For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men.



Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harvard University</a> and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. 



The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys and girls start off nearly equal in math. But just four months into formal math instruction, a small gap appears - and it keeps growing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nationwide-study-tracks-the-math-gap">Nationwide study tracks the math gap</h2>



The research draws on a French government testing program that was launched in 2018. This nationwide effort tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reminiscing-can-boost-language-development-in-preschoolers/">language</a> and math skills of young students from first through sixth grade. 



Over five years and across four student cohorts, the program gave researchers an unmatched view of early math development.



At school entry, French girls scored slightly better than boys in language. Math scores, though, were essentially the same. 



"The headline conclusion is that the gender gap emerges when systematic instruction in mathematics begins," Spelke explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-gender-differences">Looking for gender differences </h2>



Spelke had already spent decades studying how young children understand numbers and shapes. Back in 2005, she wrote a major review for American Psychologist. The piece challenged the notion that boys are biologically wired for better math performance than girls.



"My argument was, 'OK, if there really were biological differences, maybe we would see them in the infancy period,'" said Spelke. 



She and her team always tracked <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-children-learn-gender-stereotypes-from-storybooks/">gender</a> in their studies, but they never found infant boys outperforming girls in math, or vice versa. Still, Spelke admitted that something could be happening later in development.



"The fact that there are no differences in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/conscious-awareness-when-does-our-sense-of-purpose-emerge/">infants</a> could be because the abilities that show gender effects actually emerge during preschool," she proposed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-instruction-for-boys-and-girls">Math instruction for boys and girls</h2>



In recent years, Spelke has turned her attention to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-a-better-way-for-kids-to-learn-math/">children learn counting</a> and numbers in real classrooms. 



Spelke partnered with Nobel Prize-winning MIT economist Esther Duflo to advise the Delhi office of the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab (J-PAL). The team is helping four Indian states create and test math lessons for children in preschool through first grade.



In France, she works alongside her longtime collaborator, neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene. Together, they serve on the French Ministry of Education's Scientific Council, which helped develop the EvalAide testing program. 



The idea was simple: measure where every child stands in math and language and use that data to guide better teaching.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-gap-emerges-in-math">Gender gap emerges in math</h2>



For this study, the team analyzed data from four full cohorts of first-graders entering school between 2018 and 2021. 



What they found was consistent: no math gap at the time of school entry, a small but significant gap favoring boys after four months, and a steadily widening gap by second, fourth, and even sixth grade.



"It was even bigger in fourth grade," Spelke said. "And in sixth grade it was bigger still."



Interestingly, the gender gap in language shrank slightly after the first few months of school and stayed relatively stable in later years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-old-explanations">Ruling out old explanations</h2>



So why does the math gap grow with time in school? The researchers ruled out several familiar theories.



"If there was really a pervasive social bias, and the parents were susceptible to it, we would expect boys to be more oriented toward spatial and numerical tasks when they first got to school," said Spelke.



But that didn’t happen. At school entry, there was no math gap. This points away from both biological and early social bias explanations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-experiment-during-the-pandemic">An experiment during the pandemic </h2>



The EvalAide dataset offered other insights. French first-graders can be nearly a year apart in age, depending on when their birthday falls. 



The team wondered if the older students were skewing results. They weren’t. The widening gender gap aligned more closely with time spent in school than with age.



Then came an unusual variable: COVID-19. The 2019 cohort missed the final 2.5 months of first grade due to lockdowns. That gap year created a natural experiment.



"With less time in school, the amount of the gender gap grew by less than it did in the other years where there wasn't a long school closure," said Spelke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-math-gender-gap">Confirming the math gender gap</h2>



The cohort also began school just after a national education crisis. In early 2019, French students had scored <a href="https://www.polytechnique-insights.com/en/braincamps/society/how-to-improve-the-relationship-between-education-and-employment/maths-an-essential-subject-whose-level-is-falling-in-a-majority-of-countries/#:~:text=In%202003%2C%2015%25%20of%20French,European%20average%20of%20527%20points.">lowest</a> among 23 European countries in math, according to international rankings. 



In response, the French Education Ministry - guided by its Scientific Council - called for more math teaching in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-pandemic-setbacks-reduced-kindergarten-readiness/">kindergarten</a>.



Sure enough, a tiny math gender gap appeared in fall 2019 among new first-graders. That gap hadn’t shown up in 2018 but was still present in 2020 and 2021.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-in-early-math-instruction">Problems in early math instruction </h2>



The study doesn't pinpoint a single cause, but its message is clear: differences in math achievement between boys and girls seem to grow as a result of what happens in early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schools-are-in-a-battle-with-cell-phones-to-keep-students-engaged/">school</a> instruction.



"We still don't know what that is exactly," Spelke said. "But now we have a chance to find out by randomized evaluations of changes to the curriculum."



The findings put pressure on education systems to ask hard questions about how math is taught in the early years - and what needs to change to make it fair for everyone.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09126-4">Nature</a>.



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Early math instruction may unintentionally favor boys

For decades, researchers have questioned whether boys and girls are born with the same natural ability in math. In 2005, cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Spelke took a firm stand, stating that there are no differences in overall intrinsic aptitude for science and mathematics among women and men. Now, the evidence is even stronger. In a new study, researchers from Harvard University and several institutions across France examined math performance in more than 2.5 million French schoolchildren. The team found that at the very beginning of first grade, boys...

As the bodyguards of the coast, barrier islands offer protection from storms and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-makes-some-plants-resistant-to-flooding/">flooding</a>, and if you have beachfront property, they protect your home. However, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00980-9">a paper published in Nature Geoscience</a> predicts that barrier islands will begin disappearing 50 percent faster than they have in the past.



"These findings can be applied all over the world, but they may be particularly significant in the U.S., where houses are being built extremely close to the beach," said study lead author Professor Giulio Mariotti of <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a>.



Still, the barrier island situation is not so simple. Mariotti explained that there have been gaps in our understanding. "It is well known that barrier islands retreat as sea level rises, but it has not been clear how."



Mariotti and co-author Christopher Hein of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science noticed that barrier island retreat hasn't kept pace as sea levels have risen.&nbsp;



To explore this question further, Mariotti developed a computer model. Many scientists thought barrier islands would retreat as fast as sea levels rose. However, Mariotti's model shows a lag between sea-level rise and barrier island retreat.&nbsp;



Mariotti explained why previous researchers got it wrong. "One reason previous models didn't see the lag was because they assumed the geometry of the whole coastal tract – from the lower continental shelf to the upland boundary, including subaerial barriers, inlets and tidal channels ­- was frozen. However, the geometry can change and that's what's enabling this lag effect."



The model makes a worrisome prediction. The model predicts that over the next 100 years, the rate of barrier island retreat will increase by at least 50 percent. The rate could climb further if storm strength and frequency continue to increase or sea levels begin to rise faster. The author also points out that this prediction can vary by region.&nbsp;



Mariotti explained why his model is unique: "One of the most original parts of this model is it can run simulations over thousands of years but can also provide insights into decades, which is more interesting for management. At the same time, I can also run simulations over centuries and millennia, which allows the results to be compared with geologic data."&nbsp;



Although this model does not give us the best news, it provides some of the information we need to manage coastlines and a way to compare current conditions with Earth's geological past.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Barrier islands are set to retreat at an alarming rate

As the bodyguards of the coast, barrier islands offer protection...

Images of swans typically bring up ideas of graceful, refined creatures. And although they possess these attributes, even swans have their rowdy days.&nbsp;



New research conducted by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> and the Wildfowl &amp; Wetlands Trust (WWT) reveals that mute and whooper swans sacrifice resting to aggressively protect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taste-cells-may-control-foraging-and-decision-making/">foraging</a> areas.&nbsp;



"These swans use aggression if there's competition over foraging areas. Our findings show this this (sic) requires a trade-off, and that both species reduce resting time to allow for this aggression," said Dr. Paul Rose.



"This was the strongest trade-off we found, but there was also a trade-off for both species between foraging and resting. However, there was no apparent trade-off between some behaviours, such as aggression and foraging, and aggression and maintenance."



The trade-off can harm the swans since, without rest, the swans will burn precious calories and may not be as agile or aware of predators.&nbsp;



Moreover, whooper swans are a migratory species, while mute swans stay in the same area throughout the year. Consequently, whooper swans are less likely than mute swans to change their aggressive behavior since they need to store fat before migrating.



The study, published in <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLoS ONE</a>, was conducted remotely, using a webcam. Dr. Rose says this data can inform conservation, habitat management, and future research.



"By providing enough foraging spots for the birds, we can reduce the need for aggression around desirable feeding spots, giving them more time to rest. This can help to ensure that migratory species don't 'push out' non-migratory species when they mix in the same wintering locations. Our study also demonstrates how remotely collected data can be used to investigate fundamental questions in behavioural research," explained Dr. Rose.



"At WWT we get lots of questions from our visitors about the aggressiveness of swans," said Dr. Kevin Wood. "This new study helps us to understand how swans' behaviour changes when they engage in their disputes."



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Swans sacrifice rest to defend their foraging areas

Images of swans typically bring up ideas of graceful, refined...

Volunteers have made an unexpected discovery of tree climbing by over 50 common toads in nest boxes and tree cavities at least 1.5 meters high. Until now, common toads were thought to be terrestrial.&nbsp;



New research led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and Froglife, and supported by wildlife charity People’s Trust for Endangered Species (PTES), is the first to study the tree climbing potential of amphibians at a national scale.&nbsp;



The researchers found toads as high as three meters up a tree, and scientists say these toads could be venturing even higher. The surprising discovery was made during a survey for hazel dormice and bats as part of the National Dormouse Monitoring Programme and the Bat Tree Habitat Key project.



“This is a really exciting finding, and significant for our understanding of the ecology and conservation of common toads - one of the most widespread and abundant European amphibians," said study first author Dr. Silviu Petrovan.



“We know common toads favour woodlands as foraging and wintering habitat, but it appears their association with trees is much more complex than we had previously thought.”



Common toads are terrestrial amphibians, spending their time on land and in water during breeding. There have only been a handful of documented sightings of common toads in trees in the United Kingdom.



Over 50 common toads were found during surveys of hazel dormouse nest boxes and tree cavities usually used by bats. This suggests that toads spend more time in trees than previously thought.&nbsp;



Given the small sizes of tree cavities, it is unclear how toads are finding them, and how difficult it is for toads to climb particular trees.



“We couldn’t believe what we found. We’re used to discovering woodland birds and other small mammals in nest boxes but we hadn’t considered finding amphibians in them," said Nida Al-Fulaij, Conservation Research Manager at PTES.



The findings highlight the ecological importance of tree cavities and protecting natural woodland habitats and ancient trees for all wildlife. In 2016, common toad populations declined by 68 percent in the last 30 years across the UK.



It is not currently known why toads are climbing trees and using nest boxes. Factors could include searching for food, avoiding predators or evading parasites such as toad fly. Future research will support a better understanding of tree climbing behaviour, and how conservation efforts can best support the species. The study demonstrates how much there is still to learn about species believed to be well known.&nbsp;



Froglife is calling on members of the public to record any sightings they have of amphibians in trees on their <a href="https://www.froglife.org/dragon-finder-app/">Dragon Finder App</a>, or to <a href="https://www.froglife.org/contact-us/">contact them directly</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toads in the UK are unexpectedly climbing trees

Volunteers have made an unexpected discovery of tree climbing by...

Many insects undertake seasonal migrations, the most famous of them being the monarch butterflies of southern Canada and the United States. Hoverflies are also migratory, with billions of them moving southwards from northern Europe each year, to spend the winter in warmer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warm-climates-linked-to-low-oxygen-dead-zones-in-the-north-pacific/">climates</a>. However, not all individuals go along for the ride – some stay home and take their chances. This has given scientists an opportunity to study the genetic differences between migratory and non-migratory individuals in an attempt to identify the genetic basis of migratory behavior.&nbsp;



On their autumn journey southwards, the hoverflies cross the Pyrenees Mountains in dense concentrations, making use of narrow mountain passes. A team of researchers at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> was able to capture samples of these hoverflies as they flew through a pass, and take them back to the laboratory for DNA analysis. The genetic information was then compared with DNA from non-migratory hoverflies.&nbsp;



“It is an amazing spectacle to witness, an endless stream of hundreds of thousands of individuals through a 30-meter pass,” said Dr. Karl Wotton, research fellow in the College of Life and Environmental Sciences.



“We identified 1,543 genes whose activity levels were different in the migrants,” said lead author Toby Doyle, of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/cornwall/research/facilitiesandcentres/cec/">Centre for Ecology and Conservation</a>&nbsp;on Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall. “What really struck us though was the remarkable range of roles these genes play.”



“Migration is energetically very demanding, so finding genes for metabolism was no surprise but we also identified genes with roles in muscle structure and function, hormonal regulation of physiology, immunity, stress resistance, flight and feeding behavior, sensory perception and for increasing longevity."



When the researchers categorized the genes by function, they found that suites of genes were being activated in concert in the migratory hoverflies. These included genes for insulin signaling for longevity, pathways for immunity, and those leading to octopamine production, the insect equivalent of the fight or flight hormone adrenaline, for long-distance flight.



“These pathways have been integrated into migratory hoverflies and modified by evolution to allow for long-distance movement,” Dr. Wotton said.



The work provides a powerful genomic resource and theoretical framework to direct future studies into the evolution of migration in other species.



“Our research has already indicated several genes that have previously been associated with migration in butterflies, suggesting the existence of a shared ‘migratory gene package’ that controls migration across multiple animals,” said Dr. Wotton. “It is an exciting time to be studying the genetics of migration.”



The study is published today in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals key genes that drive insect migration

Many insects undertake seasonal migrations, the most famous of them...

While many people are familiar with the hole in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/this-years-ozone-hole-is-larger-than-antarctica/">ozone</a> layer above the Antarctica, until recently less attention has been given to the problems the protective ozone in the stratosphere over the Arctic is also facing. In 2011 and 2020, for instance, a significant thinning of the ozone layer over the North Pole gave rise to weather anomalies across the entire northern hemisphere, including exceptionally warm and dry springs in central and northern Europe and Russia, or unusually wet conditions in the polar regions. However, whether there is a direct causal relationship between stratospheric ozone destruction and these weather anomalies has remained a matter of debate in climate science.



To clarify this issue, a team of experts led by <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html">ETH Zürich</a> ran simulations which integrated ozone depletion into two different climate models, and discovered that the main cause of the weather anomalies in the northern hemisphere observed in 2011 and 2020 is most likely ozone depletion over the Arctic. The simulations coincided with observational data from these two years (as well as eight such events which were used for comparison purposes). Moreover, when the scientists removed ozone destruction from their models, they could not reproduce the results.&nbsp;



“What surprised us most from a scientific point of view is that, even though the models we were using for the simulation are utterly different, they produced similar results,” said study co-author Gabriel Chiodo, an expert in Climate Dynamics at ETH Zürich.



According to the scientists, ozone depletion occurs when temperatures in the Arctic are very low. “Ozone destruction occurs only when it is cold enough and the polar vortex is strong in the stratosphere, about 30 to 50 kilometers above the ground,” explained study lead author Marina Friedel, a doctoral student in Environmental Sciences at the same university.&nbsp;



Usually, ozone absorbs UV radiation from the Sun, warming the stratosphere and helping to break down the polar vortex in spring. However, if there is less ozone, the stratosphere cools down and the vortex becomes stronger. “A strong polar vortex then produces the effects observed at the Earth’s surface,” Dr. Chiodo said. Thus, ozone appears to play a fundamental role in temperature and circulation changes around the Arctic.



These findings could help climate scientists build more accurate seasonal weather and climate forecasts, allowing for better predictions of temperature fluctuations, which are crucial for agriculture. However, more research is needed to understand the future evolution of the ozone layer. Although ozone-depleting substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been banned since 1989, they are extremely long lived, and can linger in the atmosphere for up to a century, thus still damaging the ozone layer. “Yet CFC concentrations are steadily declining, and this raises the question of how quickly the ozone layer is recovering and how this will affect the climate system,” Friedel concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00974-7">Nature Geoscience</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Ozone depletion in the Arctic leads to weather anomalies

While many people are familiar with the hole in the...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.rvc.ac.uk/">Royal Veterinary College</a> (RVC) in London has found that flat-faced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scent-dogs-can-sniff-out-coronavirus-on-human-skin/">dogs</a> with skin folds, such as bulldogs or pugs, are up to 50 times more likely to develop a painful skin condition called skin fold dermatitis. With symptoms including reddened skin, ulcers, and a bad smell, this condition - caused by friction, excessive moisture, and lack of ventilation deep in the folds of the skin – can often be extremely debilitating for dogs, leading to significant discomfort and pain.&nbsp;



By analyzing the records of over 900,000 dogs in the UK, the experts found that English Bulldogs were most likely to be diagnosed with skin fold dermatitis. Compared to crossbred dogs, English bulldogs had 49.1 times the risk of developing this condition, followed by French bulldogs (26 times the risk), pugs (16 times), basset hounds (10.7), cocker spaniels (7.5), shar peis (6.4), boxers (4.6), and Cavalier King Charles spaniels (4.5). By contrast, the most protected breeds were found to be&nbsp;Yorkshire terriers (0.1 times the risk), border collies (0.3), whippets (0.43), Patterdale terriers (0.45), and Lhasa Apsos (0.47).



The most common symptoms of skin fold dermatitis were reddened skin, inflammation, moistness, bad odor, and pain, occurring most frequently on the lips (36.8 percent), facial folds (22 per cent), vulvas (14.2 percent), nasal folds (nine percent), tails (5.8 percent), and periocular folds (3.5 percent).&nbsp;



“Skin fold dermatitis is a common problem in dogs with skin folds or pockets,” said study senior author Anke Hendricks, a veterinary dermatologist at RVC. “It is not always easy to spot where folds are deep, nor is it necessarily recorded in the health records, and as such this study is likely to underestimate the problem. Prevention or treatment of infection requires very frequent skin care or medication throughout a dog’s life and adds a considerable care burden and cost to living with an affected dog.”



“As humans, we hold the power to ensure that every pet dog starts life with good natural health,” added study lead author Dan O’Neill, an associate professor of Companion Animal Epidemiology at RVC. “When choosing which dog to own, this means selecting a breed that does not have extreme conformations such as folded skin which can lead to a lifetime of painful skin infections.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-14483-5">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Flat-faced dogs have a high risk of painful skin conditions

A new study led by the Royal Veterinary College (RVC)...

Pet owners worldwide are significantly happier than people who do not have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-pets-have-a-high-risk-of-heatstroke/">pets</a>, according to a new global study led by London-based pet insurance company <a href="https://www.petplan.co.uk/">Petplan</a>. By using Microsoft Azure’s <a href="https://azure.microsoft.com/en-us/services/cognitive-services/face/">Artificial Intelligence facial recognition tool</a> (Face API) to analyze over 250,000 pet owner selfies posted on Instagram and Google Images, the experts estimated that pet ownership increases overall happiness by more than 22 percent globally.



The scientists examined photos from dog, cat, and rabbit owners in every OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) country, and used the Face API tool to detect levels of emotions in clear photos with faces, scoring each emotion on a scale from 0 to 100. The analysis revealed that the average happiness score among pet owners was 59.3, compared to 36.8 in people without pets.



Although owning a pet seems to bring people more happiness regardless of where they live, the researchers found that the happiest pet owners live in New Zealand (with an average happiness score of 88.4), followed by Brazil (83.8), and Hungary (81.6). Moreover, in Belgium, the average pet owner was found to be 172.8 percent happier than the average person, followed by Canada (158 percent), and China (150 percent). In the United States, pet owners had an average happiness score of 70.7, and they were 87.3 percent happier than the average person.



In terms of specific pets, Brazil is home to the happiest dog owners (average score of 94.2), while New Zealand’s residents get the biggest boost from cats (89.4), and people in Netherlands from rabbits (78.7). Surprisingly, rabbit owners all over the world publish the highest number of positive social media posts about their pet companions (71.4 percent), followed by dog owners (67.9 percent), and cat owners (64.7 percent).



According to the researchers, pet ownership significantly improves people’s well-being. Pet owners are often fitter and healthier, particularly dog owners who take their companions for regular walks. Moreover, pet owners have better mental health, more organized daily routines, and have a greater chance of picking up new hobbies.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Pet owners are happier than people who don't have pets

Pet owners worldwide are significantly happier than people who do...

In a new study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, researchers have discovered Meraxes gigas, a new species of dinosaur with short arms just like T. rex. The study demonstrated that T. rex and M. gigas evolved to have tiny arms for functions like mating or movement support.



“The fossil of M. gigas shows never seen before, complete regions of the skeleton, like the arms and legs that helped us to understand some evolutionary trends and the anatomy of Carcharodontosaurids –the group that M. gigas belongs to,” explained&nbsp; Juan Canale, the project lead at <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernesto_Bachmann_Paleontological_Museum">Ernesto Bachmann Paleontological Museum</a> in Neuquén, Argentina.



First, the authors clarified that the T. rex did not get their short arms from M. gigas or vice versa. In fact, these species are very far apart on the evolutionary tree. For instance, M. gigas became extinct almost 20 million years before T. rex even became a species.&nbsp;



“There is no direct relationship between both,” said Canale. Instead, it is believed that tiny arms may have been a physical advantage to the survival of each species.



“I’m convinced that those proportionally tiny arms had some sort of function. The skeleton shows large muscle insertions and fully developed pectoral girdles, so the arm had strong muscles,” said Canale. In other words, the arms did not shrink because they were useless to the dinosaurs.&nbsp;



Understanding the functions of these tiny arms is more of a challenge. For dinosaurs like M. gigas and T. rex, the larger their heads were, the smaller their arms became. The study authors also determined that actions related to hunting were more likely performed by the head.&nbsp;



Using a well preserved fossil, the research team painted a picture of the M. gigas before it died. Living&nbsp; in the northern Patagonia region of Argentina, the dinosaur was 45 years old, about 11 meters long, and weighed more than four tons. And, it had a big family.&nbsp;



“The group flourished and reached a peak of diversity shortly before it became extinct,” said Canale. “They may have used the arms for reproductive behavior such as holding the female during mating or support themselves to stand back up after a break or a fall."



The skull of M. gigas was found to be decorated with crests, furrows, bumps and small hornlets. “Those ornamentations appear late in the development when the individuals became adults,” explained Canale. These features were likely used to attract potential mates. “Sexual selection is a powerful evolutionary force. But given that we cannot directly observe their behavior, it is impossible to be certain about this."



The research team looks forward to exploring other questions that the M. gigas fossil can help answer. The work was supported by The National Science Foundation of the United States and the National Geographic Society.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Newly discovered dinosaur had tiny arms like T. Rex

In a new study published by Cell Press, researchers have...

It has been known since the 1960s that sound can have analgesic effects on people. Accounts from dental operations indicated that music and noise relieved pain to some extent, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-sparks-strikingly-similar-visuals-among-people-of-the-same-culture/">music</a> that is used as an intervention can alleviate postoperative pain and bring relief. Because diverse genres of music and even nature sounds can relieve pain to an equal extent, the inherent characteristics of sound, as well as contextual factors, have been hypothesized to drive these analgesic effects. However, the neural mechanism by which this occurs is still not understood.&nbsp;



New research published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a> has investigated whether sound brings relief to mice with inflammatory pain induced by hindpaw injection of complete Freund’s adjuvant. Inspired by observations in humans, Wenjie Zhou and colleagues evaluated the phenomenon in mice using a suite of methods, including behavioral tests, viral tracing, microendoscopic calcium imaging, and multielectrode recordings.&nbsp;



The researchers found that sounds with a low-signal to ambient noise ratio, specifically a 5 decibel increase in sound intensity over ambient sound levels, caused relief from pain in the experimental mice. This involved inhibitory inputs from the auditory cortex to distinct regions of the somatosensory thalamus, depending on whether the pain was administered in the forepaw or hindpaw.&nbsp;



Furthermore, artificial manipulation of the identified circuits both mimicked and suppressed sound-induced analgesic effects. According to the researchers, their study revealed the corticothalamic circuits underlying sound-promoted analgesia by deciphering the role of the auditory system in pain processing.”



“The neural mechanisms underlying music-induced analgesia in humans are doubtlessly more complicated than those revealed in mice,” said the study authors. In humans, multiple brain areas are involved in pain processing and this warrants further investigation. However, this study suggests that music-induced analgesia could be developed as an alternative or complementary intervention for treating and relieving pain in humans.



“Although this experimental paradigm is not equivalent to using music and pleasant sounds to evoke analgesia in humans, the study of Zhou&nbsp;et al.&nbsp;opens up new directions for research on sound-induced analgesia by creating a model in which the mechanistic underpinnings can be investigated,” wrote Rohini Kuner and Thomas Kuner in a related Perspective.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sound linked to pain relief in mice

It has been known since the 1960s that sound can...

Biodiversity in marine and coastal ecosystems is under threat from well-known factors, such as climate change, ocean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-acidification-reduces-the-hatching-success-of-a-keystone-fish-species/">acidification</a>, pollution and overexploitation. However, there are also many emerging issues that are poorly understood and that may have additional significant impacts on marine biodiversity in the future.&nbsp;



In light of the fact that the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021–2030) is now underway, a team of 30 experts from 11 different countries and a range of subject backgrounds has convened to conduct the first ever Marine and Coastal Horizon Scan. The horizon scanning process aims to identify lesser-known issues with potentially serious impacts that may affect marine and coastal biodiversity conservation in the next 5–10 years.



Experts in this horizon scan were asked to list issues that they thought could become critical for marine and coastal biodiversity in the near future, but that had received little or no public attention to date. The initial list contained 75 emerging issues but, through a series of discussions and votes by the panel of experts, this was whittled down to 15 critical issues that fell into three categories: ecosystem impacts, resource exploitation and novel technologies.&nbsp;



In their report, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>, the panel of experts listed issues such as the effect of wildfires on coastal ecosystems, the increased toxicity of metal pollution due to acidification, and the ‘empty zone’ in the tropics due to species’ migration away from warming waters. All these factors could potentially have significant impacts on ecosystems in the near future.&nbsp;



“Marine and coastal ecosystems face a wide range of emerging issues that are poorly recognized or understood, each having the potential to impact biodiversity,” said study first author Dr James Herbert-Read of the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>. “By highlighting future issues, we’re pointing to where changes must be made today – both in monitoring and policy – to protect our marine and coastal environments.”



Under the category of resource exploitation, the panel identified trade in fish swim bladders and marine collagen as potential issues affecting biodiversity in future. They also expressed concern that fishing activities may become increasingly focused on species in the mesopelagic zone, at depths of between 200 and 1,000 meters. Although these fish species are not usually edible, they can be used to make fish meal for aquaculture and fertilizer purposes. This, say the experts, would affect the transport of carbon from the atmosphere to the very bottom of the oceans, making the ocean a less effective carbon sink.



“There are areas where we believe immediate changes could prevent huge problems arising over the next decade, such as overfishing in the ocean’s mesopelagic zone,” said study co-first author Dr. Ann Thornton.&nbsp; “Curbing this would not only stop overexploitation of these fish stocks, but reduce the disruption of carbon cycling in the ocean – because these species are an ocean pump that removes carbon from our atmosphere.”



The experts also warn that the nutritional content of fish is declining as a consequence of climate change. Essential fatty acids tend to be produced by cold-water fish species, so as climate change raises ocean temperatures, the production of these nutritious molecules is reduced. Such changes may have impacts on both marine life and human health.



The potential negative and positive effects of new technology on marine biodiversity include the development of more sophisticated tracking equipment that would help scientists to understand the movements of deep-sea species, and the use of soft robotics for marine research. The report also listed the possible effects of newly developed biodegradable materials to replace plastics, pointing out that definitive research has not yet been conducted on the effects of these potentially toxic materials on marine organisms.



"Governments are making a push for the use of biodegradable materials – but we don’t know what impacts these materials may have on ocean life," said Dr. Herbert-Read.



Horizon scans serve the purpose of identifying lesser-known or novel issues that could soon have impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity. The study authors hope that this will raise awareness and encourage research and investment into these issues before they become seriously harmful.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our early identification of these issues, and their potential impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity, will support scientists, conservationists, resource managers, policy-makers and the wider community in addressing the challenges facing marine ecosystems,” said Dr. Herbert-Read.



The researchers say horizon scans act as signposts that can bring issues to the forefront of public attention before they become pressing, making it possible to take pre-emptive actions. For example, a horizon scan conducted in 2009 identified microplastics and invasive species as potential issues that could harm biodiversity. In fact, after the 2009 Horizon Scan, 71 percent of the issues identified received increased research and investment from scientists, funders, managers and policymakers in order to understand their potential effects.



"The scale of the issues facing marine and coastal areas emphasizes the need to identify and prioritize, at an early stage, those issues specifically facing marine ecosystems, especially within this UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development," concluded the study authors.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Emerging issues that may impact marine biodiversity are poorly understood

Biodiversity in marine and coastal ecosystems is under threat from...

A new study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-13798-7">Nature Scientific Reports</a> has documented large groups of southern fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus quoyi) in ancient feeding grounds in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-groundwater-system-discovered-beneath-antarctica/">Antarctica</a> for the first time since their hunting was restricted in 1976. During two expeditions in April 2018 and March 2019, the experts recorded 100 groups of fin whales with group sizes ranging from one to four individuals, and eight unusually large groups of up to 150 whales that seemed to be actively feeding.



During the nineteenth century, southern fin whales were extensively hunted, particularly around their feeding grounds in Antarctica and, by the time their hunting was banished in 1976, over 700,000 individuals had been killed. Now, their populations seem to be rebounding at an unprecedented rate.



“I’d never seen so many whales in one place before and was absolutely fascinated watching these massive groups feed,” said study co-author Bettina Meyer, a biologist at the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/">Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research</a> (AWI).&nbsp;“Even if we still don’t know the total number of fin whales in the Antarctic, due to the lack of simultaneous observations, this could be a good sign that, nearly 50 years after the ban on commercial whaling, the fin whale population in the Antarctic is rebounding.”



By modelling fin whale population densities in the Antarctic, the scientists predicted a population of 7,909 whales for the total survey area, with a density of 0.09 individuals per square kilometer, which significantly surpasses whale populations in other regions of the world. Moreover, in a noticeable hotspot around Elephant Island, the estimated fin whale abundance is even higher, with 3,618 individuals, or 0.21 per kilometer squared.



According to the researchers, this rebound in fin whale populations could enrich the Antarctic’s marine ecosystem through nutrient recycling from whale feeding and excrement, thus supporting the growth of phytoplankton and krill populations. “When the whale population grows, the animals recycle more nutrients, increasing the productivity of the Southern Ocean. This boosts the growth of algae, which for their part absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, reducing the atmospheric CO2&nbsp;concentration,” Dr. Meyer concluded.&nbsp; &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Fin whales are finally rebounding in the Antarctic

A new study published in the journal Nature Scientific Reports...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/">Sun Yat-sen University</a> in China has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-island-birds-are-changing-and-human-activities-are-to-blame/">birds</a> with brightly-colored feathers under their wings may have evolved these traits in order to avoid mid-air collisions. By comparing the underwing colors of 1,780 bird species, the experts found that larger birds, as well as those that flocked together in big colonies, were more likely to have brightly-colored, contrasting feathers – most probably because large birds cannot duck and weave as easily as smaller ones, while birds living in large colonies need to constantly avoid collisions with a multitude of conspecifics.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Collisions between fast-moving objects often cause severe damage, but collision avoidance mechanisms of fast-moving animals remain understudied,” the authors wrote. “Particularly, birds can fly fast and often in large groups, raising the question of how individuals avoid in-flight collisions that potentially are lethal.”



Since heavier bird species, such as the California Condor, the Great White Pelican, and the Whooping Crane, have reduced manoeuvrability, limiting their ability to make fast, sharp turns in order to avoid in-flight collisions, the researchers believe they have evolved their color patterns to help them being easily spotted by their conspecifics during flight. Similarly, birds living in large flocks where the risks of collisions are significantly higher, have also developed such traits.



Besides helping them avoid collisions, the evolution of bright, contrasting underwings may have yet another benefit: increasing the chances of escaping predators. “A number of predators do frequently attack individuals in colonies. For example, African Fish Eagles or baboons regularly try to kill flamingos,” the authors explained. “Upon escaping, individuals display their black-pink contrasting patches on their ventral wings, which could signal the presence of a predator to neighbors, enhance the confusion effect, and reduce collisions during escape.”



In future research, the scientists aim to clarify the mechanisms underlying collision avoidance in gregarious, fast-moving birds, as well as in a variety of other animals.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2022.0678">Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Some birds evolved bright colors to avoid collisions

A new study led by the Sun Yat-sen University in...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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