Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford</a> researchers has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-are-higher-than-previously-estimated/">methane</a> leaking from natural gas burning stoves in the US has a similar climate impact as the carbon dioxide emissions from 500,000 gasoline cars. When compared to the carbon dioxide created from burning natural gas while the stove is in use, the contribution of these methane leaks to global warming is about one third.



“Surprisingly, there are very few measurements of how much natural gas escapes into the air from inside homes and buildings through leaks and incomplete combustion from appliances,” said study lead author Eric Lebel, who conducted the research as a graduate student in Stanford’s School of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences (Stanford Earth).&nbsp;



“It’s probably the part of natural gas emissions we understand the least about, and it can have a big impact on both climate and indoor air quality.”



Methane is about 86 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide over the first twenty years and 25 times worse for one hundred years after emission. Methane also contributes to approximately one million premature deaths annually across the globe. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, concentrations of methane have increased more than twice as fast as those of carbon dioxide.



Over 40 million homes in the US cook with natural gas, representing more than one third of households. Because people are close to the natural gas emissions coming from their kitchen, they are directly exposed to air pollutants.&nbsp;



These pollutants can include nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and formaldehyde, which are all dangerous gasses. Some of these are known to trigger asthma, coughing and difficulty breathing, even occasionally leading to hospitalization.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“I don’t want to breathe any extra nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide or formaldehyde,” said study senior author Professor Rob Jackson. “Why not reduce the risk entirely? Switching to electric stoves will cut greenhouse gas emissions and indoor air pollution.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Natural gas stoves have greater impacts than expected

A new study led by Stanford researchers has revealed that...

Climate change is increasingly threatening the Winter Olympics and the future of snow sports in general, by making conditions more dangerous for athletes and participants. This is according to a new report published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13683500.2021.2023480?journal=&amp;src=">Current Issues in Tourism</a> one week before the start of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics Games.



While 21 venues all over the world have been used to host this event since 1924, the researchers suggest that by 2050, less than half of these venues will have the “climate suitability” and natural snowfall levels to be appropriate places for hosting the event.



The Beijing Games, set to start on February 4, 2022, will be the first Winter Olympics to use 100 percent artificial snow, deployed by over 100 snow generators and 300 snow-making guns. Since they are set in naturally arid climates, the two host cities, Beijing and Zhangjiakou will use an estimated 49 million gallons of chemically-treated water frozen by snow machines.



“This is not only energy and water intensive, frequently using chemicals to slow melt, but also delivers a surface that many competitors say is unpredictable and potentially dangerous,” wrote the report authors.



“The 2022 Winter Olympics will, no doubt, be an awesome spectacle watched and enjoyed by millions worldwide. But they should also provoke a debate about the future of snow sports, and the limits of engineering artificial natural environments. Slippery slopes lie ahead.”



Since natural snow is becoming less plentiful in many areas of the world due to climate change, the global snow sport industry will definitely be affected. 



“Navigating erratic snow seasons and rapid melt of low level resorts are now the norm for many competitors. The risk is clear: man-made warming is threatening the long-term future of winter sports. It is also reducing the number of climatically suitable host venues for the Winter Olympiad,” the researchers wrote.



Previous Winter Olympic venues, such as Chamonix (the city in France which hosted the first Olympics in 1924) and other cities in France, Austria, and Norway are now rated “high-risk,” while Vancouver in Canada, Sochi in Russia, and Squaw Valley in the United States are deemed “unreliable.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“By mid-century the number of reliable hosts declines to four (Lack Placid, Lillehammer, Oslo, and Sapporo) and by the end of the century only one location remains reliable (Sapporo),” the authors concluded.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The future is uncertain for Winter Olympics in a warmer world

Climate change is increasingly threatening the Winter Olympics and the...

When ground squirrels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-food-bears-hibernate-age-faster/">hibernate</a> in the winter, they stop eating and survive solely on the fat reserves they have stored in their bodies. Such a prolonged period of fasting and inactivity should significantly reduce muscle mass and function. However, this is surprisingly not happening: the animals usually emerge from hibernation in the spring in a very good shape, ready for the intense physical activity associated with their mating season. Until recently, this phenomenon has been a mystery for scientists.&nbsp;



According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/en/">University of Montreal</a>, hibernators harness a metabolic trick of their gut microbiome to recycle the nitrogen from urea (a waste compound eliminated as urine during periods of non-hibernation) and use it to build new tissue proteins.&nbsp;



By studying the urea salvage process in 13-lined ground squirrels, the scientists found that the incorporation of urea nitrogen into their tissue protein was highest during late winter - unlike most physiological processes during hibernation, which tend to be significantly reduced. Moreover, the gut microbes themselves seemed to be using the urea nitrogen to build their own proteins, thus making the relationship between squirrels and their microbiome a truly symbiotic one.



These findings have important potential implications for space travel. Since astronauts currently face muscle-loss problems caused by microgravity-induced suppression of protein synthesis, this discovery could open ways of augmenting their muscle protein synthesis processes using urea nitrogen salvage.



“Because we know which muscle proteins are suppressed during spaceflight, we can compare these proteins with those that are enhanced by urea nitrogen salvage during hibernation,” said study lead author Matthew Regan, an assistant professor of Animal Physiology at the University of Montreal. “If there is an overlap between the proteins in spaceflight and the ones from hibernation, then it suggests this process may have benefits to muscle health during spaceflight.”



Moreover, these discoveries could also help solve more pressing Earth-bound problems, such as muscle mass decline caused by starvation in underdeveloped countries or old age. “The mechanisms that mammals like the 13-lined ground squirrel have naturally evolved to maintain protein balance in their own nitrogen-limited situations may inform strategies for maximizing the health of other nitrogen-limited animals, including humans,” said Regan.&nbsp;



A possible solution would be the development of pre- or probiotic pills to promote a gut microbiome such as that of hibernating animals.



“To be clear, these applications, though theoretically possible, are a long way from delivery, and a lot of additional work is needed to translate this naturally evolved mechanism safely and effectively to humans. But one thing I find encouraging is that&nbsp;a study&nbsp;from the early 1990s provided some evidence that humans are capable of recycling small amounts of urea nitrogen via this same process. This suggests that the necessary machinery is in place. It just needs to be optimized,” Regan&nbsp;concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abh2950">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What hibernating squirrels can teach space travelers

When ground squirrels hibernate in the winter, they stop eating...

Domestic dogs show more variation in body size than any other mammal on Earth. There is a 40-fold difference in size between the smallest and largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breeding-practices-threaten-the-health-of-french-bulldogs/">breeds</a> of dogs. Variations in size have been selected for by humans, particularly in the past 200 years, while wolves, from which dogs originated, have maintained a constant size.



Since wolves are fairly large, people believed that ancestral dogs were also this size at the start of domestication. It is commonly understood that small dogs, such as Pomeranians and Chihuahuas, were selectively bred after domestication because humans wanted cute little companions.&nbsp;



However, scientists from the <a href="https://www.nih.gov/">National Institutes of Health</a> (NIH) have recently identified a mutation in a gene that regulates the production of growth hormone in dogs. The researchers found that this genetic mutation is present in the genes of dogs with small bodies, but was also present in wolves more than 50,000 years – long before domestication took place.&nbsp;



By analyzing 200 different breeds of dogs, the experts identified around 20 genes that are associated with the regulation of body size in dogs. These genes are involved in regulating skeletal development, insulin processing and fatty acid metabolism, among other functions. Of these genes, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) controls 15 percent of body size variation in different dog breeds and has a major role in determining body size.&nbsp;



However, after more than ten years of investigation, the researchers had not been able to identify a functional mutation associated with IGF-1. That was until Jocelyn Plassais, a postdoc student in geneticist Elaine Ostrander’s lab in Maryland, suggested that they search for sequences around the gene that were positioned backwards. She identified the mutated allele in this way and the researchers then analyzed the genomes of 1,431 individual canids from 13 different species, to track the history of this mutated form of the IGF1 gene.&nbsp;



The researchers also collaborated with evolutionary biologists Greger Larson, at Oxford University, and Laurent Franz, at Ludwig Maximilian University, to examine ancient wolf DNA to see when the&nbsp;IGF-1&nbsp;mutation first appeared. Scientists have theorized that dogs started out large and became smaller about 20,000 years ago, when they were domesticated, but this discovery presents the possibility of a new evolutionary narrative.



The analysis of ancient wolf DNA revealed that the mutated form of the IGF-1 gene was indeed present in the DNA of a 54,000-year-old Siberian wolf (Canis lupus campestris), long before domestication took place.&nbsp;



“It’s as though Nature had kept it tucked in her back pocket for tens of thousands of years until it was needed,” said Ostrander.



The mutated form was found not only in dogs and wolves, but also in other species of the canid family, including coyotes, jackals, and African hunting dogs.&nbsp;



“This is tying together so much about canine domestication and body size, and the things that we think are very modern are actually very ancient,” explained Ostrander.



It seems that the ancestral form of the gene is associated with small body size, while a derived form of the gene gave rise to larger body size and is currently commonly found in gray wolves and large dogs. The allele associated with small body size is thought to have almost become extinct during Pleistocene times when the wolves of the time vanished. But the allele made is reappearance more recently when humans began to selectively breed smaller dogs.&nbsp;



Ostrander and her team plan to continue to investigate the genes that regulate body size in dogs. “One of the things that is pretty cool about dogs is that because they have evolved so recently there aren’t actually a lot of body size genes."&nbsp;



Canids have only 25 known genes that regulate body size, compared to several hundred in humans. “I really want to understand the whole continuum - from Chihuahuas to Great Danes,” said Ostrander.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Small dogs have a gene mutation that existed in ancient wolves

Domestic dogs show more variation in body size than any...

Song sparrows are a widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-song-of-the-east-african-sunbird-may-be-a-million-years-old/">songbird</a> in North America. Among them, only males sing in order to defend their territory and court mates. They usually have a “repertoire” of up to 12 different two-seconds songs, which can take nearly 30 minutes to get through, because they repeat the same song several times before starting another track. 



A new study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> and the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> has found that song sparrows deliberately shuffle and mix their song repertoire, probably as a way to keep it interesting for their female audiences.



The researchers recorded the songs of over 30 birds in the backwoods of northwest Pennsylvania and found that male sparrows can keep quite an accurate track of the order of their songs and how often each song is played for over half an hour, possibly in order to avoid repetition and build up hype and novelty.&nbsp;



The more a sparrow sang a particular song, the longer he took to get back to that song. For example, if Song A was played ten times in a row, the bird would sing more renditions of other songs before returning to Song A. However, if Song A was played just two or three times, the bird would usually recite a shorter rendition of the other songs in order to return faster to the relatively new and underplayed Song A.



These findings suggest that song sparrows are capable of “long-distance dependencies” – the ability to choose what to sing at a given point by taking into account what they sang up to half an hour before. According to the scientists, this is a 360 times larger memory capacity than the canary’s (the previous record holder), who can only juggle about five seconds of song information in this way, and makes male sparrow song much more similar to human language than any other animal’s vocal behavior.



Further research is needed to understand why this impressive trait emerged and evolved. The current hypothesis is that it may help keep females interested and less bored, much like shuffling a Spotify playlist keeps us entertained during a gym session. “You've got your playlist for running and the reason you've got that is because running is kind of boring,” said study senior author Stephen Nowicki, a professor of Biology at Duke University. “You know that these 10 songs are going to keep you motivated, but if you are going to run for 20 songs long, why not shuffle it so the next time you don't hear the same songs in the same order?”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.2473">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Song sparrows shuffle and mix their tunes

Song sparrows are a widespread songbird in North America. Among...

Many animals, such as salamanders, starfish, crabs, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-regenerate-perfect-tails-through-stem-cell-therapy/">lizards</a>, have the capacity of full regeneration of at least some of their limbs. Other creatures, such as flatworms, can even be cut into pieces, and each piece will soon reconstruct an entire organism. However, in humans and other mammals, the loss of a large and structurally complex limb, like an arm or a leg, cannot be restored by any natural process of regeneration.



A research team led by <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> has recently managed to trigger regrowth of a lost leg in adult frogs by using a five-drug cocktail sealed in a silicone wearable bioreactor dome which they applied over the frog’s stump for a period of 24 hours. This is a crucial first step towards helping not only amphibians, but also mammals (including humans) regenerate lost limbs.



Each of the drugs fulfilled a different purpose, such as diminishing inflammation, inhibiting collagen production which would lead to scarring, and encouraging the growth of new nerve fibers, blood vessels, and muscles. This mixture of drugs combined with the use of the sealed, amniotic-like bioreactor created a perfect environment to inhibit the natural tendency to close off the stump, while promoting the regenerative process.



The scientists noticed a rapid, extraordinary growth of tissue in many of the treated frogs, re-creating an almost fully functional leg.&nbsp;



“It’s exciting to see that the drugs we selected were helping to create an almost complete limb,” said study lead author Nirosha Murugan, a research affiliate at Tufts University.&nbsp;



“The fact that it required only a brief exposure to the drugs to set in motion a months-long regeneration process suggests that frogs and perhaps other animals may have dormant regenerative capabilities that can be triggered into action.”



Within the first few days after treatment, Professor Murugan and her colleagues detected the activation of molecular pathways that are normally used in a developing embryo to help the body form. Instead of requiring prolonged therapeutic interventions, the activation of these pathways could allow the burden of growth and organization to be handled by the limb itself.



“Covering the open wound with a liquid environment under the BioDome, with the right drug cocktail, could provide the necessary first signals to set the regenerative process in motion,” said study corresponding author Michael Levine, a professor of Biology at Tufts.&nbsp;



“It’s a strategy focused on triggering dormant, inherent anatomical patterning programs, not micromanaging complex growth, since adult animals still have the information needed to make their body structures.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.abj2164">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists can help frogs grow new limbs

Many animals, such as salamanders, starfish, crabs, or lizards, have...

Autoimmune diseases are chronic conditions that occur more frequently as people age. They occur when the body’s natural defense system mistakenly attacks its own, normal cells. Common autoimmune conditions include rheumatoid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yoga-pain-depression-arthritis/">arthritis</a>, psoriasis, polymyalgia rheumatica (pain and stiffness in the muscles around the shoulders, neck and hips) and thyroid diseases. These conditions affect people more frequently as they age.&nbsp;



There are no effective treatments for autoimmune diseases, and they represent a major social and economic burden to health systems. A new study tested whether taking daily supplements of vitamin D or omega-3 fatty acids from marine fish, or a combination of both, could reduce the incidence of autoimmune diseases among older adults in the United States.&nbsp;



The research, which was conducted over five years, provides the first direct evidence that taking daily supplements of vitamin D or omega-3 fatty acids reduces the risk of autoimmune disease among older adults.



Scientists from Harvard Medical School and from Brigham and Women’s Hospital conducted a nationwide, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial using 25,871 volunteer participants (average age 67; 51 percent women; 71 percent non-Hispanic white people) from disparate locations throughout the US.&nbsp;



Upon joining the trial, participants gave information about their age, ethnicity, region of residence, income, education, lifestyle, weight, medical history, diet and supplement use. Blood levels of vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acids were also measured at this point.



Participants were then randomly selected to receive a supplement of vitamin D (2,000 IU/day) or a matched placebo, and/or a supplement of omega-3 fatty acids (1,000 mg/day) or matched placebo. The participants were asked to report any diagnosed autoimmune disease over the subsequent 5.3 years. Diagnosed cases were confirmed using medical records. There were also cases that had insufficient documentation for confirmed diagnosis, and these were classed as “probable” cases.



During the trial period, a confirmed disease was diagnosed in 123 participants in the vitamin D group, whereas 155 instances of autoimmune disease were diagnosed in the associated placebo group – a 22 percent lower relative rate.



In the omega-3 fatty acid group, 130 confirmed cases were diagnosed compared with 148 in the placebo group (representing a 15 percent reduction), but this was not a statistically significant result. However, when probable cases were included, omega-3 fatty acid supplements did significantly reduce the rate by 18 percent compared with the placebo group. The effects of supplementation with these two substances were stronger the longer a patient had been taking the supplements.&nbsp;



The researchers say the findings have far-reaching implications, “given that these are well-tolerated, non-toxic supplements, and that there are no other known effective therapies to reduce rates of autoimmune diseases.”



Similar results were found when data from only the last three years of the trial were analyzed. The vitamin D group had 39 percent fewer confirmed cases than the placebo group, while the omega-3 fatty acid group had 10 percent fewer confirmed cases than were recorded in the placebo group. Both vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acid supplements decreased autoimmune disease by about 30 percent when compared to results recorded from participants that received the placebo alone.&nbsp;



According to the study authors, this is the first direct evidence that daily supplementation with either agent – or a combination of vitamin D and omega-3 fatty acids – for five years among older US adults reduces autoimmune disease incidence, with more pronounced effect after two years of supplementation.



“We are continuing to follow participants for two years in an extension study to test the time course of this autoimmune disease reduction effect,” wrote the researchers. “Further trials could test these interventions in younger populations, and those with high autoimmune disease risk."



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">British Medical Journal</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vitamin D reduces the risk of autoimmune disease

Autoimmune diseases are chronic conditions that occur more frequently as...

The <a href="https://www.heart.org/">American Heart Association</a>, in conjunction with the National Institutes of Health, has published its most recent report giving up-to-date statistics related to heart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/retinal-scans-can-reveal-early-signs-of-heart-disease/">disease</a>, stroke, cardiovascular risk factors and other factors that contribute to cardiovascular health. 



The statistical update presents the latest data on a range of major clinical heart and circulatory disease conditions and is available for use by the public, policymakers, media professionals, clinicians, health care administrators, researchers, health advocates, and others seeking the best available data on these factors and conditions.



One of the stand-out findings in the report relates to the&nbsp;rising global prevalence of brain disease, including stroke, Alzheimer’s disease and dementia. The global death rate from Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias has increased considerably – even more than the rate of death from heart disease.&nbsp;



The following statistics are given in the report, in support of this finding:



<ul><li>Globally, more than 54 million people had Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias in 2020, that’s a 37% increase since 2010 and a 144% increase over the past 30 years (1990-2020).</li><li>More than 1.89 million deaths were attributed to Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias worldwide in 2020, compared to nearly 9 million deaths from heart disease.</li><li>Global deaths from Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias increased more than 44% from 2010 to 2020, compared to a 21% increase in deaths from heart disease.</li><li>Deaths from Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias increased 184% over the past 30 years (1990-2020), compared to a 66% increase in heart disease deaths during that same time.</li></ul>



Dr. Mitchell S.V. Elkind is the immediate past president of the American Heart Association, a professor of neurology and epidemiology at Columbia University Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons.



“The global rate of brain disease is quickly outpacing heart disease. The rate of deaths from Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias rose more than twice as much in the past decade compared to the rate of deaths from heart disease, and that is something we must address,” said Dr. Elkind.



Studies show that maintaining good vascular health is associated with healthy aging and retention of cognitive function. This implies that the steps we take to maintain a healthy heart may also help maintain brain health and cognitive functionality. Optimal brain health includes the functional ability to perform all the diverse tasks for which the brain is responsible, including movement, perception, learning and memory, communication, problem solving, judgment, decision making and emotion.&nbsp;



“We are learning more about how some types of dementia are related to the aging, and how some types are due to poor vascular health. Many studies show that the same healthy lifestyle behaviors that can help improve a person’s heart health can also preserve or even improve their brain health. It’s becoming more evident that reducing vascular disease risk factors can make a real difference in helping people live longer, healthier lives, free of heart disease and brain disease,” says Dr. Elkind.



The 2022 Statistical Update highlights some of these studies:



<ul><li>In a meta-analysis of 139 studies, people with midlife hypertension were five times more likely to experience impairment on global cognition and about twice as likely to experience reduced executive function, dementia and Alzheimer’s disease.</li><li>Nearly half of all adults (47% or 121.5 million) in the U.S. have elevated blood pressure, based on 2015 to 2018 data.</li><li>In a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies with up to 42 years of follow-up, people with obesity had three times the risk of dementia.</li><li>Current smoking was associated with a 30%-40% increased risk of dementia, Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia, based on a meta-analysis of 37 prospective studies.</li></ul>



Having cardiovascular disease also increases the chances of developing brain disease:



<ul><li>In a meta-analysis of four longitudinal studies, the risk for dementia associated with heart failure was nearly two-fold.</li><li>In the ARIC Neurocognitive study (12,515 participants, average age of 57 years, 24% Black participants, 56% women), atrial fibrillation was associated with greater cognitive decline and dementia over 20 years.</li><li>A meta-analysis of 10 prospective studies (including 24,801 participants) found that coronary heart disease was associated with a 40% increased risk of poor cognitive outcomes including dementia, cognitive impairment or cognitive decline.</li></ul>



According to the report, there are also significant differences in the gender, race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status of people who are more likely to develop brain disease and dementia, an indication that social determinants of health also play a role:



<ul><li>Of the more than 54 million cases of Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias worldwide in 2020, almost 20 million were among men, compared to nearly 35 million women. More than twice as many women as men died from Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias.</li><li>A retrospective analysis of the 2016 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System data found significant differences in subjective cognitive decline across non-white racial and ethnic groups when compared to white adults in the 20,843 respondents who reported being diagnosed with stroke.&nbsp;</li></ul>



In addition, the statistical report tracks the costs involved in treating and caring for patients with dementia. Estimated US spending on dementias more than doubled from $38.6 billion in 1996 to $79.2 billion in 2016. Spending on dementias was among the top 10 health care costs in the United States in 2016.



“Like cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, dementia and other cognitive ailments are a tremendous emotional and economic burden across the globe,” said&nbsp;



Dr. Connie W. Tsao is chair of the Statistical Update writing group and an assistant professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School and attending staff cardiologist at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston.



“This new chapter on brain health was a critical one to add,” said Dr. Tsan. “The data we’ve collected brings to light the strong correlations between heart health and brain health and makes it an easy story to tell – what’s good for the heart is good for the brain.”



Along with new information on brain health, the 2022 Statistical Update provides the latest available data on key factors related to heart disease and stroke:



<ul><li>On average, someone dies of cardiovascular disease (CVD) every 36 seconds in the U.S. There are 2,396 deaths from CVD each day, based on 2019 data.</li><li>On average, someone in the U.S. has a stroke every 40 seconds. There are about 795,000 new or recurrent strokes each year, based on 1999 data.</li><li>On average, someone dies of a stroke every 3 minutes and 30 seconds in the U.S. There are about 411 deaths from stroke each day, based on 2019 data.</li><li>Approximately 1 in 4 (24%) U.S. adults reported achieving adequate leisure-time aerobic and muscle-strengthening activities to meet the physical activity guidelines, based on 2018 data.</li><li>1 in 7 male adults and 1 in 8 female adults in the U.S. are current smokers, based on 2019 data.</li></ul>



Tracking such trends is one of the reasons the American Heart Association publishes the definitive statistical update annually, providing a comprehensive resource of the most current data, relevant scientific findings and assessment of the impact of cardiovascular disease nationally and globally.



“Advancing brain science through innovative research will help scientists shed new light on the causes and contributors to cognitive impairment and dementia, particularly as it relates to heart and vascular health. This is an important step in the Association’s ongoing commitment to better understand how our brains age and how vascular health impacts brain health and overall well-being,” said Dr. Elkind, who is a member of the Statistical Update writing committee.



“Additionally, it’s critical that as a society and as individuals we understand and make the changes needed to improve health outcomes from brain disease and, more importantly, prevent them to begin with."



The report is published in the AHA journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ahajournals.org/journal/circ">Circulation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study finds strong correlation between heart and brain health

The American Heart Association, in conjunction with the National Institutes...

Weight gain is often the result of overeating, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sedentary-behavior-is-not-always-bad-for-the-brain/">sedentary</a> lifestyle, or genetics. Now, a new study from the <a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">Norwegian University of Science and Technology</a> (NTNU) has linked weight gain and obesity to chemicals found in plastic packaging.



Anyone who lives in the modern world knows plastics and plastic packaging are ubiquitous. Plastics contain thousands of chemicals, and the new research shows that some of these chemicals may impact your metabolism and cause weight gain.&nbsp;



The experts looked at 34 different plastic products such as yogurt containers and water bottles. The team found a startling 55,000 chemicals in these plastics, only 629 of which they were able to identify. Eleven of the chemicals are known to disrupt metabolism in humans.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Unfortunately, the researchers were able to demonstrate that many of these chemicals, which were thought to remain in the plastics, can actually leach out of them and enter the human body. Previous studies have shown that some of the chemicals found in plastics can disrupt development and fertility. Now, it seems that these chemicals may play a role in weight gain as well.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our experiments show that ordinary plastic products contain a mix of substances that can be a relevant and underestimated factor behind overweight and obesity,” said Martin Wagner, an associate professor in the NTNU Department of Biology.



Chemicals found in one third of the plastic products were shown to contribute to fat cell growth in laboratory studies. Even some plastics without known metabolism disrupting chemicals were shown to contribute to fat cell development.&nbsp;



“It’s very likely that it is not the usual suspects, such as Bisphenol A, causing these metabolic disturbances," said study first author Johannes Völker. "This means that other plastic chemicals than the ones we already know could be contributing to overweight and obesity,”



The scientists point out that overweight and obesity contribute to leading causes of death such as heart disease, making this research quite important. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chemicals in plastic packaging contribute to weight gain

Weight gain is often the result of overeating, a sedentary...

Bats are the only group of mammals capable of powered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-habitat-influences-their-flight-behavior/">flight</a>. They are extremely diverse, with about 1,440 species which make up over 20 percent of all known mammal species. Bats also have a very unique way of navigating the world. They use echolocation – emitting high-pitched sounds and then listening for the returning echo – to orient themselves in space, avoid obstacles while flying, and forage for food.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/">University of Chicago</a>, the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>, and the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> has found that two major group of bats have different anatomical structures for connecting the inner ear to the brain. These findings confirm previously discovered genetic evidence that bats belong to two different evolutionary lineages, known as Yinpterochiroptera, or “Yin," and Yangochiroptera, or “Yang.”



“Biologists have speculated that the two major groups of bats have different ways of seeing the world through sound,” said study lead author Benjamin Sulser. “This is the first time we found different neuroanatomies in the inner ear, which give these bats different ways of processing the echolocating signal.”



Sulser and his colleagues discovered that Yins rely more heavily on constant frequency sounds for echolocation, while Yangs employ a more complex, modulated frequency. 



The researchers performed a large number of CT scans of the skulls of specimens from 39 species of bats. They found that, just like most other mammals, Yin bats’ inner ear consists of a thick canal wall packed with small openings for the nerve fibers. On the other hand, the Yang bats have an open canal with no wall, which allows for more evolutionary variations of the neurons in the ganglion.



“We hypothesize that by developing this new configuration, without the space constraint on the inner ear ganglion, the Yang bats have a greater capacity for the ganglion cells to multiply and different ways to connect to the brain, unlike most other mammals,” said study senior author Professor Zhe-Xi Luo. 



“A greater size of a ganglion and a greater number of neurons may have contributed to this big evolutionary diversification of bats relying more on frequency modulating echolocation.”



According to Professor Luo, both methods of echolocation contributed to the amazing evolutionary success of bats. “These are different ways of achieving the same goal. It’s like these two types of bats are speaking different dialects of a language."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bats use different inner ear structures to navigate

Bats are the only group of mammals capable of powered...

Millions of people, worldwide, have raised levels of cholesterol in their blood. In America alone, it is estimated that 94 million people suffer from this condition, with half of all those over 50 being hypercholesterolemic. Although this fatty substance is essential for making healthy cells, it can accumulate in blood vessels and lead to serious health issues such as atherosclerosis, heart attacks, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-and-tea-may-reduce-the-risk-of-stroke-and-dementia/">strokes</a> and coronary heart disease. 



Most people with hypercholesterolemia are prescribed drugs (statins) to help them lower and control the levels of cholesterol in their blood and blood vessels. However, for some the side effects of these drugs are unpleasant or undesirable, and for others the idea of taking chronic medication is unacceptable.&nbsp;



In new research, published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jn">The&nbsp;Journal of Nutrition</a>, a different option has been investigated. Specially formulated foods, containing dietary items that have a proven record of reducing cholesterol, have been tested and compared to the effects of statins in terms of lowering cholesterol levels. This “food as medicine” approach involves only a slight change in lifestyle and could help those people who cannot use statins or who do not wish to use them.



“Based on the outcomes seen in our study, using this type of food as medicine approach expands the options for medical professionals and patients,” said Dr. Stephen Kopecky, cardiologist and Director of the Statin Intolerance Clinic at Mayo Clinic. “Many patients who are unwilling or unable to take statin drugs may be able to help manage their high cholesterol, or hyperlipidemia with a realistic food-based intervention.”



In this study, participants who suffered from raised levels of cholesterol were required to substitute part of their daily food intake with snacks developed by the company <a href="https://www.steponefoods.com/">Step One Foods</a>. These snacks were all whole-food based and included such delights as chocolate bars and strawberry-banana smoothies. They were made entirely from real ingredients, such as walnuts, almonds, flax, chia and berries, that are known to impact cholesterol profiles positively.&nbsp;



In addition, every serving contained the precise amounts of fiber, omega-3 fatty acids, plant sterols, and antioxidants extensively documented to help maintain healthy cholesterol levels and cardiovascular health. Participants were instructed to consume these snacks in exchange for similar foods they were consuming already, but the rest of their diet remained otherwise unchanged.



The study is considered the first of its kind and involved free-living participants who consumed the Step One Foods for 30 days. It was conducted by scientists from the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, and the Richardson Centre at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Manitoba. The study followed a randomized, double-blind crossover design.&nbsp;



The results showed that hypercholesterolemic participants who substituted a small portion of what they ate daily with Step One Foods showed rapid and highly significant reductions in cholesterol. After the 30-day period, participants saw an average of 9 percent decrease in LDL (bad) cholesterol, with some experiencing more than 30 percent reduction in LDL cholesterol.



In a parallel part of the study, one group of participants was asked to (instead) substitute some of their usual diet with comparable, leading grocery store brands that are considered to be “better for you” foods. Each participant consumed these leading-brand foods for 30 days. No cholesterol reductions were recorded for people in this group after the 30 days.&nbsp;



“Nutrition contributes to five of the seven modifiable risk factors for heart disease, but getting patients to change diet is incredibly challenging,” said Dr. Elizabeth Klodas, founder and Chief Medical Officer of Step One Foods. “This study underscores what’s possible when we succeed. The implications of attaining such a significant cholesterol impact from a small, food-based intervention are profound. We could change the health of our country in 30 days.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Food can work as well as medication to lower cholesterol

Millions of people, worldwide, have raised levels of cholesterol in...

According to new laboratory research led by <a href="https://www.ohsu.edu/">Oregon Health &amp; Science University</a> (OHSU), breakthrough COVID-19 infections following <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-booster-shots-are-highly-effective-against-hospitalization/">vaccination</a>, or natural infection followed by vaccination can lead to long-lasting “super immunity” to this disease. This is due to a greater abundance of antibodies that are at least ten times more potent than those generated by vaccination or infection alone.



The scientists recruited 104 OHSU employees who were vaccinated with the Pfizer BioNTech vaccine and divided them into three groups: 42 participants who were vaccinated but had not been infected, 31 who were vaccinated after an infection, and 31 who had breakthrough infections after vaccination. Blood samples from all of them were exposed to the Alpha, Beta, and Delta variants of the live SARS-CoV-2 virus in a laboratory at OHSU.



The findings suggest that people with “hybrid immunity” generated greater levels of protection against the coronavirus than those who were vaccinated but had no infection. “It makes no difference whether you get infected and then vaccinated, or if you get vaccinated and then a breakthrough infection,” said study senior co-author&nbsp;Fikadu Tafesse, an assistant professor of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology at OHSU. “In either case, you will get a really, really robust immune response - amazingly high.”



Although this study was done before the emergence of the highly transmissible <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">Omicron</a> variant, the researchers expect the hybrid immune responses generated by vaccination combined with Omicron infection to be similar. “The likelihood of getting breakthrough infections is high because there is so much virus around us right now,” said Professor Tafesse. “But we position ourselves better by getting vaccinated. And if the virus comes, we’ll get a milder case and end up with this super immunity.”



According to study senior co-author Bill Messer, another immunologist and expert in Molecular Microbiology at OHSU, each new Omicron breakthrough infection could potentially bring the pandemic closer to the end, and turn into a mostly mild endemic infection instead of a devastating pandemic. “I would expect at this point many vaccinated people are going to wind up with breakthrough infections - and hence a form of hybrid immunity,” he said.



Further research is needed to assess the immune responses following several natural infections with no vaccination. However, the scientists expect that immunity in such cases will be highly variable and that vaccination plus infection remains the best way of gaining super immunity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciimmunol.abn8014">Science Immunology</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vaccination and infection provides Covid super immunity

According to new laboratory research led by Oregon Health &amp;...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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