Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Close,Up,Of,Businessman,Holding,Digital,Image,Of,Brain,In

A groundbreaking study led by researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">The University of Texas at Austin</a> has successfully developed an artificial intelligence system that can translate a person's brain activity into a continuous stream of text.&nbsp;



Named a "semantic decoder," this system could potentially revolutionize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-communication-among-animals/">communication</a> for individuals who are conscious but physically unable to speak, such as those debilitated by strokes.



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41593-023-01304-9">Nature Neuroscience</a>, was carried out by Jerry Tang, a doctoral student in computer science, and Alex Huth, an assistant professor of neuroscience and computer science at UT Austin. Their innovative work relies in part on a transformer model, a technology similar to the one employed by OpenAI's ChatGPT and Google's Bard.



What sets this semantic decoder apart from other language decoding systems is its noninvasive nature. The process does not require subjects to undergo surgical implantation, making it more accessible and less risky for potential users. Additionally, participants are not limited to using only words from a prescribed list.



<h2 id="h-how-a-semantic-decoder-works">How a semantic decoder works</h2>



To achieve this feat, researchers trained the decoder using brain activity data collected from an individual listening to hours of podcasts inside an fMRI scanner.&nbsp;



Once trained, the machine is able to generate corresponding text from the participant's brain activity while they listen to a new story or imagine telling one themselves.



Huth explained the significance of their findings, stating: "For a noninvasive method, this is a real leap forward compared to what's been done before, which is typically single words or short sentences. We're getting the model to decode continuous language for extended periods of time with complicated ideas."



It is important to note that the resulting text is not a perfect word-for-word transcript. Instead, the system is designed to capture the overall essence of what is being said or thought. The decoder produces text that closely (and sometimes precisely) matches the intended meanings of the original words about 50% of the time.



In experimental trials, for instance, when a participant listened to the phrase "I don't have my driver's license yet," their thoughts were translated as, "She has not even started to learn to drive yet."&nbsp;



Another example involved the participant listening to the words, "I didn't know whether to scream, cry or run away. Instead, I said, 'Leave me alone!'" The decoder translated this as, "Started to scream and cry, and then she just said, 'I told you to leave me alone.'"



<h2 id="h-concerns-about-misuse-of-semantic-decoder-technology">Concerns about misuse of semantic decoder technology</h2>



The researchers addressed concerns about the potential misuse of their groundbreaking semantic decoder technology. The artificial intelligence system, which translates brain activity into a continuous stream of text, has raised questions about the possibility of unauthorized access to individuals' thoughts.



However, the researchers stressed that decoding was only effective with cooperative participants who willingly participated in training the decoder. When tested on untrained individuals or those who actively resisted by thinking other thoughts, the results were unintelligible and unusable.



Jerry Tang, one of the researchers, expressed the team's commitment to addressing these concerns, saying: “We take very seriously the concerns that it could be used for bad purposes and have worked to avoid that. We want to make sure people only use these types of technologies when they want to and that it helps them.”



As part of the research, subjects were asked to watch four short, silent videos while inside an fMRI scanner. The semantic decoder was able to use the brain activity data to accurately describe certain events from the videos, further demonstrating the potential of the technology.



<h2 id="h-use-of-semantic-decoder-technology-outside-the-lab">Use of semantic decoder technology outside the lab</h2>



However, the system is not yet practical for use outside of a laboratory setting due to its reliance on time-consuming fMRI machines. The researchers believe that their work could be adapted to more portable brain-imaging systems, such as functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).



Alex Huth, another researcher, explained the potential for fNIRS integration: “fNIRS measures where there’s more or less blood flow in the brain at different points in time, which, it turns out, is exactly the same kind of signal that fMRI is measuring. So, our exact kind of approach should translate to fNIRS.” However, Huth noted that the resolution with fNIRS would be lower than with fMRI.



The study was supported by the Whitehall Foundation, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and the Burroughs Wellcome Fund. Other co-authors of the study include Amanda LeBel, a former research assistant in the Huth lab, and Shailee Jain, a computer science graduate student at UT Austin.



In anticipation of the potential applications of this groundbreaking technology, Alexander Huth and Jerry Tang have filed a PCT patent application related to their work. As the researchers continue to refine the system and explore its possibilities, the hope is that it will eventually be adapted for everyday use, empowering individuals who face communication challenges due to physical limitations.



This breakthrough in AI-assisted communication could potentially change the lives of countless individuals who face communication challenges due to physical limitations. As the technology continues to advance, it may one day become a vital tool for enabling clear and efficient communication for those who would otherwise struggle to express themselves.



<h2 id="h-frequently-asked-questions-about-semantic-decoder-technology">Frequently asked questions about semantic decoder technology</h2>



Could this technology be used on someone without them knowing, say by an authoritarian regime interrogating political prisoners or an employer spying on employees?



No. The system has to be extensively trained on a willing subject in a facility with large, expensive equipment. “A person needs to spend up to 15 hours lying in an MRI scanner, being perfectly still, and paying good attention to stories that they’re listening to before this really works well on them,” said Huth.



Could training be skipped altogether?



No. The researchers tested the system on people whom it hadn’t been trained on and found that the results were unintelligible.



Are there ways someone can defend against having their thoughts decoded?



Yes. The researchers tested whether a person who had previously participated in training could actively resist subsequent attempts at brain decoding. Tactics like thinking of animals or quietly imagining telling their own story let participants easily and completely thwart the system from recovering the speech the person was exposed to.



What if technology and related research evolved to one day overcome these obstacles or defenses?



“I think right now, while the technology is in such an early state, it’s important to be proactive by enacting policies that protect people and their privacy,” Tang said. “Regulating what these devices can be used for is also very important.”



<h2 id="h-more-about-semantic-decoder-technology">More about semantic decoder technology</h2>



Semantic decoders refer to artificial intelligence systems that are designed to interpret and translate brain activity into meaningful text or language. These decoders analyze the neural patterns associated with the processing of language and ideas in the brain and attempt to convert them into a coherent, intelligible output.



<h3 id="h-the-development-of-semantic-decoders-involves-several-key-steps">The development of semantic decoders involves several key steps:</h3>



<h4 id="h-data-collection">Data Collection</h4>



Researchers use neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) or functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), to collect brain activity data from participants. These techniques measure blood flow changes in the brain, which reflect neural activity associated with language processing and cognitive tasks.



<h4 id="h-training">Training</h4>



To train a semantic decoder, researchers expose participants to various stimuli, such as listening to stories, watching videos, or imagining telling stories. The brain activity data collected during these tasks is used to develop a model that can map neural patterns to semantic information.



<h4 id="h-decoding">Decoding</h4>



Once the model is trained, it can be used to decode brain activity from a participant engaged in a similar task. The decoder translates the observed neural patterns into meaningful language or text, capturing the essence of the participant's thoughts, albeit imperfectly.



Semantic decoders have significant potential in various applications, particularly in assisting individuals with communication impairments. For instance, they could help people who are mentally conscious but unable to physically speak due to stroke, brain injury, or neurodegenerative diseases to communicate more effectively.



However, there are also ethical concerns associated with semantic decoders, such as the potential for misuse or invasion of privacy. Researchers developing these systems are working to address these concerns by ensuring that the technology is only effective when used with cooperative participants who willingly take part in the training process.



While semantic decoders are still in the early stages of development, their potential to revolutionize communication for individuals with physical limitations is promising. As the technology continues to advance, it may one day become a vital tool for enabling clear and efficient communication for those who would otherwise struggle to express themselves.



—-



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Breakthrough: Semantic decoder technology can read minds

A groundbreaking study led by researchers at The University of...

Bird flu outbreaks are quite common, and pose a significant threat to wild birds, poultry, and – if the avian influenza <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-virus-could-help-cure-cancer/">virus</a> acquires sufficient mutations - possibly even humans. Currently, the highly pathogenic H1N1 subtype is spreading at unprecedented rates in both North America and Europe.



To better understand the dynamics of bird flu outbreaks, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zürich</a> has recently investigated the epidemic caused by another subtype of avian influenza (H7N9) in China from 2013 to 2017, which not only decimated a vast number of poultry, but also killed 616 people who had close contact with infected poultry.



The experts analyzed published genetic sequences of H7N9 viruses isolated from infected poultry and humans from the metropolitan regions of Shanghai and Guangdong to build phylogenetic trees that could reveal how the disease spread at Chinese poultry markets, which play a key role in transmission between animals, as well as from animals to humans.&nbsp;



The analyses provided evidence that the H7N9 virus was likely circulating in poultry for several months before it was first detected in poultry markets and humans, suggesting that, between 2013 and 2016 – when the virus caused relatively few symptoms in poultry – it actually affected more markets than previously thought. As the virus mutated and started to cause more severe symptoms in poultry from 2016, the affected animals were easier to identify.&nbsp;



“Our findings highlight the importance of not waiting until bird flu cases are discovered, because then the virus has probably already been circulating for quite some time,” said study senior author Tanja Stadler, a professor of Biostatistics and Computational Evolution at ETH Zürich.&nbsp; “Instead, it would be wise to continuously monitor the health of the animals in their stalls and at the live poultry markets.”&nbsp;



Although some scientists hypothesized that the virus was introduced repeatedly between regions by transporting infected birds, the phylogenetic trees the researchers reconstructed indicate no such pattern, suggesting that it rather circulated silently in various poultry markets in urban regions before it was first detected.



Despite the fact that the H7N9 epidemic was restricted to China due to improved hygiene measures in poultry markets, along with a poultry mass vaccination campaign that started in 2017 – initiatives able to significantly mitigate the epidemic in animals and greatly decrease rates of transmission to humans – isolated outbreaks still occur (with the last human fatality recorded in 2019), highlighting the insidious nature of bird flu epidemics.&nbsp;



Moreover, since virus genomes mutate constantly, the risk of H7N9 and other influenza strains becoming once more a threat to both birds and mammals (including humans) remains. These findings stress the need for more efficient and coordinated efforts of early detection of flu infections, in order to avoid massive outbreaks that could potentially lead to a new pandemic.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2215610120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What can we learn from previous bird flu outbreaks?

Bird flu outbreaks are quite common, and pose a significant...

In a new study from <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a>, researchers have discovered that progress on land conservation and sustainable development has outpaced efforts in marine environments, raising concerns about global inequality between high-income and low-income countries.&nbsp;



The study, published in the open-access journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2023.106420">iScience</a>, aimed to evaluate the progress made towards the United Nations' 17 Sustainable Development Goals adopted in 2015, which seek to encourage global partnerships for sustainable development.



According to senior author Jianguo "Jack" Liu, MSU Rachel Carson Chair in Sustainability, keeping score of sustainability is important. "Making progress to maintain and improve life on Earth is a delicate balance in the telecoupled world," said Liu.



In the study, titled "Global Decadal Assessment of Life below Water and on Land," the researchers observed positive results in conservation efforts and the sustainable use of natural resources on land, especially in biodiversity hotspots such as Ethiopia, Madagascar, and Indonesia.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



However, contrary to expectations, progress in ocean sustainability slowed after 2015. Study lead author Yuqian Zhang, a PhD student at MSU's Center for Systems Integration and Sustainability (CSIS), explained that "a closer look shows that low-income countries lagged, and the gap between high-income and low-income countries became wider over time."&nbsp;



Zhang noted that efforts to prevent and reduce marine pollution and to share the economic benefits of sustainable marine resource use with small island developing states had barely improved.



Between 2010 and 2020, global biodiversity conservation and sustainable development achieved positive progress on both land and sea. The sustainable use of natural resources and the prevention of resource degradation and biodiversity loss doubled the sustainable development goal estimates for that decade.&nbsp;



However, the widening gap between wealthy and less affluent countries demands attention. High-income countries such as Croatia, Gambia, and Lithuania saw significant increases in metrics for life below water, while countries like Pakistan, Fiji, and Tonga experienced major decreases in water metrics.



The study highlights the importance of vigilance in understanding global progress at local and national levels and determining why some countries succeed while others falter.&nbsp;



Zhang emphasized the need to "take a holistic look and discover the drivers for sustainability successes." By gaining such insights, policymakers can design better-informed institutions for global biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.



Yingjie Li, a former MSU-CSIS PhD student now at Stanford University, joined Liu and Zhang in writing the article. The research was supported by the National Science Foundation and Michigan AgBioResearch.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sustainable-development">More about sustainable development</h2>



Sustainable development is a concept that aims to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is a holistic approach that integrates economic, social, and environmental aspects to promote long-term prosperity, wellbeing, and ecological balance. Sustainable development is critical to humanity and the environment for several reasons:



<h3 id="h-resource-management">Resource management</h3>



As the global population continues to grow, the demand for natural resources such as water, land, and energy also increases. Sustainable development encourages responsible use and management of these resources to ensure their availability for future generations.



<h3 id="h-climate-change-mitigation">Climate change mitigation</h3>



Sustainable development practices often promote the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to climate change. By adopting cleaner energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and promoting sustainable transportation, we can help mitigate the adverse effects of climate change on the environment and human life.



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-conservation">Biodiversity conservation</h3>



Biodiversity, or the variety of life on Earth, provides essential services to humanity, such as food, medicines, and ecosystem stability. Sustainable development practices aim to reduce habitat loss, overexploitation, and pollution, thereby conserving biodiversity and the benefits it provides.



<h3 id="h-social-equity">Social equity</h3>



Sustainable development is not just about environmental protection but also about ensuring social equity and justice. It seeks to address issues such as poverty, income inequality, and access to education and healthcare, promoting a more inclusive and equitable society.



<h3 id="h-economic-growth">Economic growth</h3>



By fostering innovation, creating green jobs, and encouraging resource efficiency, sustainable development can drive long-term economic growth. It can help transition economies toward more sustainable industries and consumption patterns, ensuring stability and prosperity for future generations.



<h3 id="h-improved-quality-of-life">Improved quality of life</h3>



Sustainable development practices can lead to better health, education, and overall wellbeing for individuals and communities. By reducing pollution, providing access to clean water, and promoting healthy lifestyles, sustainable development contributes to a higher quality of life for all.



<h3 id="h-resilience">Resilience</h3>



Sustainable development strengthens the ability of communities and ecosystems to adapt to change and recover from shocks, such as natural disasters or economic downturns. By promoting resilience, sustainable development helps ensure the long-term survival and wellbeing of both people and the environment.



In summary, sustainable development is a critical approach to securing the future of our planet and its inhabitants. By balancing economic, social, and environmental needs, sustainable development fosters long-term prosperity, wellbeing, and ecological balance, creating a better world for current and future generations.



—-



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Wealthy nations are making more progress toward sustainable development

In a new study from Michigan State University, researchers have...

Air pollution has long been considered a significant environmental concern, but its impact on human health is now coming to the forefront with new research.&nbsp;



A recent study published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.220929">Canadian Medical Association Journal</a> (CMAJ) has demonstrated a link between acute exposure to air pollution and an increased risk of arrhythmia, or irregular heartbeat.&nbsp;



This research comes from an analysis of data from 2025 hospitals across 322 Chinese cities, where air pollution levels are well above the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a>'s guidelines for air quality.



Arrhythmia, specifically atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter, affects an estimated 59.7 million people worldwide and can progress to more severe heart disease. While air pollution has been recognized as a modifiable risk factor for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frequent-cannabis-use-can-lead-to-heart-disease/">heart disease</a>, its connection to arrhythmia has remained unclear.&nbsp;



To address this knowledge gap, Dr. Renjie Chen from the School of Public Health at Fudan University in Shanghai, China, along with his co-authors, embarked on a comprehensive analysis of this potential link.



The study included 190,115 patients with acute onset of symptomatic arrhythmia, encompassing atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, premature beats, and supraventricular tachycardia.&nbsp;



By evaluating hourly exposure to air pollution and the sudden onset of arrhythmia symptoms, the researchers were able to identify patterns and connections.



<h2 id="h-results-of-the-study">Results of the study</h2>



"We found that acute exposure to ambient air pollution was associated with increased risk of symptomatic arrhythmia," said Dr. Chen.



The risks associated with this exposure appear within the first few hours after exposure and could persist for up to 24 hours. The study also revealed that the relationship between six pollutants and four subtypes of arrhythmias was approximately linear, with no discernable thresholds of concentrations.



Among the six pollutants examined, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) had the strongest association with all four types of arrhythmias. Furthermore, the researchers found that the greater the exposure to air pollution, the stronger the association with arrhythmia.&nbsp;



The study's findings were most pronounced for atrial flutter and supraventricular tachycardia, followed by atrial fibrillation and premature beats.



The researchers acknowledge that the exact mechanisms behind this association remain unclear, but they suggest that air pollution may alter cardiac electrophysiological activities by inducing oxidative stress and systemic inflammation, affecting multiple membrane channels and impairing autonomic nervous function.&nbsp;



As the link between air pollution and acute onset of arrhythmia is immediate, the authors emphasize the need to protect at-risk populations during heavy air pollution.



In conclusion, the study highlights the importance of reducing exposure to air pollution and providing timely protection for susceptible populations worldwide.&nbsp;



This research adds to the growing body of evidence pointing to the adverse cardiovascular effects of air pollution, further underlining the urgency of addressing this global health risk.



<h2 id="h-more-about-air-pollution-and-human-health">More about air pollution and human health</h2>



Air pollution, human health, and the environment are intricately linked, with each aspect directly affecting the others. Air pollution refers to the presence of harmful substances in the atmosphere, which can result from both natural processes and human activities. Major sources of this type of pollution include emissions from industries, power plants, vehicles, and agricultural activities.



The connection between air pollution and human health has been well-established through numerous studies. Air pollution can lead to various short-term and long-term health issues, ranging from mild respiratory irritation to severe cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, and even cancer.&nbsp;



Some of the primary pollutants that impact human health include particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ground-level ozone (O3), and lead (Pb).



Exposure to these pollutants can have serious health consequences, such as:



<h3 id="h-respiratory-issues">Respiratory issues</h3>



Air pollution can cause or aggravate respiratory conditions like asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema. Inhaling particulate matter, for example, can lead to inflammation in the lungs and airways, making it difficult to breathe.



<h3 id="h-cardiovascular-problems">Cardiovascular problems</h3>



As seen in the study on arrhythmia mentioned earlier, air pollution can increase the risk of heart diseases. It can lead to inflammation in blood vessels, elevated blood pressure, and the formation of blood clots, potentially resulting in heart attacks and strokes.



<h3 id="h-neurological-disorders">Neurological disorders</h3>



Emerging evidence suggests that air pollution may also affect the nervous system, increasing the risk of neurodevelopmental disorders in children and neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's and Parkinson's in adults.



<h3 id="h-premature-death">Premature death</h3>



Long-term exposure to air pollution is associated with a higher risk of premature death. A 2015 study estimated that outdoor air pollution contributed to 4.2 million premature deaths globally.



The environment also suffers from the effects of air pollution. Some of the key environmental impacts include:



<h3 id="h-acid-rain">Acid rain</h3>



Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) released into the atmosphere can react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form acid rain. This acidic precipitation can harm aquatic life, soil quality, and vegetation, ultimately disrupting ecosystems.



<h3 id="h-eutrophication">Eutrophication</h3>



Nitrogen oxides released from human activities can contribute to eutrophication, a process where excessive nutrients accumulate in water bodies. This can lead to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and the death of aquatic organisms.



<h3 id="h-ozone-depletion">Ozone depletion</h3>



Some air pollutants, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), can damage the ozone layer, which protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Increased UV radiation can have adverse effects on human health, such as skin cancer and cataracts, and disrupt ecosystems.



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



Air pollutants like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) are greenhouse gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate change. Climate change can lead to more frequent and severe weather events, sea-level rise, and loss of biodiversity.



To mitigate the adverse effects of air pollution on human health and the environment, it is crucial to implement effective air quality management strategies, reduce emissions from various sources, and promote sustainable practices such as the use of renewable energy and public transportation.



—-



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More research proves that air pollution causes heart problems

Air pollution has long been considered a significant environmental concern,...

As global temperatures continue to rise, urban areas are facing increased levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/at-what-point-does-heat-stress-become-dangerous/">heat stress</a>. While cities are generally warmer and drier than rural areas, in the Global South, humidity represents another complicating factor. By using observational data and an urban climate model calculation, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> has recently investigated the combined impact of temperature and humidity on urban heat stress.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that heat stress is highly dependent on local climate, and humidity can erase the cooling effect that would come from trees and other vegetation.



“A widely held view is that urban residents suffer more heat burden than the general population owing to the urban heat island phenomenon. This view is incomplete because it omits another ubiquitous urban microclimate phenomenon called the urban dry island - that urban land tends to be less humid than the surrounding rural land,” said study senior author Xuhui Lee, a professor of Meteorology at Yale.



“In dry, temperate, and boreal climates, urban residents are actually less heat-stressed than rural residents. But in the humid Global South, the urban heat island is dominant over the urban dry island, resulting in two to six extra dangerous heat stress days per summer.”



Since a large percentage of the population currently lives in urban settings (about 55 percent of the world’s population), and many people do not have access to air conditioning while temperatures continue to rise, clarifying which factors affect urban climates is necessary.&nbsp;



According to the experts, urban land modifies both air temperature and air humidity, which have equal weight in heat stress as measured by the so-called “wet-bulb temperature index,” which does not weigh temperature more heavily than humidity as other heat indexes.



These findings raise a series of important questions. “Green vegetation can lower air temperature via water evaporation, but it can also increase heat burden because of air humidity. The question then is to what extent this humidifying effect erases the cooling benefit arising from temperature reduction. We hope to answer this question in a follow-up study, where we are comparing observations of the wet-bulb temperature in urban greenspaces (with dense tree cover) and those in built-up neighborhoods,” said Lee.



Further research is needed to find efficient ways of mitigating heat stress in urban settings. “Our diagnostic analysis on the urban wet-bulb island found that enhancing urban convection efficiency (the efficiency in dissipating heat and water) and reducing heat storage at night can reduce daytime and nighttime urban humid heat, respectively. We hope that our work will promote more research on optimizing urban shapes and materials for better thermal comforts,” concluded lead author Keer Zhang, a PhD student in Environmental Sciences at Yale.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-05911-1">Nature</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Humidity increases urban heat stress

As global temperatures continue to rise, urban areas are facing...

A recent study from the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/ub/">University of Barcelona</a> has revealed new details about the cognitive skills of ungulates, a group of mammals that includes dromedaries, horses, and goats. These creatures are known for walking on the tips of their toes or hooves, and their innovative ability has been largely unexplored compared to more common study subjects like primates.



The researchers, led by Álvaro López Caicoya, found that ungulates who were less integrated into their social groups and exhibited a greater fear of new objects were more adept at solving the challenge of opening a food container.&nbsp;



"These findings are in line with recent scientific literature about wild and captive primates, and they show that less socially integrated individuals are less likely to obtain resources such as food, but they are more likely to overcome neophobia - aversion to new things - to improve their situation," explained Caicoya. "Also, this confirms that ungulates are a promising taxon to test evolutionary theories with a comparative approach."



Caicoya explained that most comparative studies on the evolution of cognitive abilities have focused on birds and primates. However, the evolutionary pressures faced by animals are not always the same. Exploring the cognitive abilities of other species like ungulates is "essential for understanding the limits and the generalization of specific evolutionary hypotheses."



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2022.2384">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>, also involved Montserrat Colell of <a href="http://www.neurociencies.ub.edu/">UBneuro</a>, as well as experts from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the University of Leipzig in Germany.



The investigation was focused on 111 animals from 13 different species of ungulates, including goats, dromedaries, Przewalki horses, giraffes, llamas, sheep, and deer, which lived in captivity in zoos. Each group of animals was tasked with opening a container filled with their favorite food, a challenge designed to test their problem-solving abilities.



In the experiment, the researchers found that dromedaries and goats were the most skilled at opening the container, with 86 and 69 percent of individuals succeeding, respectively.&nbsp;



“Most of them opened the containers using their nose, muzzle or lips; only nine out of these forty animals used more than one strategy to solve the challenge, such as lifting the cover gently with their lips or throwing the cup to the floor," explained the researchers.



This groundbreaking study is one of the first of its kind to investigate the cognitive abilities of ungulates, and Caicoya emphasizes the importance of conducting more research that includes a wider variety of species, both captive and wild, as well as more complex challenges. "The ungulates are an exceptional model for comparative research, and this study is only a first approach to the cognition of these species," said Caicoya.



As our understanding of animal cognition expands, it is crucial to consider the unique characteristics and cognitive abilities of various species to develop a more comprehensive understanding of the evolutionary pressures and adaptations that shape animal behavior. This research serves as an important step in broadening the scope of comparative cognitive research and shedding light on the fascinating world of ungulates.



<h2 id="h-more-about-ungulates">More about ungulates&nbsp;</h2>



Ungulates are a diverse group of large mammals that are most distinguished by their hooves, which are essentially the tips of their toes. The term "ungulate" comes from the Latin word "ungula", which means "hoof". They are spread across several orders and are found all around the world. The group includes several well-known and diverse species such as horses, cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, deer, and hippopotamuses.



Historically, ungulates were divided into two groups: the odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla), which include horses, rhinoceroses, and tapirs, and the even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla), which include cattle, pigs, giraffes, camels, deer, and hippopotamuses.&nbsp;



However, modern taxonomic understandings based on genetics rather than physical characteristics have reorganized these groups. For instance, whales and dolphins are now classified as even-toed ungulates due to genetic similarities with this group.



Ungulates play vital roles in their ecosystems. Many are herbivores and are key in controlling vegetation and shaping landscapes. Some are prey for large predators, and their movements and population dynamics can influence predator populations. Many ungulates are also significant to humans economically and culturally, as sources of meat, milk, leather, and as beasts of burden.



Despite the diversity within this group, there are some common traits that many ungulates share. They tend to be large-bodied and have barrel-shaped bodies adapted to processing large amounts of food, particularly plant matter. They often have long legs, which allow them to outrun predators, and they have well-developed senses to detect threats. Many ungulates also have complex social structures and can exhibit a wide range of behaviors.



<h2 id="h-animals-and-innovation">Animals and innovation&nbsp;</h2>



Innovation is often associated with human endeavors, particularly in technology and business. However, animals also display innovative behaviors, primarily as adaptations for survival, foraging, and social interactions. These innovations are often triggered by changes in the environment, competition for resources, or changes in social structure.



<h3 id="h-animal-innovation-can-take-many-forms">Animal innovation can take many forms:</h3>



<h4 id="h-tool-use">Tool Use</h4>



Certain animals use tools innovatively to acquire food and other resources. The most famous example is probably the New Caledonian crow, which can shape plant matter into hooks to extract insects from tree bark. Similarly, chimpanzees use sticks to extract termites from mounds and rocks to crack open nuts. Dolphins have been observed using sponges to protect their noses while foraging on the sea floor.



<h4 id="h-foraging-strategies">Foraging Strategies</h4>



Animals often develop new foraging strategies in response to changes in their environment or the availability of food. For example, urban foxes and raccoons have adapted to life in human cities, developing new strategies to find and exploit food resources. Another example is humpback whales, who use a technique known as bubble-net feeding, which involves blowing a ring of bubbles around a school of fish to trap them.



<h4 id="h-social-interactions">Social Interactions</h4>



In social species, innovative behaviors can also occur in the context of social interactions. For example, in meerkat societies, older siblings have been observed teaching younger ones how to handle dangerous prey like scorpions. This teaching behavior is not innate but learned, showing a kind of cultural innovation.



<h4 id="h-problem-solving">Problem Solving</h4>



Many animals are capable of innovative problem-solving. A famous example is Alex, the African Grey Parrot, who was trained by animal psychologist Irene Pepperberg. Alex could understand and use human language to an extent, and he was capable of solving relatively complex problems. Cephalopods like octopuses also show significant problem-solving abilities, such as escaping from closed containers or manipulating objects to obtain food.



<h4 id="h-adaptation-to-human-environments">Adaptation to Human Environments</h4>



Many animals have shown the ability to adapt to human-made environments, often in innovative ways. For example, pigeons in urban areas often use human traffic to help them crack open nuts, while some birds have been known to use cigarette butts in their nests as a form of pest control.



Studying animal innovation can provide insights into animal cognition, the evolution of intelligence, and the adaptability of species to changing environments. It also raises interesting questions about the nature of culture and invention beyond the human species.



—-



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Animals that are the least social may be the most innovative 

A recent study from the University of Barcelona has revealed...

A recent study led by <a href="https://www.vt.edu/">Virginia Tech</a> has found that sections of the Chesapeake Bay are sinking at a rate of nearly seven millimeters per year. Unfortunately, up-to-date knowledge of where the ground is sinking and by how much is currently not included in the official planning maps which authorities use to assess the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-flood-risks-plague-the-us-housing-market/">flooding risk</a> from rising sea levels.&nbsp;



This phenomenon poses a significant challenge to present and future management efforts, which are likely to either underestimate or overestimate flooding risk to coastal communities from the Virginia shoreline.



The scientists used interferometric imaging with synthetic aperture radar from the Earth’s orbit to measure how much the land along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/ice-in-the-chesapeake-bay/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chesapeake Bay’s shoreline</a> had sunk between 2007 and 2020. By using this data, they estimated potential flooding through the 21st century caused by land elevation changes, sea level rise, and storm surges.



“Although we found that most of the bay is sinking by less than 2 millimeters a year, in several areas we discovered subsidence rates of 4 to 5 millimeters per year and more,” said study lead author Sonam Futi Sherpa, a doctoral student in Geosciences at Virginia Tech.&nbsp;



Some hotspots of land subsidence occurring at a relatively higher rate and further exacerbating the effects of sea level rise and storm surges include Norfolk, Newport News, and Virginia Beach (parts of Chesapeake Bay's Hampton Roads). While many of these hotspots are sites of intense anthropogenic activity, such as groundwater pumping causing the compaction of aquifer systems, some of them are areas where land is lost due to erosion.



When examining various sea-level rise scenarios compounded with the effects of land subsidence, the scientists found that, by the end of the century, between 454 and 600 square kilometers will face a significant risk of flooding. In addition, massive storm surges such as 2003’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/hurricane-isabel-north-atlantic-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hurricane Isabel</a> could increase the flooded area from 849 to 1,117 square kilometers under a very high greenhouse emissions scenario.



“There are many estimates and models for sea-level rise, but they all fall short because they don’t take into account land elevation changes,” said co-author Manoochcher Shirzaei, an associate professor of Radar Remote Sensing Engineering and Environmental Security at Virginia Tech.&nbsp;



“When formerly dry land becomes flooded, it causes saltwater contamination of surface and underground water, and it accelerates coastal erosion and wetland losses. The flooding hazards maps of the Chesapeake Bay area need to be updated with the measurements of land elevation changes and updated projections of sea level rise.”



According to the researchers, sinking ground along the shoreline significantly magnifies the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-will-cause-widespread-impacts-sooner-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea level rise</a>: as the ground goes down and the sea level comes up, flood waters will go much further inland. However, since various locations face different rates of land subsidence, long-term solutions to mitigate emergent problems should be tailored to each individual situation.



“Adaptation to relative sea level rises comprises three main categories of defense: protection, accommodation, and retreat. And coastal communities can choose and pick from a long list of options, such as upgrading protection facilities (e.g. dams), raising lands, maintaining and restoring wetlands protection, controlling subsidence, improving flood resiliency, selective relocation of important infrastructure, and installing flood warning systems,” Shirzaei concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-sea-level-rise">More about sea level rise</h2>



Sea level rise refers to the increase in the average global sea level, primarily driven by the melting of ice sheets and glaciers, as well as the expansion of seawater due to rising temperatures. This phenomenon is a significant consequence of climate change and poses substantial challenges to both human societies and the environment.



<h3>Impacts on humanity</h3>



<h4>Coastal flooding</h4>



As sea levels rise, the frequency and intensity of coastal flooding events increase, threatening the lives and properties of millions of people living in low-lying coastal areas.



<h4>Erosion and loss of land</h4>



Shorelines recede due to increased erosion, leading to the loss of valuable land, including agricultural fields, residential areas, and infrastructure.



<h4>Displacement of populations</h4>



Rising sea levels can lead to the permanent inundation of coastal areas, forcing millions of people to relocate. Climate refugees may face social, economic, and political challenges as they seek new homes.



<h4>Damage to infrastructure</h4>



Critical infrastructure, such as roads, bridges, and power plants, can be damaged or destroyed by rising sea levels and the resulting increased flooding.



<h4>Economic impact</h4>



The loss of land, displacement of populations, and damage to infrastructure can significantly impact regional and global economies, disrupting trade, tourism, and other economic activities.



<h3>Impacts on the environment</h3>



<h4>Loss of coastal ecosystems</h4>



Rising sea levels can lead to the loss of critical coastal habitats such as wetlands, mangroves, and salt marshes. These ecosystems serve important ecological functions, including providing habitat for numerous species, filtering pollutants, and acting as natural buffers against storms and flooding.



<h4>Saltwater intrusion</h4>



As sea levels rise, saltwater can infiltrate freshwater aquifers and estuaries, affecting the quality and availability of drinking water and harming freshwater ecosystems.



<h4>Changes in ocean chemistry</h4>



Rising sea levels can lead to changes in the distribution and concentration of nutrients and pollutants in the ocean, which can impact marine life and ecosystems.



<h4>Altered species distribution</h4>



Sea level rise can affect the distribution of marine species by altering their habitats, potentially leading to shifts in the composition and structure of ecosystems.



<h4>Impacts on coral reefs</h4>



Coral reefs, which are essential for the survival of many marine species, can be negatively affected by sea level rise, as increased water depth can reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the reefs, hindering the growth of the coral-building algae.



Mitigation and adaptation strategies are essential to minimize the impacts of sea level rise on humanity and the environment. These can include reducing greenhouse gas emissions, investing in renewable energy, improving coastal infrastructure, implementing managed retreat strategies, and restoring and preserving critical coastal ecosystems.



The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JB025993">Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Sinking ground amplifies flood risk from sea level rise

A recent study led by Virginia Tech has found that...

Fungi communicate in a way that is still a bit of a mystery to scientists, yet incredibly important to ecosystems. Several species of fungi play an important role in the ecological sustenance of forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-native-trees-have-enormous-value-in-urban-areas/">trees</a>. 



For instance, ectomycorrhizal fungi – commonly found on oak, pine, and birch trees – form a sheath around the outside regions of tree roots, while their mycelial body develops into vast underground networks absorbing crucial nutrients from the soil and transferring them to the trees.



Various studies have examined the possibility of electrical signal transfer between fungi and across trees via these mycelial networks, and hypothesized that fungi generate electrical signals in response to external stimuli to communicate with each other and coordinate growth and other behaviors. Some scientists have argued that these signals can even be used to help transfer nutrients to plants and trees.&nbsp;



However, the current scientific evidence for these hypotheses remains sparse, and most of the previous studies have been limited to the laboratory, thus failing to properly recreate what happens in the wild.



To address these shortcomings, a team of researchers led by <a href="http://www.tohoku.ac.jp/en/">Tohoku University</a> in Japan has conducted a field study in which they examined the behavior of small, tan-colored ectomycorrhizal fungi known as&nbsp;Laccaria bicolor in the wild. By attaching electrodes to six fungi in a cluster, they discovered that the electrical signals emitted by these fungi increased after rainfall.



“In the beginning, the mushrooms exhibited less electrical potential, and we boiled this down to the lack of precipitation,” said study lead author Yu Fukasawa, an assistant professor of Forest Microbial Ecology at Tohoku. “However, the electrical potential began to fluctuate after raining, sometimes going over 100 mV.”



The scientists managed to correlate the way fungi communicate through these electrical fluctuations with precipitation and temperature, and causality analysis revealed that the post-rain electric potential showed signal transport among fungi, which was particularly strong between spatially close mushrooms and exhibited clear directionality.



“Our preliminary results bring a call for studies on fungal electrical potentials in a more ecological context under field conditions,” the authors concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-how-fungi-communicate">More about how fungi communicate</h2>



Fungi, being an incredibly diverse group of organisms, have evolved various methods of communication with each other. Some of the main ways they communicate include chemical signaling, electrical signaling, and through physical connections called mycelial networks.



<h3>Chemical signaling</h3>



Fungi communicate by releasing chemical signals called pheromones and extracellular signaling molecules. These molecules are used to communicate with other fungi and organisms in their environment. In response to these signals, fungi can change their growth patterns, initiate sexual reproduction, or activate defense mechanisms. Quorum sensing is a common chemical communication strategy used by fungi, where they release and detect signaling molecules to monitor their population density and coordinate collective behaviors.



<h3>Fungi communicate through electrical signaling</h3>



Recent research has shown that some fungi can generate and transmit electrical signals similar to those found in animal nerve cells. This type of communication is not yet fully understood, but it's believed to help fungi coordinate their growth, respond to environmental changes, and interact with other organisms.



<h3>Mycelial networks</h3>



The mycelium is the vegetative part of a fungus, consisting of a network of thread-like structures called hyphae. Mycelial networks can connect individual fungi and act as a communication and resource-sharing system. Through these networks, fungi communicate, exchange nutrients, water, and signaling molecules, allowing them to coordinate their growth, reproduction, and defense strategies.



Mycorrhizal associations, which are symbiotic relationships between fungi and plant roots, provide another example of fungal communication. In these associations, fungi help plants absorb nutrients and water, while plants provide fungi with sugars produced during photosynthesis. 



This exchange of resources and signaling molecules helps both organisms to thrive and adapt to their environment.



While research into fungal communication is still in its early stages, the discoveries made so far provide fascinating insights into the complex interactions that govern fungal behavior and ecology.



<h2>More about Fungi</h2>



Fungi are a diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. They are distinct from plants, animals, and bacteria, and form their own kingdom, the Fungi kingdom. 



Fungi play essential roles in various ecosystems as decomposers, symbionts, and even pathogens. Fungi communicate through a network of chemical and electrical signals. Here are some key features and aspects of fungi:



<h3>Structure</h3>



Fungal cells have a rigid cell wall made of chitin, a polysaccharide also found in the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans. Most fungi grow as filamentous structures called hyphae, which together form a larger network called mycelium. Some fungi, like yeasts, grow as single-celled organisms.



<h3>Reproduction</h3>



Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually. Asexual reproduction occurs through spore formation, budding, or fragmentation of the mycelium. Sexual reproduction typically involves the fusion of specialized cells called gametes, which can result in the production of genetically diverse spores.



<h3>Nutrition</h3>



Fungi are heterotrophic organisms, meaning they obtain nutrients by absorbing organic compounds from other organisms. Most fungi are saprophytic decomposers, breaking down dead organic material and recycling nutrients in the ecosystem. Some form symbiotic relationships with other organisms, such as mycorrhizal associations with plant roots or lichens formed between fungi and algae. There are also parasitic fungi that can infect plants, animals, and even humans.



<h3>Ecological roles</h3>



Fungi are crucial in maintaining ecosystem balance as decomposers, nutrient cyclers, and mutualistic symbionts. They help break down complex organic materials like cellulose and lignin in plant matter, making nutrients available for other organisms. Fungi also form symbiotic relationships with plants, enhancing their nutrient uptake and providing protection from pathogens.



<h3>Economic and medical importance</h3>



Fungi have numerous applications in food production, medicine, and biotechnology. They are used in the production of bread, beer, cheese, and various fermented foods. Some fungi, like the Penicillium species, produce antibiotics that are critical in treating bacterial infections. However, fungi can also cause diseases in plants, animals, and humans, and spoil food and other products.



<h3>Biodiversity</h3>



There are an estimated 2.2 to 3.8 million fungal species, but only about 120,000 have been formally described. Fungi can be found in diverse habitats, from terrestrial ecosystems like forests and grasslands to aquatic environments and even extreme environments like deserts and polar regions.



Our understanding of the fungal world is still growing, with new species and their ecological roles being discovered regularly. As research continues, the importance of fungi in maintaining the health and balance of ecosystems becomes increasingly apparent.



The research findings are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.funeco.2023.101229">Fungal Ecology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Fungi communicate and engage in more “conversations” after rainfall

Fungi communicate in a way that is still a bit...

In&nbsp;a new book published by Routledge called <a href="https://www.routledge.com/Empathic-Leadership-Lessons-from-Elite-Sport/Sear/p/book/9781032349459">Empathic Leadership: Lessons From Elite Sport</a>, psychologist and consultant Peter Sear argues that the time of dictatorial leaders in sports, screaming from the side-lines and insulting their players, has ended. He says we are currently witnessing the emergence of emotionally intelligent and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-humans-empathize-more-with-people-or-other-animals/">empathic</a> coaches who, by proving a deeper understanding of their players, manage to get efficient results.



By carrying in-depth interviews with coaches of nine different elite sports across the globe, and backing them up with the latest research, Sear has found that empathic leadership motivates teams, encourages loyalty, and significantly improves changes of success.



“The head coaches who are leading with empathy are getting more out of athletes. The consensus is that to have success as a leader in elite sport in the modern era, you must have an empathic approach,” he explained.



Elite sports are frequently a setting for turbulent emotions, and factors such as performance, fans’ reactions, and media interpretations can place significant pressure on athletes, who are also required to remain physically and mentally fit, injury-free, and at a certain weight to perform properly.&nbsp;



According to Sear, in order for athletes to manage to cope with all these stressors and maximize their changes of success, empathic leadership – characterized by relationship management, building trust, and establishing strong lines of communication – is essential.



“There is no advantage to ruling with fear – you are just losing out on powerful knowledge of your team and your athletes. Success as a leader&nbsp;depends on your knowledge and understanding of people, their emotions, perspectives, and intentions, as well as the relationships you have with them. It is in these vital areas that empathy will give you an advantage,” he argued.



“Understanding what motivates your players and what hinders them will improve the quality of your decision-making as a leader. If you can understand when to push your players and when to support them, and identify who has potential and who is no longer emotionally invested, you’ll make better decisions. Understanding the unique character of each athlete allows you to develop them effectively according to their needs, and get the best from them.”



Thus, necessary skills for a successful leader should include effective communication, understanding body language, having clear boundaries to be able to make difficult decisions such as when to bench players, as well as a strong sense of self-empathy, or understanding of one’s own emotions and how they may impact others. However, Sear stresses that empathy should not always be equated with being soft and gentle. “Sometimes you need to recognize that one person might need to be pushed while that other player might need a friendly ear,” he explained.



Finally, Sear argues that humans are innately more prone to respond to empathic leaders. “This way of leading suits humans better psychologically. Through empathic communication and empathic relationships, emotions can be managed and needs met. The experience of work is valued, with high levels of wellbeing, which manifests in confidence and peak performance,” he concluded.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Sports coaches are more effective when they lead with empathy

In&nbsp;a new book published by Routledge called Empathic Leadership: Lessons...

In a groundbreaking development, researchers at the <a href="https://uwaterloo.ca/">University of Waterloo</a> have introduced a novel mining technique that employs microbes to extract metals and store <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-forests-are-losing-their-capacity-to-trap-carbon/">carbon</a> in the waste generated by mining activities. This innovative method of reusing mining waste, known as tailings, has the potential to revolutionize the mining industry by paving the way for a greener and more sustainable future.



Tailings are a by-product of the mining process, consisting of fine-grained waste materials left after extracting the target ore mineral. These residual materials are then accumulated and stored using a technique called dry-stack tailing.&nbsp;



As mining practices have evolved over time, they have become more efficient; however, the escalating climate crisis and the growing demand for critical minerals necessitate the development of new ore extraction and processing technologies.



Old tailings tend to contain higher amounts of critical minerals that can be extracted with the assistance of microbes through a process known as bioleaching. In this eco-friendly process, microbes break down the ore, releasing valuable metals that were not fully recovered, at a rate that is significantly faster than natural biogeochemical weathering processes.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



Dr. Jenine McCutcheon, an assistant professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, explained: “We can take tailings that were produced in the past and recover more resources from those waste materials and, in doing so, also reduce the risk of residual metals entering into local waterways or groundwater.”



Beyond enhancing resource recovery, the microbes also capture carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it within the mine tailings as new minerals. This process aids in counterbalancing some of the emissions released during the mine's active period and assists in stabilizing the tailings.&nbsp;



If applied to an entire mine, microbial mineral carbonation could offset over 30% of a mine site's annual greenhouse gas emissions. Moreover, this microbial-driven technique adds value to historical mine tailings that are otherwise classified as industrial waste.



“This technique makes better use of current and past mine sites. Rethinking how future mine sites are designed in order to integrate this process could result in mines that are carbon neutral from the get-go rather than thinking about carbon storage as an add-on at the end," said McCutcheon.



“This technology is a potential game-changer in the fight against climate change, and the mining industry has a unique opportunity to play a significant role in the future of green energy.”



McCutcheon explained that the microbial-driven processes could propel the industry towards carbon-neutral or carbon-negative mining. However, to transition this technology towards large-scale deployment, active engagement from the industry is crucial.



Dr. McCutcheon published this research alongside co-author and associate Professor Ian Power of Trent University in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-environmental-impact-of-mining">More about the environmental impact of mining</h2>



Mine tailings are the waste materials generated during the extraction and processing of valuable minerals from ores. They typically consist of finely ground rock particles, water, and various chemicals used in the mineral separation process.&nbsp;



These waste materials are stored in tailings storage facilities (TSFs) or tailings dams, which can occupy vast tracts of land and pose significant environmental risks.



<h3 id="h-the-environmental-impact-of-mining-and-mine-tailings-can-be-considerable-and-includes-the-following">The environmental impact of mining and mine tailings can be considerable and includes the following:</h3>



<h4 id="h-water-pollution">Water pollution</h4>



The chemicals and heavy metals in tailings can leach into groundwater and surface water, contaminating water sources and causing harm to aquatic ecosystems. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a common problem, which occurs when sulfide minerals in the tailings react with air and water, forming sulfuric acid that dissolves heavy metals. This can lead to waterways becoming highly acidic and toxic to aquatic life.



<h4 id="h-soil-contamination">Soil contamination</h4>



Tailings can also contaminate soil with heavy metals and chemicals, which can adversely affect plant growth and the health of soil-dwelling organisms. This may result in the degradation of local ecosystems and reduced agricultural productivity.



<h4 id="h-air-pollution">Air pollution</h4>



Dust from tailings storage facilities can become airborne, contributing to air pollution and posing health risks to nearby communities. Moreover, the extraction and processing of minerals often involve the release of greenhouse gases, contributing to climate change.



<h4 id="h-habitat-destruction">Habitat destruction</h4>



Mining operations often require the clearing of large areas of land, leading to the destruction of habitats and the displacement or loss of plant and animal species. This can also result in the fragmentation of ecosystems and loss of biodiversity.



<h4 id="h-tailings-dam-failures">Tailings dam failures</h4>



The structural failure of tailings dams can lead to catastrophic environmental disasters, as large volumes of toxic waste are released into the environment. This can cause widespread devastation to ecosystems, farmland, and nearby communities.



<h4 id="h-long-term-environmental-risks">Long-term environmental risks:</h4>



Mine tailings can pose long-term environmental risks due to their potential to leach contaminants and generate AMD even after mining operations have ceased. This necessitates ongoing monitoring and remediation efforts to prevent environmental damage.



Given these environmental impacts, there is a growing need for more sustainable and responsible mining practices. Techniques such as bioleaching, as mentioned in the previous answer, can help minimize the environmental footprint of mining activities by extracting valuable metals from tailings in an eco-friendly manner, reducing the need for new mines, and mitigating the risk of pollution.&nbsp;



Additionally, the use of microbes to capture carbon dioxide and store it as minerals within the tailings can help offset some of the greenhouse gas emissions associated with mining.



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Microbes can be used to store carbon and reuse mining waste

In a groundbreaking development, researchers at the University of Waterloo...

Over the past 100 million years, mammals have evolved to inhabit nearly every environment on Earth, exhibiting a diverse range of unique characteristics and abilities.&nbsp;



The Zoonomia Project, a multinational and multidisciplinary scientific initiative, has been working diligently to understand this diversity by examining the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/junk-dna-may-set-humans-apart-from-chimpanzees/">DNA</a> sequences of 240 existing mammal species, including aardvarks, African savanna elephants, yellow-spotted rock hyraxes, and zebu cattle.&nbsp;



This week, a special issue of <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adi1599">Science</a> published several papers from the Zoonomia team, showcasing the power of comparative genomics to shed light on the extraordinary capabilities of various species and to help scientists better understand functional aspects of our own genome, with potential implications for health and disease research.



The researchers identified regions of mammalian genomes that have remained conserved, or unchanged, across species and millions of years of evolution, implying biological importance.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



By analyzing DNA samples collected from more than 50 institutions worldwide, including many from the San Diego Wildlife Alliance, the team also discovered the genetic basis for rare mammalian traits such as hibernation and the ability to detect faint scents from miles away.&nbsp;



Furthermore, they were able to pinpoint species that may be particularly vulnerable to extinction and identified genetic variants that may have causal roles in both rare and common human diseases.



The Zoonomia Project is a global collaborative effort, with over 150 individuals from seven time zones contributing to the creation of the world's largest comparative mammalian genomics resource.&nbsp;



The project is led by Elinor Karlsson, director of the vertebrate genomics group at the <a href="https://www.broadinstitute.org/">Broad Institute</a> of MIT and Harvard, and a professor of bioinformatics and integrative biology at the UMass Chan Medical School; and Kerstin Lindblad-Toh, scientific director of vertebrate genomics at the Broad, and a professor of comparative genomics at Uppsala University in Sweden.



“One of the biggest problems in genomics is that humans have a really big genome and we don’t know what all of it does," said&nbsp; Karlsson. “This package of papers really shows the range of what you can do with this kind of data, and how much we can learn from studying the genomes of other mammals.”&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-exceptional-traits-discovered">Exceptional traits discovered</h2>



In one of the studies, co-first authors Matthew Christmas, a researcher at Uppsala University, and Irene Kaplow, a postdoctoral researcher at Carnegie Mellon University, collaborated with project leaders to uncover fascinating insights into the role of conserved genomic regions.



The researchers found that at least 10 percent of the human genome is highly conserved across species, with many of these regions occurring outside of protein-coding genes. Astonishingly, more than 4,500 elements are almost perfectly conserved across more than 98 percent of the species studied.&nbsp;



Most of these conserved regions, which have evolved more slowly than random fluctuations in the genome, are involved in embryonic development and regulation of RNA expression. By contrast, regions that changed more frequently shaped an animal's interaction with its environment, influencing factors such as immune responses or the development of its skin.



In addition to these discoveries, the researchers also identified parts of the genome linked to a few exceptional traits in the mammalian world, such as extraordinary brain size, superior sense of smell, and the ability to hibernate during the winter.



Karlsson and Lindblad-Toh stressed the importance of this research for preserving biodiversity. They found that mammals with fewer genetic changes at conserved sites in the genome were at greater risk for extinction.&nbsp;



The scientists argue that having just one reference genome per species could help identify at-risk species. Currently, less than five percent of all mammalian species have reference genomes, highlighting the need for further work to develop these methods.



<h2 id="h-insights-found-into-causes-of-human-disease">Insights found into causes of human disease</h2>



In another study from the Zoonomia Project, researchers led by Elinor Karlsson and Kerstin Lindblad-Toh used mammalian genomes to investigate human traits and diseases.&nbsp;



The team focused on some of the most conserved single-letter genomic regions identified in an earlier paper and compared them to genetic variants that scientists have previously linked to diseases such as cancer using other methods. This research also revealed significant findings.



The team discovered that their annotations of the genome based on evolutionary conservation provided more connections between genetic variants and their function than other methods.&nbsp;



Additionally, they identified mutations that are likely causal in both rare and common diseases, including cancer, and demonstrated that using conservation in disease studies could make it easier to find genetic changes that increase the risk of disease.



This second study was co-authored by Patrick Sullivan, director of the Center for Psychiatric Genomics at the University of North Carolina Medical School, Chapel Hill and a professor of psychiatric genetics at Karolinska Institutet in Sweden; Jennifer Meadows, a genetics researcher at Uppsala University in Sweden; and Steven Gazal, an assistant professor of population and public health sciences at the Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-many-questions-left-unanswered">Many questions left unanswered</h2>



A third study, co-led by Steven Reilly, an assistant professor of genetics at Yale University, and Pardis Sabeti, an institute member at the Broad, analyzed over 10,000 genetic deletions specific to humans, using both Zoonomia data and experimental analysis. The researchers were able to link some of these deletions to the function of neurons.



Other notable findings from the Zoonomia Project published today include the revelation that mammals diversified before the mass dinosaur extinction.&nbsp;



Additionally, researchers uncovered a genetic explanation for why a famous sled dog from the 1920s named Balto was able to survive the harsh landscape of Alaska. They also discovered human-specific changes to genome organization and used machine learning to identify regions of the genome associated with brain size.&nbsp;



Furthermore, the experts described the evolution of regulatory sequences in the human genome, focused on sequences of DNA that move around the genome, and discovered that species with smaller populations historically are at higher risk of extinction today.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that these studies - and the breadth of questions they answer - represent only a fraction of what is possible.



"We're very enthusiastic about sequencing mammalian species," said Lindblad-Toh."And we're excited to see how we and other researchers can work with this data in new ways to understand both genome evolution and human disease."



The discoveries made by the Zoonomia Project contribute to our understanding of the conservation and evolution of genetic material in mammals. They also highlight the potential for leveraging this knowledge to inform medical research and improve our understanding of human health and disease.&nbsp;



The research paves the way for exciting new opportunities in the fields of genomics, evolutionary biology, and medicine.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-human-genome-project">More about the human genome project</h2>



The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research initiative that aimed to map and sequence the entire human genome, which is the complete set of DNA present in the human body.&nbsp;



The project began in 1990 and was completed in 2003, involving thousands of scientists from around the world. The primary goals of the HGP were to identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 protein-coding genes in the human DNA, determine the sequences of the three billion chemical base pairs that make up the human genome, and store this information in databases for easy access and analysis.



<h3 id="h-the-human-genome-project-is-of-immense-importance-to-science-and-humanity-for-several-reasons">The Human Genome Project is of immense importance to science and humanity for several reasons:</h3>



<h4 id="h-understanding-the-genetic-basis-of-human-diseases">Understanding the genetic basis of human diseases</h4>



By mapping the human genome, scientists can identify genes associated with specific diseases and conditions, paving the way for more effective treatments, earlier diagnoses, and even personalized medicine tailored to an individual's genetic makeup.



<h4 id="h-evolutionary-biology">Evolutionary biology</h4>



The HGP has deepened our understanding of human evolution and the relationships between different species. By comparing the human genome to those of other organisms, researchers can gain insights into the evolutionary processes that have shaped the human species.



<h4 id="h-development-of-new-technologies">Development of new technologies</h4>



The HGP led to the development of new techniques and tools for sequencing and analyzing DNA, which have since been applied to the study of other organisms and have revolutionized the field of genomics.



<h4 id="h-gene-regulation-and-function">Gene regulation and function&nbsp;</h4>



The HGP has advanced our understanding of how genes are regulated and how they function within the context of the whole genome. This knowledge is essential for understanding the complex interactions between genes and their effects on human health and disease.



<h4 id="h-ethical-legal-and-social-implications">Ethical, legal, and social implications&nbsp;</h4>



The HGP has prompted important discussions regarding the ethical, legal, and social implications of genomic research, such as privacy concerns, genetic discrimination, and the potential for gene editing technologies.



In summary, the Human Genome Project has had a profound impact on science and humanity by providing a comprehensive understanding of the human genome, leading to advancements in medicine, evolutionary biology, and genomics.&nbsp;



The knowledge gained from the HGP has opened new avenues for research and has the potential to revolutionize how we approach human health and disease.



—-



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Genomes from 240 mammals show what makes humans unique

Over the past 100 million years, mammals have evolved to...

A recent study led by <a href="https://www.uhhospitals.org/services/integrative-health-network">University Hospitals (UH) Connor Whole Health</a> has found that patients with moderate-to-severe pain, stress, or anxiety reported clinically significant reductions in their symptoms after a single session of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-helps-dementia-patients-connect-with-caregivers/">music</a> therapy. 



Since improvements in pain-related symptoms was not influenced by patients’ demographic or clinical characteristics, music therapy appears to be effective for acute pain management across a variety of inpatient adult populations.



This research builds upon several important music therapy studies funded by the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.murphykulas.org/copy-of-kulas-home-1">Kulas Foundation</a> – United States’ leading organization funding scientific research on the benefits of music therapy – which examined the efficacy of such approaches in palliative care, surgery, sickle cell disease, and cancer treatments.&nbsp;



While these investigations have mainly been conducted at academic medical centers, the new study is the first and largest assessment of the real-world effectiveness of music therapy within community medical centers.



To examine the benefits of music therapy, the experts conducted a retrospective study between January 2017 and July 2020 involving 1,056 adults who received inpatient medical care at eight UH community medical centers, and reported pre-session pain, anxiety, or stress scores equal to or greater than 4 on a scale from 0 to 10.&nbsp;



Certified music therapists provided interventions including live music listening, music-assisted relaxation and imagery, and active music making, and assessed patients’ self-reported pain, stress, and anxiety levels at the beginning and end of each session.&nbsp;



After the music therapy interventions, patients reported clinically significant mean reductions in pain (2.04 units), anxiety (2.80 units), and stress (3.48 units), with all changes exceeding the clinically significant threshold of 1.3 units for moderate-to-severe pain, and 2 for anxiety and stress.&nbsp;



Moreover, among patients reporting a pain reduction score greater than 4, 14 percent fell asleep during the therapy sessions – an important outcome considering the sleep problems patients with moderate-to-severe pain experience during hospitalization.



Finally, after adjusting for demographic, clinical, and operational characteristics, patients receiving a music therapy session in which pain management was the primary goal were 4.32 times more likely to report pain reduction greater than 2 units than those who received a music therapy session in which pain management was not a goal.&nbsp;



“This finding raises important questions regarding how music therapists tailor their interventions to address pain when that is the goal of the session, and we will be examining these specific features of music therapy interventions in future research,” said lead author Samuel Rodgers-Melnick, a music therapist and clinical researcher at UH Connor Whole Health.



“The music therapists at UH Connor Whole Health offer non-pharmacological frontline treatment throughout our medical system while addressing issues of stress, pain, and anxiety. Greater Cleveland residents may receive these services during hospitalizations at UH as a clinical service line offering direct evidence-based community benefit,” concluded Seneca Block, the manager of the Expressive Therapy Program at the same institution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.lww.com/painrpts/Fulltext/2023/06000/Effectiveness_of_music_therapy_within_community.4.aspx">Pain Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Music therapy can reduce pain, stress, and anxiety

A recent study led by University Hospitals (UH) Connor Whole...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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