the arrangement of ZP filaments prevents an egg from being fertilized by more than one sperm.



Historically, it was known that after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-sperm-count-directly-linked-to-mobile-phone-use/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a> fusion, the egg releases an enzyme that cleaves a major ZP protein called ZP2, subsequently hardening the egg coat to prevent further sperm penetration. 



However, the molecular mechanics linking these events remained a mystery. Jovine explains, "We knew these events were associated, but a molecular mechanism linking the puzzle pieces was missing."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viewing-the-egg-coat-with-high-tech-microscopy">Viewing the egg coat with high-tech microscopy</h2>



The research team embarked on an in-depth investigation into the structure of ZP2 before and after this cleavage, utilizing advanced techniques such as X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy. 



Daniele de Sanctis, a scientist at the ESRF and co-author of the study, marveled at the ability to observe such fundamental life processes at an atomic level, attributing the breakthrough to the cutting-edge capabilities of ESRF beamlines.



"Seeing the atomic details of such a fundamental process of life is simply amazing. Throughout the years, we have been applying the state of the art of what the ESRF beamlines could offer to solve the structure of the molecular bricks that compose ZP," de Santis said.



The findings revealed that the cleavage of ZP2 enables it to form new interactions with other ZP2 molecules, generating a network of cross-links that tighten the egg coat's mesh. This mechanism effectively prevents additional sperm from penetrating the ZP. 



Jovine likens this to a zipper being closed, highlighting its logical efficiency from an evolutionary standpoint as it blocks polyspermy without relying on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/novel-gene-editing-tool-analyzes-sperm-health-in-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a> attachment, which can vary across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-horizons-for-infertility-treatment-and-contraception">New horizons for infertility treatment and contraception</h2>



These discoveries not only advance our understanding of reproductive biology but also hold significant promise for reproductive medicine.



Jovine points out, "For the first time, we have a molecular view of how the egg coat's architecture changes after fertilization and its impact on function. This insight enables us to better understand the growing number of human ZP gene mutations associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-may-be-linked-to-female-fertility-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">female infertility</a>."



Furthermore, detailed knowledge of the egg coat's structure could pave the way for diagnostic applications and the development of non-hormonal contraceptives, offering hope to those affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infertility</a> and seeking alternative contraceptive methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deeper-understanding-of-sperm-and-egg-dynamics">Deeper understanding of sperm and egg dynamics</h2>



In summary, the significant research conducted by the team from Karolinska Institutet and their international collaborators marks a significant milestone in our understanding of human reproduction. The scientists cracked the complex mechanics of the egg coat and its pivotal role as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaping-linked-to-lower-sperm-counts-and-testicular-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sperm</a> gatekeeper, preventing polyspermy. 



By unveiling the intricate molecular processes that fortify the egg post-fertilization, this study deepens our comprehension of fertility and its genetic underpinnings and opens new avenues for innovative infertility treatments and the development of non-hormonal contraceptives. 



As we move forward, these insights promise to revolutionize reproductive medicine, offering hope and new solutions to millions affected by infertility worldwide, and reaffirming the power of scientific inquiry to unlock the mysteries of life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S009286742400179X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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How the body prevents multiple sperm from fertilizing an egg

Scientists have unveiled a critical mechanism in human reproduction, learning...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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