Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The Greenland Ice Sheet, a massive body of ice covering an area of 1.7 million square kilometers (660,200 square miles) in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-will-soon-vanish-during-the-summer/">Arctic</a>, has the potential to raise global sea levels by about seven meters (23 feet) if it were to melt completely.&nbsp;



Understanding the timeline and rate of this melting process is crucial for scientists, as it helps them predict and prepare for the potential impacts on coastal regions worldwide. However, determining the rate at which the ice sheet could melt has proven to be challenging due to the myriad of factors that influence it.



In a groundbreaking new study, climate scientist Dennis Höning from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research and his team have identified two critical tipping points that could determine the fate of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Tipping points are thresholds where a system's behavior undergoes an irreversible change, and in this case, could lead to the permanent loss of large portions of the ice sheet.&nbsp;



According to the study, published in AGU's journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022GL101827">Geophysical Research Letters</a>, if humanity releases 1,000 gigatons of carbon into the atmosphere, it will trigger the melting of the southern portion of the ice sheet.&nbsp;



A more alarming tipping point of 2,500 gigatons of carbon would result in the near-total loss of the ice sheet. Currently, we have emitted about 500 gigatons of carbon, placing us halfway to the first tipping point.



"The first tipping point is not far from today's climate conditions, so we're in danger of crossing it," said Höning. "Once we start sliding, we will fall off this cliff and cannot climb back up."



Between 2003 and 2016, the Greenland Ice Sheet has already experienced significant melting, losing approximately 255 gigatons (billions of tons) of ice each year. A complex interplay of factors, including air and water temperature, ocean currents, precipitation, and others, influences the rate and location of ice loss.&nbsp;



The difficulty in predicting how these factors interact, coupled with the long timescales needed to study such a massive ice sheet, has made it challenging for researchers to accurately forecast how the ice sheet might respond to various climate and carbon emissions scenarios.



Previous research suggested that global warming between one and three degrees Celsius (1.8 to 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit) could irreversibly lead to the melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet. However, this new study employed a more comprehensive model, combining a whole Earth system model that takes into account all key climate feedback processes with an ice sheet behavior model.&nbsp;



The researchers conducted a series of 20,000-year-long simulations with carbon emissions ranging from 0 to 4,000 gigatons to identify the equilibrium states of the ice sheet and the critical tipping points.



As the ice sheet melts, its surface will be exposed to warmer air temperatures at lower elevations, creating a feedback loop that accelerates the melting process. Höning explains that a brief temperature increase of two degrees Celsius (3.6 degrees Fahrenheit) would not trigger this feedback loop, but maintaining elevated global air temperatures for hundreds of years or longer would.&nbsp;



Once the ice sheet crosses the tipping point, its continued melting becomes inevitable, and even a reduction in atmospheric carbon dioxide to pre-industrial levels would not be sufficient to regrow the ice sheet significantly.



"We cannot continue carbon emissions at the same rate for much longer without risking crossing the tipping points," Höning warned. "Most of the ice sheet melting won't occur in the next decade, but it won't be too long before we will not be able to work against it anymore."



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Greenland Ice Sheet is approaching a critical tipping point 

The Greenland Ice Sheet, a massive body of ice covering...

Turtles and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodiles-weighed-1000-pounds-and-walked-on-two-legs/">crocodiles</a> are two of the most endangered animal groups on Earth, with about half of these species currently threatened. To inform conservation efforts, it is crucial to gain a better understanding of which species are currently facing the highest risk of extinction and why.



Now, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has found that the most endangered turtle and crocodile species are those that evolved unique life strategies, or ways of dividing their resources and energy for survival, reproduction, and growth. Such species usually play highly specific roles in their ecosystems – including seed dispersal, creating habitats for other species by making burrows, or acting as predators that help maintain balance in their ecosystem - which are unlikely to be replaced by other species if they disappeared.



The experts used state-of-the-art models to simulate extinctions caused by human-led threats to assess how species with different life strategies might be impacted. “A key finding is that the threats do not affect all species equally; they tend to impact particular life history strategies. For example, unsustainable consumption of turtles and crocodiles mainly affects the longest-lived species with the largest clutch sizes, such as sea turtles,” explained senior author Rob Salguero-Gómez, a biologist at Oxford.



The analysis revealed that, if all critically endangered species of turtles, tortoises, and crocodiles went extinct, 13 percent of unique life strategies would be lost. Currently, major threats to all of these species include habitat loss, climate change, and global trade, while species with unique life strategies are also particularly affected by unsustainable local consumption, diseases, and pollution.&nbsp;



For instance, turtles and crocodiles with “slow” life histories – characterized by late maturity and low numbers of offspring – are particularly vulnerable to threats from invasive species and diseases, while species with high reproduction output (higher clutch sizes), such as freshwater turtles and saltwater crocodiles, face significant threats from pollution and unsustainable local consumption.



“The main threat to the viability of these groups of reptiles is habitat loss and fragmentation, which is especially common in species inhabiting the Northern hemisphere. The disappearance of wetlands, increasing urbanization, and the development of intensive agriculture, which already have tangible effects, will likely continue to negatively affect these species and their ability to persist in the mid- to long-term,” said lead author Roberto Rodriguez, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.ua.es/en/">University of Alicante</a> who conducted this research during a fellowship at Oxford.



These findings highlight the urgent need for effective management strategies to protect species overall, while paying particular attention to those with unique life history strategies, whose functions would be most difficult to replace in their ecosystems. Citizens willing to help protect these animals should refrain from purchasing products made from them, support organizations involved in conservation projects, perform responsible ecotourism, and engage in citizen science activities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37089-5">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Turtles with unique features are most likely to go extinct

Turtles and crocodiles are two of the most endangered animal...

On Tuesday, March 28, 2023, a rare cosmic event is set to light up the night sky, with five planets – Jupiter, Mercury, Venus, Uranus, and Mars - perfectly aligning at the same time, along with the Moon and a beautiful star cluster known as Messier 35 (M35). This will be the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-planetary-alignment-will-be-visible-during-june/">planetary alignment</a> since June 2022, when Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn were seen together in a unique event that had not occurred in two decades.



While the previous “parade of planets” was easier to spot with the naked eye, the best way to see this one is to use binoculars and look west approximately 20 minutes after sunset. While Venus – the third brightest object in the sky, after the Sun and the Moon – will be quite easy to see with the naked eye, some of the other planets, such as Uranus and Mercury may be more difficult to spot, particularly from the proximity of city lights. Moreover, since Jupiter and Mercury will only be visible for less than an hour before they disappear over the western horizon, passionate stargazers should make sure they don’t miss this window of opportunity.&nbsp;



Jupiter and Mercury will appear near the horizon, at a magnitude of -1.2 and -1.3, respectively, and will be located in the constellation Pisces, separated by approximately one degree. Higher up in the sky, Venus will shine brightly from the constellation Aries, with a magnitude of -4.0. While these three planets will be easily visible with the naked eye, binoculars might be necessary to spot Uranus, located at about 2° from Venus and shining with a magnitude of 5.8. Finally, Mars will join the parade higher in the sky, close to the first quarter Moon in the constellation Gemini, at a magnitude of 0.9.



Although March 28 is the perfect time for observing this celestial event, the alignment will be visible a few days before and after that date. “Don’t forget to look to the sky&nbsp;the end of the month for the planetary alignment which will have at least five planets – plus the Moon – all visible in almost an arc shape as seen from Earth,”&nbsp;world-famous former&nbsp;astronaut&nbsp;Buzz Aldrin&nbsp;<a href="https://twitter.com/TheRealBuzz/status/1636325054219710464?s=20">tweeted</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Five planets will align in the sky tonight

On Tuesday, March 28, 2023, a rare cosmic event is...

In a recently released global water security assessment, United Nations water experts have raised major concerns, revealing that a majority of the world's population currently lives in water-insecure countries. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-water-reservoir-found-on-the-moons-surface/">Water</a> security is crucial to development, and the report suggests that we are far from achieving the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 of "clean water and sanitation for all" by 2030.



The report was released on the second day of the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/conferences/water2023">UN 2023 Water Conference</a> and provides a multidimensional comparison of water security affecting 7.8 billion people across 186 countries. It offers insights midway through the Water Action Decade (2018-2028) and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.



Dr. Charlotte MacAlister, the report's lead author and senior water security researcher at the <a href="https://unu.edu/">United Nations University</a> Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), emphasized the importance of water security.



"Without water security, countries are simply incapable of supporting freshwater ecosystems, livelihoods and human well-being," said Dr. MacAlister. She urged for policy discussions to center around these development challenges in the remaining seven years to fulfill SDG 6.



The assessment, published by UNU-INWEH, also known as the UN Think Tank on Water, criticizes the policymakers' primary focus on water scarcity mitigation. The experts argue that this narrow interpretation of water security has derailed the world from meeting SDG 6 by 2030.



To provide a more accurate understanding of global water security, the UNU-INWEH report evaluated water security across ten components: drinking water, sanitation, good health, water quality, water availability, water value, water governance, human safety, economic safety, and water resource stability. The findings are alarming, with 78 percent of the global population (6.1 billion people) currently living in water-insecure countries.



UNU-INWEH's Director, Professor Kaveh Madani, praised the report as "a major contribution" to the UN 2023 Water Conference, held from March 22-24 in New York. He highlighted the need for targeted policy, funding, and action to accelerate progress, meet the 2030 Agenda, and ensure that the most vulnerable and insecure are not left behind.



The global assessment's key findings expose numerous challenges, such as the critical levels of water security faced by Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS) due to various compounding factors. The report identified 23 countries as critically water-insecure, including 16 LDCs and 7 SIDS.



Furthermore, the assessment found that only 33 countries from three geographic regions are water-secure. Sweden tops the list, followed by numerous European countries, New Zealand, Cyprus, Australia, Japan, Israel, Kuwait, and Malaysia in the Asia-Pacific region, and Canada and the USA in the Americas.



The report also emphasized that abundant natural water availability does not guarantee water security. Many countries in Africa, the Asia-Pacific, and the Americas with abundant freshwater resources suffer from high rates of WASH-attributed (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene) deaths due to limited WASH access, poor water quality, and water having low economic value despite potentially high economic losses due to floods or droughts.



Additionally, access to safely managed drinking water and sanitation remains a distant dream for over half the global population. More than 70 percent (close to 5.5 billion people) do not have safe water access, with Africa having the lowest levels of access at just 15 percent of the region's population.



Worryingly, the situation is not improving. More people die globally from a lack of safe WASH services than those killed in water-related disasters, and 2019 saw increased rates of WASH-attributed mortality in 164 countries.



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UN: World is falling way behind on water security targets

In a recently released global water security assessment, United Nations...

The universal appeal of art and its ability to evoke a range of emotions has long captivated audiences and artists alike. But despite its importance in human culture, the underlying mechanisms that drive our emotional responses to art have remained largely unexplored.&nbsp;



Now, a groundbreaking study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en">University of Turku</a> and Aalto University sheds new light on how viewing visual art affects our emotions and offers potential applications for mental health rehabilitation and care.



The study, which included a diverse sample of 1,186 participants from various countries, involved subjects viewing and assessing over 300 different artworks. The participants' eye movements were recorded as they viewed the art and they were asked to describe the feelings and emotions evoked by each piece. The study employed a combination of online surveys and laboratory-based eye movement recordings to gather data.



"Viewing the art evoked many different kinds of feelings and emotions in people. Even though many of the pieces handled sad or scary topics, the emotions that the people experienced were mainly positive," said study lead author Professor Lauri Nummenmaa from the Turku PET Centre at the University of Turku.



Intriguingly, the researchers found a correlation between the strength of the subject's bodily sensations and the intensity of the emotions they experienced, suggesting that our bodies play a crucial role in the aesthetic experience.



Study co-author Riitta Hari from Aalto University explained that human figures in the artworks were the most interesting subjects and received the most attention from viewers. "People have a tendency to empathize with each other's emotions, and this is probably also the case when we view human figures in art," said Hari.&nbsp;



This empathetic response to human emotions in art may occur through a process known as "mirroring," where the emotions portrayed in the artwork are absorbed by the viewer, often without conscious awareness.



The findings of this study indicate that the emotions and bodily sensations evoked by art can have a profound impact on our overall experience of it. "Bodily sensations can draw people to art: art evokes feelings in the body, and such stimulation of the body's pleasure centers feels pleasant to the viewer," said Professor Nummenmaa.&nbsp;



These insights open up exciting possibilities for leveraging the emotional power of art in mental health rehabilitation and care settings, where it could provide a valuable tool for emotional expression and healing.



One of the most popular theories explaining the emotional impact of art on humans is the concept of emotional resonance or aesthetic resonance. This theory suggests that when people encounter a work of art, they experience an emotional response as a result of a connection or resonance with the piece. The connection can be based on various factors, such as personal experiences, cultural context, or innate human tendencies.



A key aspect of emotional resonance is the idea of empathy and our ability to recognize and relate to the emotions of others. When we view art that depicts human figures, emotions, or situations, we tend to empathize with the subjects and experience emotions similar to those being portrayed. This empathetic response can be triggered by the brain's mirror neuron system, which allows us to understand and share the emotions of others by simulating their experiences internally.



Another component of the emotional impact of art is the role of our cognitive and emotional processing systems. Art can activate various cognitive and emotional processes, such as memory, perception, imagination, and evaluation. These processes can trigger emotional responses, even when the artwork is abstract or non-representational. For instance, certain colors, shapes, or patterns may evoke specific emotions or memories, leading to an emotional reaction to the artwork.



Furthermore, art can serve as a form of communication and self-expression, allowing artists to convey their emotions, thoughts, and ideas to the audience. This shared emotional experience can create a connection between the viewer and the artist, further enhancing the emotional impact of the artwork.



In summary, the emotional impact of art on humans can be attributed to a combination of factors, including emotional resonance, empathy, cognitive and emotional processing, and the communicative power of art. These factors work together to create a unique and personal emotional experience for each individual who encounters a work of art.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2023.2183180">Cognition &amp; Emotion</a>.



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Visual art evokes many feelings and emotions

The universal appeal of art and its ability to evoke...

A recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox12030698">Antioxidants</a> suggests that eating peanuts and peanut butter could have a positive impact on vascular health in young and healthy individuals. The research was led by Rosa M. Lamuela, a professor at the Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences of the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/ub/">University of Barcelona</a> and a member of both the Institute for Nutrition and Food Safety Research (INSA-UB) and the Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition Networking Biomedical Research Centre (CIBEROBN).



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/peanuts-lower-blood-pressure-and-promote-weight-loss/">Peanuts</a>, derived from the leguminous plant Arachis hypogaea, are categorized as nuts in terms of their nutritional composition. As the most widely consumed nuts globally, they are a convenient, nutrient-rich snack that contributes to a healthy lifestyle. Peanuts contain high levels of fatty acids, protein, fiber, and polyphenols.



Most nutritional studies typically focus on significant differences in populations with a high risk of developing a disease, especially older individuals. In this demographic, it is easier to observe the beneficial effects of modifying dietary patterns or incorporating healthy foods into a regular diet.



By contrast, this study involved 63 healthy young participants aged between 18 and 33, who included a daily portion of peanut products in their regular diet for six months. This research is the first nutritional intervention to confirm an improvement in vascular markers related to antithrombotic and vasodilator effects in healthy young people after consuming peanuts.&nbsp;



"In this study group, it is more difficult to see any effect of dietary changes on health," explained Professor Rosa M. Lamuela. "The results reveal a significant increase in urinary levels of phenolic metabolites in those young people who had eaten a daily dose of peanuts and peanut butter compared to the control group, which had eaten a cream without fiber or polyphenols."



Furthermore, participants who consumed peanuts or peanut butter demonstrated improved levels of prostacyclin I2 and the ratio between thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin I2. These lipid molecules, known as eicosanoids, are considered markers of vascular health.&nbsp;



"Interestingly, some phenolic metabolites that increased significantly after the consumption of peanut products - especially hydroxycinnamic acids - also correlated with the improvement in both markers," said study first author Isabella Parilli-Moser.



The study supports the hypothesis presented in previous research conducted by this group, which argued for the protective effect of polyphenols - the primary antioxidants and anti-inflammatory compounds in the diet - on cardiovascular diseases in adults, as well as their antithrombotic and vasodilator effects.&nbsp;



Additionally, the consumption of nuts and peanuts has been linked to a reduced risk of developing cardiovascular diseases and diabetes, primarily due to the protective effect of the polyphenols found in these foods.



The researchers emphasize that the study highlights one of the potential health benefits of including peanuts and peanut butter in our diet. However, they conclude that more studies are needed to fully understand the mechanisms that explain the positive effects of peanut consumption on vascular health.



The study was conducted as part of the ARISTOTLE project, an initiative to analyze the prebiotic and postbiotic effects of consuming peanut products, promoted by The Peanut Institute (United States). It also received support from companies in the food sector, which did not participate in the experimental design or research protocol deployed in the study.



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Peanuts have a beneficial impact on vascular health

A recent study published in the journal Antioxidants suggests that...

A team of researchers led by Professor HU Sen from the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> (CAS) has discovered that impact glass beads in Chang'e-5 (CE5) lunar soils contain water. The study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-023-01159-6">Nature Geoscience</a>, suggests that these glass beads may represent a new water reservoir on the Moon that is responsible for the dynamic ingress and egress of solar wind-derived water, acting as a buffer for the lunar surface water cycle.



Although many lunar missions have confirmed the presence of structural water or water ice on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tonights-worm-moon-marks-the-beginning-of-spring/">Moon</a>, the exact amount and location of water on the lunar surface has been the subject of intense research. The lunar surface water has attracted much attention due to its potential for in-situ resource utilization by future lunar exploration missions and other space missions.&nbsp;



The surface water on the Moon displays diurnal cycles and loss to space, indicating that there should be a hydrated layer or reservoir at depth in lunar soils to sustain the retention, release, and replenishment of water on the surface of the Moon.



Previous studies have been unable to explain the retention, release, and replenishment of water on the lunar surface, suggesting that there must be a yet-unidentified water reservoir in lunar soils that has the capacity to buffer the lunar surface water cycle.&nbsp;



Under the guidance of Professor HU Sen, doctoral student HE Huicun proposed that impact glass beads, a ubiquitous component in lunar soils with an amorphous nature, were a potential candidate for investigation of the unidentified hydrated layer or reservoir in lunar soils.



To identify and characterize the missing water reservoir on the Moon's surface, the researchers systematically characterized the petrography, major element composition, water abundance, and hydrogen isotope composition of the impact glass beads returned by the CE5 mission.&nbsp;



The CE5 impact glass beads have homogeneous chemical compositions and smooth exposed surfaces, characterized by water abundance up to about 2,000 μg.g-1, with extreme deuterium-depleted characteristics. The negative correlation between water abundance and hydrogen isotope composition reflects the fact that water in the CE5 impact glass beads comes from solar winds.



The researchers also analyzed water abundance along six transects in five glass beads, which showed the hydration profiles of solar wind-derived water. Some glass beads were overlapped by a later degassing event. The impact glass beads acted as a sponge for buffering the lunar surface water cycle. The researchers estimate that the amount of water contributed by impact glass beads to lunar soils varies from 3.0 × 1011 kg to 2.7 × 1014 kg.



"These findings indicate that the impact glasses on the surface of the Moon and other airless bodies in the solar system are capable of storing solar wind-derived water and releasing it into space," said Professor HU.



The discovery of a new water reservoir on the Moon provides important information for future lunar exploration missions and other space missions, as it may represent a valuable resource for sustained human presence on the Moon and beyond.



NASA's plan for a sustained presence on the Moon is part of the Artemis program, which aims to land the first woman and the next man on the Moon by 2024. However, this timeline has recently been pushed back due to funding and technical challenges, and the new target date for the Artemis III lunar landing mission is 2025.



The Artemis program is not just about landing humans on the Moon, but also establishing a sustainable presence there. NASA's long-term plan is to use the Moon as a testbed for technologies and systems that will be necessary for future crewed missions to Mars and other destinations.



To achieve this goal, NASA plans to build a Lunar Gateway, a small space station in orbit around the Moon, which will serve as a command center for human and robotic missions on the lunar surface. The agency is also developing a new lunar lander called the Human Landing System (HLS), which will transport astronauts from the Lunar Gateway to the surface of the Moon.



NASA aims to establish a sustainable presence on the Moon by 2028, which includes building a lunar base and conducting a range of scientific experiments and technology demonstrations. The agency also plans to work with international partners and commercial companies to achieve this goal.



This study was a collaboration with Nanjing University, The Open University, The Natural History Museum, The University of Manchester, and the University of Science and Technology of China.&nbsp;



—



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New water reservoir found on the Moon’s surface

A team of researchers led by Professor HU Sen from...

Big,Eye,Trevally,-,Caranx,Sexfasciatus

Social animals improve their safety when they suppress their individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-select-their-dogs-according-to-their-own-personality/">personalities</a> and conform with the group, according to a study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>. The research suggests that simple rules can drive conformity behavior in social groups. 



“Personality suppression may be a common strategy in group-living animals, and in particular, we should tend to see the behaviors of the most adventurous or shy individuals shifting towards what the majority of the group are doing," said study lead author Dr. Sean Rands.



The researchers noted that the movement of a group can be strongly influenced by "leaders" who stand out as different. "A major source of differences between individuals is the repeatability and consistency of their behavior, commonly considered as their ’personality,’ which can influence both their position within a group as well as their tendency to lead."&nbsp;



"However, links between personality and behavior may also depend upon the immediate social environment of the individual; individuals who behave consistently in one way when alone may not express the same behavior socially, when they may be conforming with the behavior of others," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



To investigate, the team developed a model to represent a small group of animals who differ in their tendency to perform risky behaviors.&nbsp;



The experts looked at how these individuals would complete a foraging task while traveling away from a safe home site versus how they would complete the same task in a group setting. The results showed that the "group-aware" individuals spent longer in a safe space and moved more quickly to the foraging spot.



“Groups are usually made up of individuals who are different to each other in the way that they normally behave - these consistent individual differences are what determines the personality of the individual," explained study co-author Professor Christos Ioannou.



“Experimental evidence for this comes from animals like the stickleback fish that we study in our lab. We can measure the personality of individual fish when they are given a food-finding task on their own, and compare it to what happens when they are put in a group of mixed personalities and given the same task."



“When faced with a social task, we find that the fish tend to suppress their own behavior, and instead conform with what other fish in the group are doing.”



Overall, the researchers concluded that when animals pay attention to the other group members, this has an overall impact on the efficiency of the group, and demonstrates that simple social behaviors can result in the suppression of individual personalities.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp; <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010908">PLoS Computational Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Social animals suppress their personalities for safety

Social animals improve their safety when they suppress their individual...

Due to industrialization, humans are now enjoying greater access to food, less physical toil, and better access to quality health care services than ever before. However, since many people are currently eating more and exercising less, sedentary lifestyles and obesity have led to smaller brain volumes and faster cognitive decline in a significant part of the western population.



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.usc.edu/">University of Southern California</a> (USC) has discovered that some of the lowest rates of heart and brain disease ever reported are found among Indigenous communities from the tropical forests of lowland Bolivia, suggesting that there are optimal levels of food consumption and exercise that can maximize healthy brain aging and decrease the risk of disease.&nbsp;



The scientists enrolled 1,165 participants from two Indigenous societies - the Tsimané and Mosetén – and measured their brain volume by age, along with their body mass index, blood pressure, cholesterol, and other markers of energy and overall health.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that the Tsimané and Mosetén experienced better cardiovascular health and less brain atrophy than U.S. and European populations, and were thus less likely to develop heart disease or neurodegenerative conditions such as dementia or Alzheimer’s.



“The lives of our pre-industrial ancestors were punctured by limited food availability,” said&nbsp;study senior author Andrei Irimia, an assistant professor of Gerontology, Biomedical Engineering, and Neuroscience at USC. “Humans historically spent a lot of time exercising out of necessity to find food, and their brain aging profiles reflected this lifestyle.”



Since the Mosetén are more exposed to modern technology, medicine, infrastructure, and education than the Tsimané, they served as an important intermediary population, allowing researchers to compare a variety of lifestyle and health care factors. While both communities showed better health than industrialized populations, the Mosetén fared a bit worse than the Tsimané, reinforcing the hypothesis that industrialized or semi-industrialized societies fail to achieve a healthy balance between daily exertion and food consumption.



“During our evolutionary past, more food and less calories spent in getting it resulted in improved health, well-being, and ultimately higher reproductive success or Darwinian fitness,” said study lead author Hillard Kaplan, a professor of Health Economics and Anthropology at <a href="https://www.chapman.edu/">Chapman University</a>. “This evolutionary history selected for psychological and physiological traits that made us desirous of extra food and less physical work, and with industrialization, those traits lead us to overshoot the mark.”



According to Professor Irimia, the best way to improve brain health and reduce the risk of disease is to have neither too little nor too much food and nutrients, along with a vigorous amount of exercise. “This ideal set of conditions for disease prevention prompts us to consider whether our industrialized lifestyles increase our risk of disease,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2205448120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Indigenous communities provide clues to healthy brain aging

Due to industrialization, humans are now enjoying greater access to...

Drifting along in marine currents, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jellyfish-eyes-catch-a-glimpse-of-evolutionary-history/">jellyfish</a> can be both predator and prey, eating nearly anything they can capture, but also being consumed by larger marine predators. According to a recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC) investigating the relationship between jellyfish size, diet, and nutritional quality, jellyfish may get more nutritious as they grow and are able to consume a larger variety of prey.



While smaller jellyfish eat phytoplankton, microzooplankton, and eggs, larger ones can also eat shrimps and even fish. Yet, since they are easy to catch and digest due to their high water content, these animals are also an important nutritional source in marine food webs. For instance, in Heriot Bay, British Columbia, the moon jellyfish&nbsp;(Aurelia labiata) are frequently eaten by other jellyfish, fish, and various invertebrates.



“Our study looked more closely to see if there was any information we could draw about nutrition in jellyfish,” said lead author Jessica Schaub, a PhD student in Oceanography at UBC. “This information helps us understand the true value of jellyfish as food. We looked at how the energy that moves through a food web might look as it moves through jellyfish. What they eat, what they are composed of, and how this might affect what eats them.”&nbsp;



The scientists collected 150 moon jellyfish and measured their size, along with specific compositional elements. The analysis revealed that jellyfish eat bigger prey as they grow, which leads to higher concentrations of healthy fats. 



“We found some evidence that these changes might be influenced by their diet, and as they feed on bigger prey with higher levels of fatty acids, the jellyfish accumulate more of these fatty acids. This means bigger jellyfish might be considered more nutritious,”&nbsp;Schaub explained.



“Our recommendation for future studies on jellyfish predators is to consider size more thoroughly. Feeding on a young, small jellyfish is different than feeding on a larger and older jellyfish,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4430">Ecosphere</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Larger jellyfish are more nutritious

Drifting along in marine currents, jellyfish can be both predator...

According to a team of experts from the <a href="http://www.earth4all.life/">Earth4All</a> initiative, global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-population-10-9-billion/">population</a> could peak at 8.5 billion people by mid-century if the world takes a “giant leap” in investment in economic development. This new projection is significantly lower than other prominent population estimates, including those conducted by the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/">United Nations</a>. 



By using a new system dynamics model, the researchers explored two possible scenarios for population growth. In the first scenario – which they call “Too Little Too Late,” and assumes that the world continues to develop in the same way as it had over the past half a century, with many of the poorest countries breaking free from extreme poverty – the global population is expected to peak at 8.6 billion in 2050, before declining to seven billion in 2100.&nbsp;



In the second one – called the “Giant Leap” and achieved through massive investments in poverty alleviation (mainly through developments in education and health), together with major policy turnarounds on issues related to food and energy security, inequality, and gender equity -poverty is eliminated in a generation (by 2060), and global population will peak at 8.5 billion by 2040 and decline to six billion by the end of the century.



By contrast to scenarios developed by other researchers, these ones take into account the critical importance of rapid economic development. “We know rapid economic development in low-income countries has a huge impact on fertility rates. Fertility rates fall as girls get access to education and women are economically empowered and have access to better healthcare,” said Per Espen Stoknes, Earth4All’s project lead and the director of the Center for Sustainability at the <a href="https://www.bi.edu/?_ga=2.85242906.2056089187.1679897437-779628527.1679897437&amp;_gl=1*1t23jlz*_ga*Nzc5NjI4NTI3LjE2Nzk4OTc0Mzc.*_ga_SY3KTJF2RZ*MTY3OTg5NzQzNy4xLjAuMTY3OTg5NzQzNy4wLjAuMA..">Norwegian Business School</a>.



“Few prominent models simulate population growth, economic development, and their connections simultaneously,”&nbsp;added Beniamino Callegari, an economist at the <a href="https://www.kristiania.no/en/">Kristiania University College</a>.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that population growth is currently the highest in some nations in Africa and Asia, including Angola, Niger, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Afghanistan. “If we assume these countries adopt successful policies for economic development then we can expect population to peak sooner rather than later,”&nbsp;Callegari said.



The scientists also analyzed the connection between population and exceeding planetary boundaries, and found that, contrary to popular beliefs, population size is not the prime driver of exceeding planetary boundaries such as climate change. Instead, the enormous material footprint levels among the world’s richest ten percent plays the highest role in destabilizing the planet.



Thus, according to the researchers’ demographic projections, with an equal distribution of resources, the entire population could achieve living conditions exceeding UN’s minimum threshold without significant changes in developmental trends. “A good life for all is only possible if the extreme resource use of the wealthy elite is reduced,” concluded Jorgen Randers, one of leading modelers at Earth4All.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Global population could peak below nine billion by 2050

According to a team of experts from the Earth4All initiative, global population...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.europsy.net/">European Psychiatric Association</a>, experts have found that odors from human sweat may be helpful in treating mental health disorders. In particular, the researchers demonstrated that social anxiety can be substantially reduced through exposure to human "chemo-signals," or body odor.



Lead researcher Elisa Vigna of the Karolinska Institute will present the study results at the European Congress of Psychiatry in Paris.



“Our state of mind causes us to produce molecules (or chemo-signals) in sweat which communicate our emotional state and produce corresponding responses in the receivers," said Vigna. "The results of our preliminary study show that combining these chemo-signals with mindfulness therapy seem to produce better results in treating social anxiety than can be achieved by mindfulness therapy alone."



Overall, the team found that individuals who undertook one treatment session of mindfulness therapy together while being exposed to human body odors showed about 39 percent reductions in anxiety scores, explained Vigna.



Social anxiety is a fear of being around people in social situations, whether it's at work or holiday gatherings. This type of anxiety makes it difficult to live a normal life without excessive worrying.



For the investigation, the experts exposed patients to the sweat samples while they were being treated for social anxiety with mindfulness therapy. The sweat samples were collected from volunteers who were watching short clips from movies that induced specific emotions, such as fear or happiness. The goal was to examine whether these emotions had an effect on the treatment.



"We found that the women in the group exposed to sweat from people who had been watching funny or fearful movies, responded better to mindfulness therapy than those who hadn’t been exposed," said Vigna.



"We were a little surprised to find that the emotional state of the person producing the sweat didn’t differ in treatment outcomes - sweat produced while someone was happy had the same effect as someone who had been scared by a movie clip.&nbsp; So there may be something about human chemo-signals in sweat generally which affects the response to treatment."



It may be that simply being exposed to the presence of someone else has this effect, noted Vigna.&nbsp;



"In fact, that is what we are testing now in a follow-up study with a similar design, but where we are also including sweat from individuals watching emotionally neutral documentaries."



"This should allow us to tease out whether any potential therapy benefits stem from the unconscious perception of specific emotional signals, or whether it is simply to do with human presence, irrespective of emotion.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Human sweat could be used to treat mental health problems

In a new study from the European Psychiatric Association, experts...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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