Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Scientists have revealed a new biometric marker: your nasal breathing pattern. This is uniquely yours. According to new research, nasal airflow can identify individuals with 96.8% accuracy. That is on par with voice recognition.



The discovery came from a team at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a>. They created a wearable device that tracks nasal breathing patterns over 24 hours. Unlike short clinical tests, this method captures long-term characteristics.



“You would think that breathing has been measured and analyzed in every way,” said Noam Sobel. “Yet we stumbled upon a completely new way to look at respiration. We consider this as a brain readout.”



The study involved 97 participants and used 24 specific features extracted from their breathing patterns. Each feature remained stable over months, even up to two years. This suggests it comes from the brain’s respiratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-rhythms-help-strengthen-memories-during-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">network</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wearable-breathing-pattern-tracker">A wearable breathing pattern tracker</h2>



Participants wore a silicone-encased device on their neck all day. It connected to a nasal cannula with separate tubes for each nostril. This setup recorded every breath in real time, logging airflow asymmetries and temporal pauses.



Researchers used AI models to analyze features like inhale volume and duty cycles. With just one hour of breathing data, they could still identify about 43% of participants during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>. When they tested data across months, accuracy remained high: 95% during waking hours and over 70% during sleep.



Importantly, they ruled out motion as a confounding factor. Position sensors built into the device could only identify people with 37% accuracy. The breathing pattern did far better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breathing-patterns-and-mental-health">Breathing patterns and mental health</h2>



The study didn’t just identify people. It predicted health and emotional traits. Breathing patterns reflected body mass index, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> quality, and mental health. For example, those with higher anxiety scores had shorter inhales and more varied pauses during sleep.



These effects were not linked to illness. All participants were healthy and had no clinical diagnoses. Yet their breathing revealed differences tied to depression, anxiety, and even traits linked to autism. 



“Perhaps the way you breathe makes you anxious or depressed,” said Sobel. “If that’s true, we might be able to change the way you breathe to change those conditions.”



Researchers used a technique called canonical correlation analysis. It showed a strong link between breathing patterns and psychological traits, with a correlation of 0.87 across multiple tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breathing-data-predicts-mood-behavior">Breathing data predicts mood behavior</h2>



Using nasal airflow data, researchers could predict BMI with strong accuracy. Tidal volume and exhale volume during sleep both correlated with higher BMI. Interestingly, even nasal cycle features, like airflow differences between nostrils, predicted BMI. That suggests brain-driven breathing control is involved.



In those with higher depression scores, the study found faster airflow and longer exhale pauses during wakefulness. For anxiety, shorter inhales and less stable breathing occurred during sleep. Even those with higher autism trait scores showed longer inhale pauses and more variable patterns during sleep.



These findings suggest that breathing patterns reflect both state (like stress or sleep) and trait (like body composition or emotional tendencies).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-and-challenges">Next steps and challenges</h2>



Despite the promise, the device has limitations. The nasal cannula, often associated with illness, may discourage everyday use. It also doesn’t track mouth breathing and sometimes slips during sleep. Soroka and Sobel plan to improve the device's design.



Still, the potential is big. A nasal breathing pattern reader could someday be used to track well-being, monitor mental health, or guide therapies. “We definitely want to go beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diagnostics</a> to treatment, and we are cautiously optimistic,” stated Sobel.



Even now, the researchers can identify you by your breathing pattern. Soon, they might help you breathe your way to better health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00583-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Study shows that our breathing pattern is as unique as our fingerprints

Scientists have revealed a new biometric marker: your nasal breathing...

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to quick-footed hunters, these creatures ruled the prehistoric world for millions of years. Each fossil discovery brings new understanding. 



A recent find has added a key piece to the tyrannosaur story. Named Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, this newly identified dinosaur sheds light on how smaller predators evolved into giants like Tyrannosaurus rex.



This breakthrough comes from a global research team led by Jared Voris and Dr. Darla Zelenitsky of the <a href="https://ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>. Their findings appear in the journal Nature. 



Khankhuuluu lived about 86 million years ago during a time of rapid change.



As other large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-guts-reveal-the-eating-habits-of-sauropod-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> vanished, new ones took their places. Khankhuuluu stood at the crossroads of this transition. The species bridges the gap between earlier swift hunters and the colossal bone crushers that followed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-came-before-t-rex">Khankhuuluu came before T. rex</h2>



Khankhuuluu means “prince of dragons” in Mongolian. The name hints at its importance. It was not yet king, but it was certainly part of a royal bloodline.



This dinosaur is now seen as the closest-known ancestor of the tyrannosaurs. Unlike its massive descendants, Khankhuuluu weighed only about 750 kilograms (1,600 pounds). That is similar to the size of a modern horse.



“This new species provides us the window into the ascent stage of tyrannosaur evolution; right when they’re transitioning from small predators to their apex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-cancer-clues-for-modern-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> form,” explained Jared Voris, the study’s first author and a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Calgary.



Khankhuuluu rose to prominence after the extinction of many other large carnivores. It seized the opportunity and evolved new traits that would eventually lead to its dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-agile-and-built-to-pursue">Fast, agile, and built to pursue</h2>



Khankhuuluu was not a brute force <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>. It had a long, shallow skull that lacked the bone-crushing strength of a T. rex. Instead, it relied on its long legs for speed, and its sharp senses. Scientists describe it as a mesopredator, similar in role to a coyote. 



This means it likely preyed on small animals and used agility to avoid larger threats.



One of its most notable features was a pair of tiny horns above its eyes. These were likely used for mating displays or to intimidate other dinosaurs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Credit: University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1973997"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



Later species such as Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus would develop larger and more ornate versions of these horns. 



In Khankhuuluu, however, the structures were still in early development. These subtle differences mark it as a transitional figure in tyrannosaur history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-was-misidentified">Khankhuuluu was misidentified</h2>



The bones that identified Khankhuuluu were not newly dug from the ground. They were actually collected in the 1970s by paleontologist Altangerel Perle in the Bayanshiree Formation in southeastern Mongolia. 



At the time, the fossils were thought to belong to a dinosaur called Alectrosaurus that was more commonly found in nearby China. That assumption held for decades.



Then in 2023, Voris traveled to Mongolia to study the fossils in detail. While examining the material at the Institute of Paleontology, he noticed key differences. These included unique features in the skull and limbs. 



These observations confirmed that the fossils belonged to a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. What had once been misidentified was now recognized as a pivotal ancestor of the tyrannosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tyrannosaur-that-crossed-continents">The tyrannosaur that crossed continents</h2>



Khankhuuluu's legacy is not limited to Mongolia. Its lineage spread far beyond Asia. 



“Khankhuuluu, or a closely related species, would have immigrated to North America from Asia around 85 million years ago. Our study provides solid evidence that large tyrannosaurs first evolved in North America as a result of this immigration event,” Dr. Darla Zelenitsky noted.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1974000"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



This migration shaped the history of dinosaurs on both continents. Once in North America, tyrannosaurs began to grow larger and more specialized. Over time, they became the most dominant predators in their environments. 



The journey of Khankhuuluu set this in motion. It is a clear example of how species movement influences evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tyrannosaurs-split">How tyrannosaurs split</h2>



Once in North America, the tyrannosaurs evolved along two main paths. One group became massive apex predators like Tyrannosaurus rex. 



These were the bone crushers, armed with powerful jaws and deep skulls. Another group developed long snouts and stayed medium-sized. Scientists call them “Pinocchio rexes” because of their distinctive faces.



Both branches trace back to Khankhuuluu or a very similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestor</a>. This new discovery shows that the migration from Asia was not just a one-time event. It reveals a pattern of interaction and development that shaped dinosaur evolution.



These findings change the way scientists view the rise of tyrannosaurs. The journey was not linear. It involved branching, mixing, and adapting over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-chapter-in-the-tyrannosaur-story">Next chapter in the tyrannosaur story</h2>



Though Khankhuuluu has answered many questions, it has also raised new ones. Researchers now want to explore earlier stages of tyrannosaur evolution. 



What came before the dragon prince? What traits defined the first members of this mighty family? The answers may lie buried in rocks still waiting to be exposed.



For now, Khankhuuluu stands as a symbol of change. It was not the biggest or most fearsome predator. But it played a critical role in the story of Earth's past. 



As the dragon prince, it holds the key to understanding how some of the most iconic creatures in history came to rule the land.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08964-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Meet the "prince of dragons," closest T-rex relative that started the tyrannosaur dynasty

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to...

Most galaxies we see today are quiet, well-structured, and orderly. But not all play by those rules. Some are wild, chaotic, and packed with stars that are forming at a furious pace. 



These rare, chaotic galaxies give astronomers a glimpse of what the universe looked like billions of years ago - and perhaps a hint of what's in store for our own Milky Way.



Astronomers from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> have taken a detailed look at these unusual chaotic galaxies, also known as luminous and ultra-luminous infrared galaxies, or LIRGs and ULIRGs. 



These are incredibly bright in the infrared spectrum and are often caught in the middle of a galactic collision.



This study, part of a larger project called the Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey (GOALS), includes data from space telescopes such as Spitzer, Hubble, Chandra, and GALEX - and now, for the first time, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) as well.



The results of the study were presented during a press briefing at the <a href="https://aas.org/meetings/aas246" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">246th meeting of the American Astronomical Society</a> on June 11. 



According to Sean Linden, a research associate at the University of Arizona <a href="https://astro.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steward Observatory</a>, the findings will be published in an upcoming edition of the Astrophysical Journal. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-collisions-cause-chaotic-galaxies">Cosmic collisions cause chaotic galaxies</h2>



LIRGs and ULIRGs are not common in the universe close to Earth. Only 202 have been found within 1.3 billion light-years of us. What makes them special is that they are actively merging. 



Two galaxies smash together, forming bizarre structures - double galactic centers, long tails of stars and, most notably, star-forming clumps that are far larger than anything in our galaxy.



"These galaxies are very clumpy, very different from the beautiful spiral galaxies that we see now, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>," said Linden. "And we know from cosmological simulations that these clumps were the building blocks of galaxies in the early universe."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/milky-way_andromeda_merger_illustration_UArizona_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/milky-way_andromeda_merger_illustration_UArizona_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows a stage in the predicted merger between our Milky Way galaxy and the neighboring Andromeda galaxy, as it will unfold over the next several billion years. In this image, representing Earth's night sky in 3.75 billion years, Andromeda (left) fills the field of view and begins to distort the Milky Way with tidal pull. Credit: NASA; ESA; Z. Levay and R. van der Marel, STScI; T. Hallas; and A. Mellinger" class="wp-image-1974007"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows a stage in the predicted merger between our Milky Way galaxy and the neighboring Andromeda galaxy, as it will unfold over the next several billion years. In this image, representing Earth's night sky in 3.75 billion years, Andromeda (left) fills the field of view and begins to distort the Milky Way with tidal pull. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA; ESA; Z. Levay and R. van der Marel, STScI; T. Hallas; and A. Mellinger</figcaption></figure>



In our galaxy, the largest clumps of new stars weigh about 1,000 solar masses. In LIRGs and ULIRGs, a single clump can hold a million times the mass of our Sun. And there are hundreds of thousands of these clumps in each galaxy.



"You can imagine a million Suns forming in one small, compact region, and within one of those galaxies, there are hundreds of thousands of such clumps," Linden explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chaotic-galaxies-act-as-star-factories">Chaotic galaxies act as star factories </h2>



Galactic mergers are messy. But in that chaos, galaxies give birth to stars at a much higher rate than usual. When two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies collide</a>, gas clouds compress, temperatures soar, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> kicks into overdrive.



"These clumpy structures build up over time until they become incredibly massive, and if we want to understand them and how they actually contribute to galaxies evolving throughout cosmic time, we need to study them in detail," Linden said.



This is exactly what the new JWST data makes possible. Earlier telescopes, like Hubble, had already spotted some of these clumps. But thick clouds of dust made it impossible to see what was going on inside them. 



JWST's infrared vision has now peeled back those layers, giving researchers their best look yet at the internal workings of these star factories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-chaotic-galaxies-crashed-and-clumped">When chaotic galaxies crashed and clumped</h2>



The universe used to be a more violent place. Billions of years ago, galaxies were packed closer together and collided more frequently. That meant more clumps, more chaos, and more extreme star formation.



"The universe used to be much more violent and extreme in the past, and it's now settling down," Linden said. "That's why these rare examples of extreme galaxies no longer exist in the local universe, because, by and large, most galaxies have settled down as well."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/galaxies_interacting_IRAS-09111-1007_UArizona_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/galaxies_interacting_IRAS-09111-1007_UArizona_1s.webp" alt="Two interacting luminous infrared galaxies, designated as IRAS 09111-1007, from the survey. The galaxies already passed through each other once and are coming back on a second approach. Credit: Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey" class="wp-image-1974005"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two interacting luminous infrared galaxies, designated as IRAS 09111-1007, from the survey. The galaxies already passed through each other once and are coming back on a second approach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey</figcaption></figure>



Even so, these rare chaotic galaxies offer astronomers a chance to study a phenomenon that has mostly disappeared from the modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-is-expanding-faster-than-science-can-explain-hubble-tension-physics-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>. They serve as a kind of time machine - letting us peek into how galaxies like ours might have looked long ago.



"In a sense, you look at the local universe, and it gives you information about what would have happened 10 billion years ago," said Linden.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-milky-way-meets-andromeda">When the Milky Way meets Andromeda</h2>



These observations might not just be a look into the past. They could also foreshadow the future. 



The Milky Way is on a slow-motion collision course with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-shows-signs-of-violent-past-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andromeda</a> galaxy. That merger will happen several billion years from now but, when it does, our quiet and orderly galaxy could roar back to life.



"As Andromeda gets closer and the pressure in the interstellar medium goes up, all of a sudden, the clumps that you will find that the Milky Way is forming will be more and more massive," Linden noted.



The survey also confirmed long-held predictions from computer simulations. Disk-shaped galaxies like the Milky Way form stars in small, scattered clumps. But when galaxies merge, they create larger clumps and more intense star-forming regions.



"We're now finding these massive clumps in the local universe," Linden said. "We are beginning to complete the picture by comparing, for the first time, observations of massive clumps from both the nearby and the distant universe."



These rare chaotic galaxies, once hidden behind thick veils of dust, are now offering scientists a clearer view of how cosmic structures behave under extreme conditions. 



Furthermore, with the help of JWST, researchers are uncovering how collisions and chaos shaped the universe we see today - and how they might shape what comes next.



Information from a University of Arizona <a href="https://news.arizona.edu/news/belly-beast-massive-clumps-reveal-star-factories-bygone-era-cosmos">press release</a>.



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Chaotic galaxies are star factories from another time

Most galaxies we see today are quiet, well-structured, and orderly....

Planet formation begins around young stars, inside swirling disks of gas and dust. A new analysis of data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) shows that the gas in these disks fades faster than the dust - reshaping ideas about how and when planets take shape.



The new work comes from the ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO) - a project led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and the University of Wisconsin-Madison.



“Now we have both, the gas and the dust,” said Professor Ilaria Pascucci. "Observing the gas is much more difficult because it takes much more observing time, and that's why we have to go for a large program like this one to obtain a statistically significant sample.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-close-look-at-planet-forming-disks">A close look at planet-forming disks</h2>



AGE-PRO examined 30 disks around Sun-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in three star-forming regions that span one to six million years in age. 



These disks were studied not only for their dust properties, as in previous research, but also for their gas mass and size - providing the first robust look at how gas content evolves throughout a disk’s lifetime.



The most surprising result of the study was that gas and dust do not vanish together. Large amounts of gas blow away early, then leak more slowly as the disk grows older. Dust, however, tends to persist.



The researchers also found that the gas-to-dust mass ratio evolves over time - and not necessarily in the way earlier models predicted. 



Smaller disks weren’t shedding their gas faster, as previously assumed. Instead, the gas-to-dust ratio appeared surprisingly consistent across disks of different sizes, a twist that hints at deeper complexities in disk evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-planet-birth">What this means for planet birth</h2>



If gas leaves early, giant planets like Jupiter must form rapidly before the disk’s supply runs out. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky planets</a>, by contrast, may continue building over a longer timeline, supported by lingering dust.



Ke Zhang of Wisconsin-Madison, principal investigator of AGE-PRO, noted that some older disks still carry more gas than expected. This unexpected retention suggests a wider variety of evolutionary paths - and potentially more diverse planetary systems - than previously assumed.



The disk’s initial mass, size, and angular momentum also influence the types of planets it can form - whether gas giants, icy giants, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-planet-named-enaiposha-is-unlike-anything-in-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mini-Neptunes</a> - as well as their migration patterns after formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-faintest-signals">Finding the faintest signals</h2>



ALMA’s sharp vision enabled the team to detect faint “fingerprints” of cold gas in the form of molecular spectral lines. 



While carbon monoxide (CO) is the most commonly used gas tracer, AGE-PRO went further - adding diazenylium, formaldehyde, methyl cyanide, and even molecular species containing deuterium, a rare hydrogen isotope. These additional tracers significantly improved the accuracy of gas mass estimates.



This marks the first large-scale chemical survey of planet-forming disks across multiple evolutionary stages, made possible by ALMA’s sensitivity and long integration times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-on-planet-forming-regions">Eyes on planet-forming regions</h2>



The researchers focused on three nearby regions where stars and planets are currently forming: Ophiuchus, Lupus, and Upper Scorpius. 



These regions represent different stages in the evolution of protoplanetary disks - with Ophiuchus being the youngest (around 1 million years old).



Lupus is in the middle (1–3 million years), and Upper Scorpius is the oldest (about 5–6 million years). This range allowed the team to observe how gas and dust behave over time as disks age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radio-signals-and-planet-forming-disks">Radio signals and planet-forming disks </h2>



Dingshan Deng, a graduate student at the University of Arizona’s Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, handled the painstaking data reduction for the Lupus region. 



The task involved turning raw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-detect-more-than-20-mysterious-radio-signals-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio signals</a> into detailed images of the disks, a step essential for measuring gas mass.



“Thanks to these new and long observations, we now have the ability to estimate and trace the gas masses, not only for the brightest and better studied disks in that region, but also the smaller and fainter ones,” said Deng. 



“Thanks to the discovery of gas tracers in many disks where it hadn't been seen before, we now have a well-studied sample covering a wide range of disk masses in the Lupus star-forming region.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-for-future-work">A legacy for future work</h2>



According to Professor Pascucci, it took years to figure out the proper data reduction approach and analysis to produce the images used in this paper for the gas masses and in many other papers of the collaboration.



The AGE-PRO data create a public spectral-line library covering key stages of disk evolution. Astronomers worldwide can now compare young and old disks using the same observational foundation. 



The team hopes this resource will fuel new models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, offering insights into how worlds emerge and migrate inside their dusty cradles.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2506.10734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



Image Credit: NSF/AUI/NSF NRAO/S.Dagnello



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Young planet-forming disks lose gas faster than expected

Planet formation begins around young stars, inside swirling disks of...

Take a sip of cabernet and your tongue might feel as if it's being scraped by coarse paper, while another vintage wine may glide across your mouth. According to chemists, this contrast in wine texture isn't just about how much tannin is present, but rather the exact molecular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wines-may-develop-new-tastes-as-climate-patterns-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a> of the tannins themselves.



The new <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40377541/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Condensed Tannin Fragmentation Fingerprinting method</a> tags every tannin fragment as it shatters inside a high‑resolution <a href="https://www.broadinstitute.org/technology-areas/what-mass-spectrometry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass spectrometer</a>. The method transforms an invisible chemical jumble into a sortable library of flavor clues that winemakers can read like sheet music.



The peer‑reviewed study was directed by <a href="https://foodscience.psu.edu/directory/mtk5407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Misha Kwasniewski</a>, associate research professor of fermented beverage science and technology at <a href="https://agsci.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State’s College of Agricultural Sciences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tannins-affect-wine-texture">Tannins affect wine texture</h2>



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12111099/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Procyanidins</a> are branched chains of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/flavanols" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flavanol catechin</a> that can run from two to well over a dozen units, and the twists, bonds, and branching angles within those chains set how tightly the molecules clamp onto salivary proteins. 



Longer, more entangled chains strip away lubrication faster, so the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-grapes-became-wine-in-italy-over-7000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical</a> family can create either a silky glide or a chalky drag across the gums.



When tannins bind those proteins, the resulting complexes lose solubility and scatter light - roughening tissue surfaces and amplifying the tactile signal drinkers describe as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34796497/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astringency</a>. 



The familiar sensation is therefore less about tongue chemistry than about the mechanical friction created once saliva’s slip layer has been thinned out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixtures-of-taste-and-touch">Mixtures of taste and touch</h2>



Bitterness rides a different sensory pathway, relying on taste‑bud receptors that respond to specific tannin fragments floating free in the fluid rather than to whole chains. 



Two drinks can carry the same total tannin load yet, by favoring different fragment sizes, trigger strikingly different mixtures of taste and touch.



Climate compounds the story because cooler regions produce grapes with fewer skin tannins and shorter seed tannins. As a result, wines from Pennsylvania or Scandinavia often feel lighter than peers from California or Australia even when alcohol, color, and sugar match. 



This gap has long frustrated growers who cannot simply boost tannin numbers without upsetting balance elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tannin-structure-and-wine-texture-details">Tannin structure and wine texture details</h2>



Similar <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32242660/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in‑source fragmentation</a> approaches are gaining traction across metabolomics because they deliver tandem‑level structural detail on instruments that usually collect only parent masses, saving both money and analysis time. 



The Penn State team adapted the trick for tannins by firing three voltage steps (gentle, moderate, and high) at each molecule. This ensured that dimers, trimers, and longer polymers all leave distinctive fingerprints.



The researchers validated the workflow on 19 lab mixtures whose tannin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-production-in-a-warming-world-the-winners-and-losers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recipes</a> were already known, deliberately mixing short and long chains to challenge the algorithm. 



The fingerprint report matched within two percentage points across the board, then repeated the performance on eight commercial ciders where the ingredient lists were revealed only after testing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-it-matter">Why does it matter?</h2>



The precision of the tannin fingerprinting method matters because classic colorimetric or precipitation assays lump every tannin together, masking the structural fine print that drives texture and health activity. 



Without that information, winemakers have been forced to tweak fermentation time, barrel choice, or fining agents by taste alone and hope the chemistry followed.



“Sometimes that tannic element is really harsh, like dragging sandpaper across your tongue. Other times it is velvety or smooth,” said Kwasniewski.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manipulating-the-texture-of-wine">Manipulating the texture of wine</h2>



Pennsylvania vintners often struggle to build the weightier mouthfeel associated with <a href="https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=vitis+vinifera" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vitis vinifera</a> harvested in warmer valleys where skins thicken and seeds ripen fully. 



With the new fingerprint in hand, they can select clones, tweak maceration length, or add oak alternatives in a more targeted quest for body.



Because the read‑out comes from a one‑minute <a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Instrumentation_and_Analysis/Chromatography/Liquid_Chromatography" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquid‑chromatography</a> run, small wineries could check fermentations each morning, log the tannin profile, and steer punch‑downs or blending before irreversible changes set in. 



Kwasniewski’s group is beta‑testing a suitcase‑sized instrument that can plug into the hose manifold next to the press.



Cider makers and craft‑beer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-or-white-the-surprising-truth-about-wine-and-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brewers</a> have joined the conversation, chasing the sweet spot where bitterness perks up flavor without tipping into harsh drying. 



Early trials suggest they can tune ingredient blends to drop perceived bitterness by fifteen percent while keeping the bright snap consumers expect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tannin-structure-and-health-benefits">Tannin structure and health benefits</h2>



Beyond flavor, tannin architecture parallels antioxidant power in foods such as dark chocolate, where procyanidins shoulder much of the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/free-radical" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">free‑radical</a> scavenging load. 



Early <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0955286302002152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> shows that lengthening certain procyanidin chains can boost oxidative‑stress protection in tissue models without altering taste.



The Penn State fingerprint could therefore let nutrition researchers screen <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4696435/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa</a> batches or tea harvests for the most potent molecular forms before those ingredients reach candy factories or teabags. Regulators in turn might rely on the data to validate label claims about flavanol content.



It could also clarify why some epidemiological reports tie moderate red‑<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-wine-consumption-reduces-cardiovascular-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wine</a> intake to vascular benefits while others find weaker links. Differentiating tannin shapes instead of measuring simple totals may reconcile those mixed results and point nutrition guidelines toward structure‑specific thresholds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-uses-of-tannin-fingerprinting">Future uses of tannin fingerprinting</h2>



The team now plans to push detection toward even larger tannin polymers that dominate age‑worthy reds - a task that may require higher voltages or alternative ionization modes to break the stubborn giants apart. 



Parallel work aims to translate the approach to <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9796155/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white‑wine phenolics</a>, coffee, and even hops.



Collaborations with grape breeders are under way to evaluate experimental crosses for mouthfeel before full planting, turning sensory instinct into data that farmers can act on. 



If the project succeeds, future drink labels could list nuanced tannin fingerprints alongside alcohol percentage and acidity.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.5c02379?goto=supporting-info" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry</a>.



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Hidden chemistry of wine: What actually shapes its texture?

Take a sip of cabernet and your tongue might feel...

Sea anemones look like simple, radial animals. Yet their bodies hide a front-to-back plan that mirrors the layout seen in animals with heads and tails. 



A new study shows that the cells of these soft-bodied creatures read chemical hints to decide which side becomes “back” and which becomes “belly.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-link-between-sea-anemones-and-humans">Link between sea anemones and humans </h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.univie.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vienna</a> found that sea anemones rely on a process called BMP shuttling to organize their developing bodies. 



This same biological mechanism is responsible for shaping the body axes in many familiar animals from insects to vertebrates, including humans.



The discovery pushes the origin of this cellular traffic system back more than 600 million years, suggesting it was already present in a common ancestor of nearly all modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-share-hidden-behavior-patterns-across-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



This finding not only highlights the deep evolutionary connection between simple and complex organisms but also opens up new ways of thinking about how body plans are genetically encoded and inherited across generations. 



The research suggests that what we see in modern animals may be built upon a remarkably ancient and shared developmental toolkit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-that-guide-developing-cells">Signals that guide developing cells</h2>



Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) are signals that guide developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-first-cells-life-form-on-earth-scientists-think-they-finally-figured-it-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cells</a>. A partner molecule, Chordin, can both block these signals and move them to new spots.



The moving act - shuttling - creates precise highs and lows of BMP activity. Early cells read these highs and lows like a map, turning into skin, nerve tissue, or other organs.



The researchers worked with Nematostella vectensis, a small sea anemone commonly used in laboratory studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-body-development-in-sea-anemones">Body development in sea anemones </h2>



To understand how Chordin functions, they first blocked its production in developing sea anemone embryos. As a result, BMP activity came to a halt, and the second body axis failed to form.



To test Chordin’s role further, the team introduced two different forms of the molecule: one that was fixed in place and could not move, and another that was free to drift through the embryo. 



Only the free-moving version was able to restore BMP signaling on the opposite side of the embryo. This result showed that Chordin does more than just block BMPs - it actively shuttles them across the developing body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-for-evolution">Why this matters for evolution</h2>



David Mörsdorf is the first author of the study and a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Neurosciences and Developmental Biology at the University of Vienna.



"Not all Bilateria use Chordin-mediated BMP shuttling, for example, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/frogs-and-toads-face-new-risks-as-their-habitats-dry-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> do, but fish don't, however, shuttling seems to pop up over and over again in very distantly related animals making it a good candidate for an ancestral patterning mechanism," said Mörsdorf.



"The fact that not only bilaterians but also sea anemones use shuttling to shape their body axes, tells us that this mechanism is incredibly ancient. It opens up exciting possibilities for rethinking how body plans evolved in early animals."



Grigory Genikhovich, senior author of the study, added that experts might never be able to exclude the possibility that bilaterians and bilaterally symmetric cnidarians evolved their bilateral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-million-year-old-fish-armor-may-be-the-reason-your-teeth-hurt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">body plans</a> independently.



"However, if the last common ancestor of Cnidaria and Bilateria was a bilaterally symmetric animal, chances are that it used Chordin to shuttle BMPs to make its back-to-belly axis. Our new study showed that," said Genikhovich.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-clues-in-simpler-creatures">Future clues in simpler creatures</h2>



The work suggests that a single, ancient blueprint guided the rise of complex body shapes across many animal lineages. Future studies may search for BMP shuttling in even older or simpler groups, testing just how deep this shared strategy runs in the history of life.



Understanding BMP shuttling in sea anemones doesn’t just tell us about the past - it could also shape the future. 



Because BMP signals are important in how all kinds of animals develop their bodies, including humans, this research could help scientists better understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dog-nose-shapes-could-help-explain-human-birth-defects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birth defects</a>, tissue growth, and even how to guide stem cells into becoming the right types of tissue.



By studying these simple creatures, researchers may unlock clues about how to repair or regrow parts of the human body. And by tracing the history of how body plans evolved, scientists can more confidently predict which genes or molecules are truly essential across all animal life.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu6347" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Sea anemones share a biological trick with humans

Sea anemones look like simple, radial animals. Yet their bodies...

The subtropical jet stream - a fast-moving air current high above the Earth - is behind a dramatic drop in primary production in the northwestern Mediterranean.



According to a recent study, the drop in productivity is linked to a gradual northward shift in this high-altitude wind belt, which regulates weather and drives the upwelling of nutrient-rich water.



The research was conducted by experts at the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/web/ub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a> and the Institute of Marine Sciences (ICM-CSIC). 



The team paired satellite data on ocean color with atmospheric observations. The analysis revealed that a subtle change in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-westerly-winds-are-changing-and-the-consequences-are-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wind patterns</a> can ripple through the water column and reshape an ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-jet-stream-on-the-move">A jet stream on the move</h2>



The surface atmospheric circulation and associated marine dynamics are the processes most affected by the northward displacement of the jet stream, noted study co-author Professor Miquel Canals. 



"Northerly winds drive the upwelling of nutrient-rich deep waters, so the alteration of their behavior has considerably weakened the intensity of this upwelling and, therefore, has reduced the supply of nutrients to the sea surface," explained Professor Canals. 



“Deep water reaching the ocean surface is essential to nourish <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-phytoplankton-that-feed-ocean-life-are-rapidly-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a>, which is the basis of the marine food web. Consequently, the weakening of upwelling at the regional level has directly impacted marine primary production, causing a decline of up to 40% in just over two decades."



When those winds weaken, the supply of nutrients from the deep slows down - a change that hits phytoplankton hardest. The entire food web, from tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zooplankton-are-rapidly-escalating-the-threat-of-nanoplastics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zooplankton</a> to commercially valuable fish, feels the squeeze.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jet-stream-changes-and-marine-life">Jet stream changes and marine life</h2>



Earlier studies hinted at falling productivity in parts of the Spanish Mediterranean. Julia Crespín, first author of the current study, noted that the previous research confirmed similar losses - but not related to the phenomenon of jet currents. She added that the broader literature is mixed. 



“Apart from that, several studies deal with the relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-accelerate-jet-stream-winds-and-airplane-turbulence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> and marine primary production with contradictory results: while some point to a decrease in primary production, others indicate an increase,” said Crespin.



The new work links the dots by focusing on the jet stream’s drift - a trend also seen in other climate records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-wind-water-and-life">Tracking wind, water, and life</h2>



To tease out the link between a drifting jet stream and marine life, the researchers tracked four key variables. According to study co-author Jordi Solé, these variables included the position of the jet stream in the study area and the Ekman transport - a wind-induced movement of water mass towards the surface.



The team also tracked northerly wind stress on the sea surface, which is a determining factor for the formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-winds-support-the-worlds-most-productive-ocean-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">upwelling</a> in the study area, and the depth-integrated chlorophyll concentration.



Chlorophyll levels in the water serve as an indicator of phytoplankton abundance, and therefore reflect marine primary production.



"With these variables, we have established relationships between changes in the atmosphere and the biological response of the surface ocean, which has helped us to better understand how the jet stream ultimately affects marine primary production," said Solé.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-of-a-moving-jet-stream">The cost of a moving jet stream</h2>



Less phytoplankton means the ocean absorbs less carbon dioxide, so the atmospheric budget worsens. Fisheries may also struggle as lower rations at the base of the web work their way up the chain.



“Our study provides a new perspective by showing that, at least in the northwestern Mediterranean, the northward shift of the jet stream is weakening the mechanisms and interactions that drive upwelling, which has contributed to a significant decline in marine primary production," explained the researchers.



“We consider that the change in the wind pattern is the factor that conditions the behavior of the ecosystem, beyond dichotomies about its intensification or the effect of temperature." 



"Thus, we point to a totally new factor that focuses especially on the dynamic behavior of both the atmosphere and the ocean (and their interaction) as the key to understanding its future evolution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-the-mediterranean">Looking beyond the Mediterranean</h2>



The Mediterranean is a semi-enclosed basin with unique winds and currents, so the team cautions against a one-size-fits-all conclusion. Still, the jet stream is drifting in many regions, and similar studies may reveal comparable effects on marine life elsewhere.



The researchers emphasized that today’s tools - from satellites to high-resolution climate models - are finally catching up with the complexity of ocean-atmosphere systems.



“Never before has there been as much data as there is today, or as powerful tools to manage, analyze and interpret it as there are today." 



"In this context, it is crucial to continue research in this line of work, combining data from in situ observation, from remote sensors such as those installed on satellites, and from high-resolution climate models to better understand the physical and biological mechanisms involved, the interactions created, the interannual variability and the potential effects they generate."



The experts also noted that these interactions may not be constant year-to-year, and their global relevance is still unfolding.



“It will also be necessary to further study interannual variability and the mechanisms that explain why this connection is stronger in some years than in others, as well as to explore how such changes may affect other marine regions around the world," the researchers concluded. 



"We understand this is a line of work that promises major advances in the coming years."



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079661125000825?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Progress In Oceanography</a>.



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How a wandering jet stream is draining marine life in the Mediterranean Sea

The subtropical jet stream - a fast-moving air current high...

Skipping a meal can feel like an open invitation to raid the fridge later. Scientists have long suspected that memory influences those cravings, but the brain circuitry behind it remained a mystery.



Scott Kanoski from <a href="https://dornsife.usc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">USC Dornsife</a> and his colleagues now say they have cracked part of the code. Their latest study, which was focused on rats, identifies neurons that save a “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meal</a> memory,” recording both what was eaten and when.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-brain-remembers-meals">Why the brain remembers meals</h2>



Each eating episode imprints a specialized <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2506.01659v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">engram</a>, a physical trace of memory that carries sensory and temporal details. 



When the team monitored rodents, cells in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/ventral-hippocampus" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ventral hippocampus</a> lit up between bites, not during chewing, hinting that quiet pauses are prime time for filing the experience.



“These meal engrams function like sophisticated biological databases,” said Kanoski, the study’s senior author. He explains that location, flavor, and time stamp are <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3607652/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bundled together</a> in that brief neural flash.



Human data back up the idea. Remembering a recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-food-day-fighting-global-hunger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lunch</a> can trim afternoon snack intake by as much as 30 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-meal-memories-form">How meal memories form</h2>



The researchers tagged the active neurons with fluorescent markers and saw a tight cluster in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/immunology-and-microbiology/hippocampal-ca1-region" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippocampal area CA1</a>. Destroying just that cluster erased the animals’ recollection of a prior feeding spot while leaving other spatial memories intact.



Calcium imaging showed the same cells projecting to the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s12276-025-01451-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lateral hypothalamus</a>, a region that governs hunger. Block that highway and the rats forgot where they last ate, then returned to the bowl sooner than usual.



The brain fails to properly catalog the meal experience when attention drifts, noted study lead author Lea Décarie‑Spain. This raises a practical concern for phone‑scrolling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diners</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-memory-affects-meal-timing">How memory affects meal timing</h2>



Meal memories don’t just help us remember what we <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-our-brains-tell-us-when-we-need-to-eat-or-drink-neurons-hunger-thirst/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ate</a>, they also influence when we eat again. In rodent models, weakening this memory system led to shorter intervals between meals, while stronger engrams delayed the next eating session. 



The results suggest that our brains rely on memory to set an internal clock for hunger, not just fullness. In humans, this could explain why some people feel hungry soon after eating when their <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666322002276" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attention</a> was divided. 



If the brain fails to register that a meal happened, the hunger signal may reboot on a faster schedule, leading to more frequent snacking. This highlights how memory is just as important as metabolism when it comes to managing appetite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-meal-memory-fails">When meal memory fails</h2>



People with <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10852764/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dementia</a> often eat back‑to‑back meals because the earlier one never registers. Clinical reports list overeating among the most common behavioral changes in late‑stage dementia.



Similar lapses can occur in healthy adults after a busy day. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666322005025" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imagining</a> a meal as larger or more satisfying cuts later cookie consumption, showing the brain’s bookkeeping matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-distracted-eating-trap">The distracted eating trap</h2>



Modern life bombards us with screens that steal those pause‑and‑encode moments. Lab studies find that people who eat while multitasking consume more calories at the next opportunity.



Kanoski’s team argues that distraction weakens the hippocampal trace. Without a solid record, the hypothalamus treats the body as unfed and restarts the appetite drive.



This might help explain why eating at desks or in front of the TV is linked to unintentional weight gain. When the brain doesn’t register the meal, it leaves the hunger signal switched on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meal-memory-and-hunger-control">Meal memory and hunger control</h2>



Neuroscientists have long known the hypothalamus pushes behavior like a gas pedal, yet what taps the pedal has been murkier. The current work shows that a direct line from the memory hub to the feeding hub times the signal.



The <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4927193/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lateral hypothalamus</a> has a storied past in appetite research, housing neurons that boost seeking and reward. Earlier reviews mapped extensive circuits, but this hippocampal branch clarifies why timing matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-obesity-care">Implications for obesity care</h2>



Traditional weight‑loss plans emphasize willpower and portion control. The new data suggest that strengthening meal memory could be just as important.



Mindful eating programs already encourage slow, undistracted bites. By reinforcing the engram, such habits may reduce the urge for extra snacks later.



Pharmaceutical routes may follow. Kanoski’s group found that serotonin‑2A receptors on the same cells modulate the effect, suggesting a possible drug target.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-for-sharper-meal-memories">Tips for sharper meal memories</h2>



Sit at a table without your phone and notice the first and last bite. Tiny rituals like describing flavors out loud can anchor the episode in neural storage.



Pause for twenty seconds after swallowing, allowing the hippocampus its encoding window. Keep meals in consistent locations to help your brain form spatial associations.



Journaling meals shortly after eating may also help solidify the memory. Even a quick voice note could enhance recall and reinforce satiety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The team plans to test whether similar neurons exist in humans using functional MRI. If so, brain‑stimulation trials might help people with overeating disorders rebuild the missing diary.



Nutrition scientists also want to see if high‑sugar or high‑fat foods blur the trace faster than protein‑rich meals. Such work could explain why some diets promote grazing behavior.



The research also holds implications for aging. If meal engrams degrade over decades, reinforcing them early might stave off later metabolic issues.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59687-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Our brain has a 'meal memory' that controls hunger

Skipping a meal can feel like an open invitation to...

Timekeepers once trusted wobbling pendulums and vibrating quartz. Now, the world’s best quantum clocks probe energy gaps inside single atoms, counting oscillations with parts‑per‑quintillion precision.



Professor Marcus Huber of the Atomic Institute at <a href="https://www.tuwien.at/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Wien</a> and his collaborators have upended a rule that many physicists treated as gospel: double the accuracy, double the energy bill.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-clocks-needed-more-energy">Old clocks needed more energy </h2>



Every clock marries a periodic event to a counter. The event must reset, but the counter must not, so each tick irreversibly shuffles some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-form-of-quantum-entanglement-discovered-will-transform-next-gen-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entropy</a> into the surroundings, whether as heat, light, or molecular jostling.



For classical devices the link looks linear. Push a pendulum harder or fire a brighter laser, and you do suppress statistical noise, but only in lockstep with the fuel burned. 



This intuition was formalized in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-019-0702-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermodynamic uncertainty relation</a>, a bound <a href="https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.128.130606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggesting</a> that precision cannot outpace dissipation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-time-with-two-motions">Tracking time with two motions</h2>



Huber’s team realized the bound is not a wall but a loophole waiting for the right architecture. They built a virtual ring of quantum sites, let one excitation circulate freely, and added a single lossy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-form-of-quantum-entanglement-discovered-will-transform-next-gen-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">junction</a> that “clicks” whenever the particle completes a lap.



One motion is fast and coherent, spreading like a wave and costing no entropy. The other motion (crossing the junction) happens rarely and irreversibly, acting like the minute hand.



“Combining a swift, entropy‑free shuttle with a slow, entropy‑producing register gives an exponential gain in accuracy per unit cost,” explained Florian Meier, a PhD student at the Atominstitut at TU Wien.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-achieving-precision-with-less-energy">Achieving precision with less energy</h2>



Simulations show the clock’s precision scales roughly as the chain length to the 4⁄3 power while the needed entropy grows only <a href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/logarithmically_adv?tl=true" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">logarithmically</a>. In other words, each extra bit of dissipation can buy orders of magnitude better timing.



“Superconducting circuits already give us all the ingredients to test this idea in hardware,” noted study co‑author Simone Gasparinetti. 



Earlier <a href="https://www.nist.gov/programs-projects/yb-optical-lattice-clock" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">optical lattice clocks</a> achieve parts‑in‑10¹⁸ stability yet still waste far more energy than Huber’s design would need at the same precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-clock-and-future-tech">Quantum clock and future tech</h2>



Low‑dissipation timing matters once devices shrink to the nanoscale or fly deep in space, where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-gates-teleported-a-leap-toward-scalable-computing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">power</a> budgets are tight. 



Quantum networks, for example, must distribute photons on picosecond schedules; swapping today’s power‑hungry drivers for a passive ring clock could simplify that task.



Precision gravimetry and navigation also benefit, since every tick saved from thermal noise translates to clearer signals. If validated in the lab, the method might trim the roadmap for redefining the second, now slated for <a href="https://www.ft.com/content/625d2043-a5a4-4d6d-bbe9-42e524a211dd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2030</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-clock-design-reduces-waste">Quantum clock design reduces waste</h2>



The researchers engineered their ring clock using <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep25157" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coherent transport</a>, a process where quantum particles glide across the chain without loss. Only when the particle completes a full cycle does it interact with the environment, generating entropy.



This design sharply contrasts with fully dissipative clocks that register every tick by interrupting the system. Because only one segment of the ring needs to be thermodynamically active, most of the clock runs “clean,” saving energy.



“We’re not claiming magic. It’s still irreversible when a tick occurs. But quantum effects let us delay and localize that cost,” said Huber. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stability-of-the-quantum-clock">Stability of the quantum clock</h2>



To ensure real‑world feasibility, the team simulated noise, disorder in coupling strengths, and unwanted dissipation. 



The experts found that the clock still holds up well: the performance drop is gradual, and the accuracy gain remains impressive if imperfections are kept modest.



The needed physical platform already exists. Superconducting <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pra/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevA.86.023837" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coupled cavity arrays</a> can host hundreds of sites with tunable couplings and minimal loss.



Tick events could be detected via microwave photon counters or continuous readout of artificial atoms, techniques already tested in <a href="https://journals.aps.org/rmp/abstract/10.1103/RevModPhys.93.025005" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">circuit quantum electrodynamics</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-quantum-tech">Implications for quantum tech</h2>



Quantum clocks like the ring model don’t just sharpen timekeeping, they push the boundaries of what self-contained quantum devices can do. 



As researchers strive for scalable quantum networks and portable quantum sensors, designs that minimize external control and internal dissipation become increasingly important.



The principle behind this clock could influence fields beyond metrology. Engineers designing quantum repeaters, synchronizers, or energy-efficient processors might borrow the same structure: localized thermodynamic cost, distributed coherent transport.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-thermodynamic-limits">Rethinking thermodynamic limits</h2>



Does the result violate thermodynamics? No, the second law still demands that entropy increase somewhere; Huber’s trick merely spends it sparingly by letting quantum coherence shoulder most of the workload.



The work also hints that the familiar arrow of time, stitched from countless microscopic irreversibilities, is compatible with islands of near‑reversible quantum motion. That insight could ripple beyond metrology into quantum control and information theory.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-025-02929-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Physics</a>.



Image Credit: Alexander Rommel



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Quantum clock revolution could change how we measure time

Timekeepers once trusted wobbling pendulums and vibrating quartz. Now, the...

The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is the faint afterglow of the Big Bang that still bathes the sky in microwave light. For decades, scientists have combed this signal for tiny twists called polarization that carry clues to the universe’s earliest chapters.



Tobias Marriage of <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> and his team now report that the ground-based Cosmology Large Angular Scale Surveyor (<a href="https://sites.krieger.jhu.edu/class/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CLASS</a>) in Chile has read those twists all the way back to the Cosmic Dawn - the era when the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-source-of-cosmic-rays-found-after-a-century-long-search/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> switched on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-the-cosmic-dawn">Observing the Cosmic Dawn </h2>



Newborn suns pumped high-energy radiation into surrounding gas and knocked electrons loose, a phase known as <a href="https://cosmicdawn.astro.ucla.edu/epoch_of_reionization.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reionization</a>. The efficiency of that scattering is described by an <a href="https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Astronomy__Cosmology/Stellar_Atmospheres_(Tatum)/05%3A_Absorption_Scattering_Extinction_and_the_Equation_of_Transfer/5.04%3A_Optical_Depth" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">“optical depth” (τ)</a>.



A bigger τ means more electrons and a longer or earlier reionization period, so nailing down its value helps <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.06209" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pin the timeline</a> of early star formation. 



Spacecraft such as the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (<a href="https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/product/wmap/dr5/pub_papers/nineyear/cosmology/wmap_9yr_cosmology_results.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WMAP</a>) first measured τ at about 0.089, but later analyses by <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/planck/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europe’s Planck satellite</a> trimmed it to roughly 0.054.



Until now, no Earth-based telescope had the sensitivity and noise control to weigh in on this debate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climbing-above-the-static">Climbing above the static</h2>



CLASS operates four small (five-foot-wide) telescopes on <a href="https://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g303681-d6401492-Reviews-Cerro_Toco-San_Pedro_de_Atacama_Antofagasta_Region.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cerro Toco</a>, 17,000 feet up in the Atacama Desert, where the air holds little water vapor. 



Even there, radio chatter from satellites, radar, and the occasional passing truck can drown a million-times-fainter <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-predicts-when-universe-will-end-scientists-claim-sooner-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> signal.



“People thought this couldn’t be done from the ground. Astronomy is a technology-limited field, and microwave signals from the Cosmic Dawn are famously difficult to measure,” said Marriage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-waves-reveal-polarization-patterns">Cosmic waves reveal polarization patterns</h2>



The team focused on microwaves just 0.13 inches (3 mm) long. When these waves scatter off free electrons, their electric fields line up, creating a telltale polarization pattern called an E-mode.



“When light hits the hood of your car and you see a glare, that’s polarization. To see clearly, you can put on polarized glasses to take away glare,” explained Yunyang Li of the University of Chicago. 



CLASS’s 90 GHz instrument spun a reflective modulator 10 times a second, flicking the wave orientation back and forth and separating sky polarization from local noise.&nbsp;



CLASS used a special optical element called a <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.03807" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variable-delay polarization modulator</a> to isolate sky polarization from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-decay-the-universe-will-end-sooner-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">background</a> interference. This approach has proven effective in filtering out slow temperature drifts and motion-related artifacts from Earth-based observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharpening-the-cosmic-clock">Sharpening the cosmic clock</h2>



The new result yields an optical depth of 0.053 (+0.019/–0.018). That closely matches Planck’s space-based estimate and tightens Earth’s grip on one of cosmology’s most stubborn numbers.



“Measuring this reionization signal more precisely is an important frontier of cosmic microwave background research,” said Charles Bennett, a veteran of the <a href="https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WMAP mission</a>. 



Lower uncertainty in τ feeds directly into sharper estimates of how much ordinary matter, dark matter, and elusive neutrinos occupy today’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-map-of-the-universe-reveals-800000-galaxies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-telescopes-can-rival-satellites">Ground telescopes can rival satellites</h2>



Unlike satellite missions that operate above Earth’s atmosphere, CLASS must correct for atmospheric distortion and ground interference. 



That challenge has made the precision of this result particularly noteworthy, showing that well-designed ground instruments can rival space-based platforms for specific cosmological goals.



The CLASS team built on insights from earlier satellite missions, using data processing methods refined during the WMAP and Planck projects to guide their approach to mapping polarization. 



The researchers also carefully selected their observing frequencies and signal modulation techniques to minimize interference from foreground sources, especially at the largest cosmic scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-class-improves-polarization-precision">CLASS improves polarization precision </h2>



“No other ground-based experiment can do what CLASS is doing,” noted Nigel Sharp of the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. National Science Foundation</a>, which funds the project. 



Future upgrades include a second 90 GHz dish and detectors tuned to 150 GHz and 220 GHz, frequencies that help peel away galactic dust and improve polarization precision.



A cleaner τ also boosts the quest for <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1511.01117" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">primordial gravitational waves</a>, the faint “B-mode” swirl pattern inflation may have imprinted on the CMB. 



With <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ApJ...600L.171S/abstract" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic variance</a> (the ultimate statistical floor) sitting near ±0.003, CLASS’s mountaintop campaign is now within a factor of three of fundamental limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-polarization-and-dark-matter-research">Cosmic polarization and dark matter research </h2>



Over the next few Chilean winters, CLASS plans to double its observing time and refine its filtering algorithms to rescue even more low-frequency modes from ground pickup. 



If successful, the project could lock τ to cosmic-variance precision and clear a path for ground arrays to chase the polarized fingerprints of inflation itself.



Scientists also expect CLASS to improve constraints on the sum of <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0705.1132" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutrino masses</a>, which influence how structures form in the universe. Precise τ measurements help to reduce uncertainty in the overall amplitude of early fluctuations - a key parameter in both dark matter and neutrino research.



For now, the new window into the Cosmic Dawn shows that high-altitude hardware can rival satellites in teasing secrets out of the sky’s oldest light. And it all started with a few hardy telescopes braving thin air in the Atacama.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/adc723" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



Image credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA



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Ground-based telescopes detect light from the Cosmic Dawn

The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is the faint afterglow of...

A turtle’s head seems simple: a hard beak, two bright eyes, and a quilt of scales that protect the skull. Look closer and a mystery appears, because the polygons across the crown don’t line up with the neat rows along the cheeks.



A team at the <a href="https://www.unige.ch/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Geneva</a> reports that the crown and the cheeks form in totally different ways. The study combines <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/dna-profiling" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic profiling</a>, 3D microscopy, and computer models to show that turtles first lay down chemical cues, then let physics crease the remaining skin.



According to researchers, the split strategy provides a window into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-turtle-day-2025-ancient-creatures-with-modern-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">turtle</a> ancestry and perhaps even the faces of dinosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-cheeks-follow-a-genetic-pattern">Turtle cheeks follow a genetic pattern</h2>



In most vertebrates, appendages such as feathers, hair, and ordinary body scales begin in tiny thickened patches called <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3607644/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placodes</a>. These patches appear when a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-60853-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reaction-diffusion system</a> nudges neighboring cells to switch certain genes on and off, spacing the primordia like points on graph paper.



Because each placode runs its own mini-program, the final pattern is orderly, and the resulting scales, follicles, or feathers sit in tidy ranks. That tidy plan applies to the edges of a turtle’s head, too. 



The Geneva team found clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-use-earths-magnetic-field-like-an-invisible-map/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene</a> activity: <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3578394/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">β-catenin and sonic hedgehog</a> in those peripheral zones match the classic placode signature.



Once a placode finishes its job, chemistry rests, keratin hardens, and the skin in that area stops changing shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-crown-scales-form-by-folding">Turtle crown scales form by folding</h2>



Crocodiles break the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39663449/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">placode rule</a>. Their head scales arise when faster-growing surface skin buckles against slower bone, a purely mechanical fold that needs no gene switch. 



The same kind of buckling sculpts the folds of the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1406015111" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mammalian brain</a>, where expanding gray matter crumples against the white-matter core.



“Patterns that rely on physics can vary from side to side in the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-sea-turtles-swim-and-choose-their-paths-instead-of-drifting/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animal</a>,” explained Rory Cooper, a postdoctoral researcher at Geneva and lead author of the study. 



Mechanical folding follows rules of thickness, stiffness, and relative growth, so tiny shifts in any layer produce new polygons, rivulets, or wrinkles.&nbsp;That variability makes a crocodile’s faceprint unique enough for field biologists to use like a fingerprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtles-use-two-methods-for-head-scales">Turtles use two methods for head scales</h2>



Turtles, it turns out, run chemistry along the cheeks and jaws, then hand the baton to mechanics on the crown. Gene markers vanish from the top of the head just as the skull bone stiffens underneath, and the skin above starts to thicken.



“This mechanical folding explains the asymmetrical shapes of the scales on the top of the head,” said Cooper. 



Study co-author Ebrahim Jahanbakhsh noted that even the left and right sides of a single turtle rarely match, a hallmark of spontaneous folding.



Finite-element simulations that tweak skin stiffness, growth speed, and bone anchoring replay the exact ridges seen in sulcata, Greek, and marginated tortoises.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-scale-patterns-fail">Where scale patterns fail</h2>



Most reptiles rely on consistent scale formations for protection and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beating-the-heat-how-sea-turtles-cope-with-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> identification. But when patterning becomes unpredictable, as it does on the top of a tortoise’s head, it raises questions about function versus aesthetics.



In these regions, the irregular folds likely don’t impact survival but instead represent a byproduct of how the skin and skull grow. 



These unpredictable folds might offer minor benefits like increased flexibility or abrasion resistance, but researchers say there's no evidence they serve a specialized purpose.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-species-and-scale-styles">Comparing species and scale styles</h2>



Not all tortoises use mechanical folding to the same extent. The sulcata tortoise shows deeply creased central scales, while the marginated tortoise has smoother, simpler head patterns.



These variations suggest that species-specific differences in skin stiffness, skull growth rate, or layer thickness shape the final outcome. 



This diversity means researchers can use head scale patterns not only to explore mechanics but also to better understand how evolution tweaks physical properties without rewriting genetic code.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turtle-head-scales-linked-to-dinosaurs">Turtle head scales linked to dinosaurs</h2>



Crocodiles and turtles sit on neighboring branches of the reptile tree, with birds perched a step away. Finding the same mechanical folding in both turtles and crocodiles implies that their common ancestor, likely a <a href="https://www.nps.gov/pefo/learn/triassic-reptiles.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Triassic reptile</a>, already used this trick.



“Mechanical patterning is an ancient trait that birds later lost,” noted study co-author Michel Milinkovitch. 



If so, dinosaurs may have carried random polygonal head scales that formed without placodes - a detail never preserved in fossils but now hinted at in living cousins.



That insight reshapes how paleontologists imagine soft-tissue textures on extinct archosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research">Broader implications of the research</h2>



The study also feeds the growing field of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10204470/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomimetics</a>. Nature often solves mechanical problems with minimal materials, and engineers copy those solutions into flexible electronics, shock-absorbing panels, and adaptive building skins.



A scale network that emerges from simple growth stresses, without a genetic template, offers a blueprint for surfaces that morph on their own when conditions change. 



Architects already explore folding façades that open like pinecones or wrinkle like leaves; turtle crowns add a new motif where randomness is a feature, not a flaw.



Regenerative-medicine researchers see a parallel in wound healing, where guiding skin to buckle or relax could help close irregular gaps. Even 3D-printing specialists may adapt the Geneva algorithms to program self-folding films for soft robots.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2589004225009459" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Turtle heads reveal an ancient reptilian secret

A turtle’s head seems simple: a hard beak, two bright...

Should humans ever pull the plug on a living species? Advances in genome editing make that possibility concrete, and a recent study asks when, if ever, such power is justified.



The researchers weighed the suffering caused by pests against the intrinsic worth of <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/what-is-biodiversity" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, setting a high bar for intentional wipeouts. Their conclusion is that genetically erasing a species might be acceptable, but only under exceptional, tightly bounded circumstances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-erasing-a-species-feels-necessary">When erasing a species feels necessary</h2>



“This question keeps conservationists up at night,” said Dr. Clare Palmer of <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a> after helping draft the report. She and colleagues argue that an animal’s capacity to cause widespread agony can, in rare cases, outweigh its right to persist.



Ethicists usually treat biodiversity as a moral good, yet real-world conflicts force tough trade-offs. When an insect’s life hinges on a calf’s ability to survive, abstract principles meet muddy pens and medical bills.



Most philosophies rank individual suffering above abstract species value once pain passes a certain threshold. Even ecologists concede that leaving sentient creatures to suffer avoidable harm strains any theory of non-intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-three-cases-in-focus">Three cases in focus</h2>



The parasitic screwworm (<a href="https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cattle/ticks/screwworm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cochliomyia hominivorax</a>) burrows into the flesh of livestock and wildlife, killing thousands of animals every year before treatment can begin. The United States eliminated native populations in 1966 using the Sterile Insect Technique (<a href="https://www.iaea.org/topics/sterile-insect-technique" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SIT</a>).



Mosquitoes of the species <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/anopheles-gambiae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anopheles gambiae</a> spread <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">malaria</a>, a disease that took an estimated 597,000 lives in 2023 alone - most of them children under five.



Those numbers eclipse fatalities from many better-publicized illnesses and keep public-health agencies searching for stronger tools.



On South Africa’s Marion Island, the humble house mouse (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=info&amp;id=10090" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mus musculus</a>) has started gnawing seabird chicks alive, pushing several albatross species toward local collapse. Conventional traps fail on rugged slopes, and poison risks collateral damage to native invertebrates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-scientists-can-erase-species">How scientists can erase species</h2>



The Sterile Insect Technique remains the standard for humane pest control. Irradiated males mate but produce no viable young, gradually crashing the target population without pesticides.



A newer option, the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2019.1606" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gene drive</a>, moves lethal or sex-skewing genes through wild populations so quickly that normal inheritance rules break down. 



Researchers working with rodents have already demonstrated systems that turn almost every embryo male, guaranteeing eventual collapse.



For mosquitoes, scientists can now couple a drive to a gene that blocks parasite replication, reducing disease transmission rather than eliminating the insect outright. Palmer’s team notes that such restraint might satisfy the same moral aims with less ecological upheaval.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-killing-pests-sometimes-gains-approval">Killing pests sometimes gains approval</h2>



“Together, we argue, these cases suggest that deliberate full extinction might occasionally be acceptable, but only extremely rarely,” the authors wrote. Where pests impose unrelenting misery on humans or endangered wildlife, even cautious ethicists lean toward eradication.&nbsp;



In farm economies, screwworm outbreaks once cost ranchers hundreds of millions of dollars each year. 



The <a href="https://www.ncba.org/news-media/news/details/43094/ncba-pushes-for-domestic-sterile-fly-facility-to-eradicate-new-world-screwworm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sterile-fly program</a> reduced those losses while sparing cattle surgeries and antibiotic use, making SIT a textbook case of net welfare gain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risks-and-safeguards">Risks and safeguards</h2>



No <a href="https://bmcmedethics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12910-021-00588-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drive</a> can be recalled once released. If a sex-skewing construct escaped from an island to a mainland, the entire species could vanish before regulators reacted. That possibility drives calls for redundant containment layers and staged testing.



Wild genomes hold surprises such as mating behavior, migration corridors, or hidden ecological roles. 



Removing a dominant mosquito might allow a harder-to-control sibling species to fill the gap, canceling health gains while shackling communities to continuous editing cycles.



Governance frameworks must also weigh cultural values. Some communities view rats as food, while others see them as vermin. A one-size rule will not work in global treaties.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-should-decide-to-erase-a-species">Who should decide to erase a species?</h2>



Palmer and colleagues insist that village councils, livestock owners, conservation NGOs, and public health officials should share equal seats at the table. Only broad consent can legitimize an action that removes a lineage that is millions of years old.



The study suggests that formal benefit-harm ledgers need to be updated as new data emerge. There is also a need for sunset clauses that halt projects if early milestones falter. Robust monitoring budgets must be in place before the first transgenic egg hatches.



Funding streams pose another dilemma. Genome projects often depend on philanthropic donors from far away. Affected regions need guaranteed control over long-term stewardship, including the power to veto deployment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-fast-pace-of-technology">The fast pace of technology </h2>



Current international regulations lag behind the pace of synthetic biology. While conventions like the <a href="https://bch.cbd.int/protocol" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cartagena Protocol</a> aim to manage genetically modified organisms, they do not directly address deliberate extinction by gene drive.



This leaves a grey area where cross-border impacts, like species drifting across national boundaries, may not fall under clear legal control. Coordinated policy development is needed to prevent gaps that bad actors or accidents could exploit.



The World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme have both called for more robust oversight. However, the tools available for enforcement are often limited to guidance rather than mandates, leaving implementation up to individual nations.



The researchers say it’s critical to close these gaps before large-scale extinction drives become common, especially given how rapidly the technology is evolving.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-gene-drives">The future of gene drives</h2>



<a href="https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/CRISPR" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRISPR</a> keeps shrinking the cost and time required to build custom drives, so ethical debates must stay a step ahead of lab capacity. 



Palmer hopes that clear rules will prevent both reckless releases and sweeping bans that deny relief to suffering animals. She sees the conversation itself as a sign of progress. 



Past generations used lead arsenate or DDT with little scrutiny. Today, genetic strategies face hard questions before a single insect leaves quarantine.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv4045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Extinction by design: Should we genetically erase harmful species?

Should humans ever pull the plug on a living species?...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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