View,Of,The,Device,Of,An,Oil,Drilling,Rig

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-model-reveals-the-evolution-of-the-earths-surface/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet's surface</a> into Earth's deep subsurface. 



This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's <a href="https://has.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences</a>, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. 



"We looked at how the rates of fluid production with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oil-and-gas-production-linked-to-77-billion-in-annual-health-care-costs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and gas</a> compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface," McIntosh explained.



In a paper published in the journal Earth's Future, they shed light on the significant impact of human activities on the circulation of fluids in this subterranean zone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Deciphering the hidden world in motion beneath our feet</h2>



The study, led by Grant Ferguson, also from the UArizona, compared the rates of fluid production from oil and gas extraction to the natural background circulation of water. 



The findings reveal that human-induced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-internal-jet-stream-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fluid fluxes</a> surpass the natural flow, and they are projected to increase further with proposed strategies for combating climate change.



These strategies include geologic carbon sequestration, geothermal energy production, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fools-gold-may-be-a-valuable-source-of-lithium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lithium extraction</a> from underground mineral-rich brine. 



"Responsible management of the subsurface is central to any hope for a green transition, sustainable future and keeping warming below a few degrees," emphasizes Peter Reiners, a professor in the <a href="https://www.geo.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UArizona Department of Geosciences</a> and a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-subsurface-fluid-fluxes">Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



These fluxes transport water, gases, and other substances through the subsurface, influencing everything from groundwater resources to geothermal energy.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Types of subsurface fluid fluxes</h3>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Groundwater flow</h4>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Groundwater flow</a> represents the movement of water through porous and fractured rock formations. This flow occurs due to pressure gradients and the force of gravity, allowing water to move from areas of high hydraulic head to areas of low hydraulic head. Groundwater flow plays a vital role in the hydrologic cycle, recharging aquifers and sustaining surface water bodies.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Hydrocarbon migration</h4>



Subsurface fluid fluxes also include the migration of hydrocarbons, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-orphaned-oil-and-gas-wells-litter-the-world-and-must-be-cleaned-up/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a>. These fluids originate from organic-rich source rocks and migrate through permeable rock layers until they encounter traps or seals. Understanding hydrocarbon migration is essential for oil and gas exploration and production.



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Geothermal fluid circulation</h4>



In regions with high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-water-could-be-a-great-source-of-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">geothermal gradients</a>, subsurface fluids can circulate through fractures and permeable rock formations, absorbing heat from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's interior</a>. This heated fluid can then rise to the surface, creating hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles. Geothermal fluid circulation is a key factor in the development of geothermal energy resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Importance of Earth's subsurface fluid fluxes</h2>



Subsurface fluid fluxes have far-reaching impacts on various aspects of our planet. They influence the availability and quality of groundwater resources, which are essential for human consumption, agriculture, and industrial activities. 



Additionally, these fluxes play a crucial role in the formation and distribution of mineral resources, such as ore deposits and petroleum accumulations.



Moreover, subsurface fluid fluxes contribute to the transport and cycling of chemical elements and compounds within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-molten-rock-layer-discovered-under-earths-crust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's crust</a>. 



This process has implications for geochemical cycles, rock-water interactions, and the evolution of subsurface environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Human intervention in Earth's fluid dynamics</h2>



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-chief-fossil-fuel-era-must-end-for-humanitys-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil and natural gas</a> production, saline water from the deep subsurface is extracted alongside the targeted resources. This ancient water, often millions of years old, acquires its salinity from the evaporation of ancient seawater or reactions with rocks and minerals. 



To maintain reservoir pressures and enhance oil recovery, near-surface water is added to the extracted saline water, and the blended mixture is reinjected into the subsurface, creating a continuous cycle of fluid production and reinjection.



Similar processes occur in lithium extraction, geothermal energy production, and geologic carbon sequestration, where leftover saline water is reinjected into the underground. 



"We show that the fluid injection rates or recharge rates from those oil and gas activities is greater than what naturally occurs," states McIntosh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Rewriting Earth's history through subsurface geology</h2>



Using existing data from various sources, the research team found that current fluid movement rates induced by human activities surpass those that occurred before human intervention. 



As carbon capture, sequestration, and lithium extraction intensify, the researchers also predicted how these activities might be recorded in Earth's geological record.



Moreover, human activities have the potential to alter not only the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-geysers-the-worlds-largest-geothermal-field/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep subsurface fluids</a> but also the microbes that inhabit those depths. 



Fluid movements can modify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-in-the-extreme-microbial-activity-discovered-in-old-faithful/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial environments</a> through changes in water chemistry or by introducing new microbial communities from Earth's surface to the underground. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-fracking-surged/">Hydraulic fracturing</a>, for example, can trigger sudden blooms of microbial activity in previously dormant deep rock formations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Earth's subsurface is still mostly a mystery</h2>



Despite the significance of these findings, many unknowns remain about Earth's deep subsurface and the extent of human impact on this hidden realm. 



"We need to use the deep subsurface as part of the solution for the climate crisis," emphasizes McIntosh. "Yet, we know more about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lake-sediments-found-in-jezero-crater-hint-at-past-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface of Mars</a> than we do about water, rocks and life deep beneath our feet."



Continued research and exploration of this enigmatic zone are crucial for understanding the full scope of human influence on our planet and developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-zero-waste-a-global-commitment-to-a-sustainable-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustainable strategies</a> for addressing the climate crisis. 



While we strive to mitigate the visible effects of human activities on Earth's surface, we must not overlook the hidden impact that extends deep into the subsurface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-what-lies-beneath">Protecting what lies beneath</h2>



As we continue to explore and utilize Earth's deep subsurface in our efforts to combat climate change, we must remain mindful of the hidden impact our actions have on this enigmatic realm. 



By studying the fluid dynamics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-increases-threat-antimicrobial-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial communities</a>, and geological record beneath our feet, we can develop a deeper understanding of the complex interplay between human activities and the subterranean world. 



This knowledge will be crucial in guiding our strategies for a sustainable future, ensuring that our solutions do not create unforeseen consequences in the depths below. 



As we navigate the challenges of the climate crisis, we must approach the subsurface with a spirit of curiosity, responsibility, and respect, recognizing that the key to our success may lie in the mysteries that await us in Earth's hidden depths.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024EF004496" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's Future</a>.



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Human activities also greatly harm Earth’s subsurface, not just the landmass

Earth's surface bears the visible scars of human activities, from greenhouse gas emissions to deforestation. However, the impact of human intervention extends far beyond what meets the eye, reaching hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath the planet's surface into Earth's deep subsurface. This hidden realm, often overlooked, is now the subject of disturbing research by hydrology experts. Jennifer McIntosh, a professor in the University of Arizona's Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, and her colleagues have delved into the ways humans influence Earth's deep subsurface. "We...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://iiasa.ac.at/">International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis</a>, human activities are transforming grasslands from a natural carbon sink into a source of greenhouse gas emissions. The researchers describe how grasslands used by humans have changed our <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forests-in-oman-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change/">climate</a> over the last centuries.

Grasslands absorb and release carbon dioxide (CO2), and emit methane (CH4) from grazing livestock. They also emit nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils, and these emissions increase when manure or mineral fertilizers are introduced. 

Despite their significance, however, little is known about how the fluxes of these three greenhouse gases have contributed to climate change in the past. The researchers also wanted to compare the gas cycling and climate effects of managed pastures to that of natural grasslands.

To investigate, the experts quantified the changes in carbon storage and greenhouse gas fluxes in natural and managed grasslands between 1750 and 2012. 

The findings illustrate the important climate cooling service provided by sparsely grazed areas, as well as the growing contribution to climate warming from continuously grazed areas. These intensively exploited grasslands are associated with more CH4 and N2O emissions.

"We built and applied a new spatially explicit global grassland model that includes mechanisms of soil organic matter and plant productivity changes driven by historical shifts in livestock and the reduction of wild grazers in each region," said study lead author Jinfeng Chang. "This model is one of the first to simulate the regional details of land use change and degradation from livestock overload."

"We also looked at the effect of fires, and soil carbon losses by water erosion; CH4 emissions from animals; N2O emissions from animal excrement, manure, and mineral fertilizer applications; and atmospheric nitrogen deposition."

The study revealed that CH4 and N2O emissions from grasslands increased by a factor of 2.5 since 1750. This is due to higher emissions from livestock that have more than compensated for reduced emissions from the shrinking number of wild grazers. 

The ability of grasslands to absorb carbon has grown over the last century over sparsely grazed and natural grasslands, but these gains are outweighed by emissions from managed pastures. Over the last decade, grasslands intensively managed by humans have become a net source of greenhouse gas emissions.

"Our results show that the different human activities that have affected grasslands have shifted the balance of greenhouse gas removals and emissions more towards warming in intensively exploited pastures, and more towards cooling in natural and semi-natural systems," explained study co-author Thomas Gasser. "Coincidently, until recently the two types of grasslands have almost been canceling each other out."

"However, the recent trends we see towards the expansion of pasture land and higher livestock numbers lead us to expect that global grasslands will accelerate climate warming if better policies are not put in place to favor soil carbon increases, stop deforestation for ranching, and develop climate-smart livestock production systems."

"In the context of low-warming climate targets, the mitigating or amplifying role of grasslands will depend on a number of aspects," concluded study co-author Philippe Ciais. "This includes future changes in grass-fed livestock numbers; the stability of accumulated soil carbon in grasslands; and whether carbon storage can be further increased over time or if it will saturate, as observed in long-term experiments."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Grasslands are turning into a source of harmful emissions

According to a new study led by the International Institute...

Over most of the last decade, sea star populations worldwide have been nearly wiped out by a mysterious ailment known as sea star wasting disease. Some starfish species may have suffered irreversible losses, and are now threatened with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-oak-tree-species-are-threatened-with-extinction/">extinction</a>.

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, researchers have found evidence to suggest that the victims of sea star wasting disease (SSWD) may actually be in respiratory distress. The experts report that afflicted starfish appear to be literally "drowning" in their own environment due to a heat-related increase in microbial activity that deprives the creatures of their ability to breathe.

"As humans, we breathe, we ventilate, we bring air into our lungs and we exhale," said study co-author Professor Ian Hewson. "Sea stars diffuse oxygen over their outer surface through little structures called papulae, or skin gills. If there is not enough oxygen surrounding the papulae, the starfish can't breathe."

According to Professor Hewson, warmer ocean conditions lead to the production of unusual amounts of organic material, which he said prompts bacteria to thrive. The bacteria deplete oxygen in the water as they consume the organic matter. This creates a low-oxygen environment that causes the starfish "wasting" characterized by deflation, discoloration, puffiness, and limb twisting.

"It's a cascade of problems that starts with changes in the environment," said Professor Hewson, noting that most of the organic matter comes from microscopic algae discharge, zooplankton excretion, and from decaying animal carcasses. He explained that this stimulates a group of bacteria called copiotrophs, which survive on carbon and rapidly consume organic matter.

The copiotrophs respire, so while absorbing the organic matter, they deplete oxygen in the sea star's watery space, explained Professor Hewson.

"It's organic matter concentrations in the water. If you have a dead and rotting starfish next to starfish that are healthy, all of that dead one's organic matter drifts and fuels the bacteria, creating a hypoxic environment. It looks like disease is being transmitted."

"This reframes the discussion about marine disease ecology, which has focused on pathogenic disease. We should now include microorganisms that don't directly cause the pathology, since they may hold a key to affecting sea star health."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/microbiology">Frontiers in Microbiology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea stars are drowning in their own environment

Over most of the last decade, sea star populations worldwide...

The westerly winds have an effect on the weather and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-forests-in-oman-were-wiped-out-by-climate-change/">climate</a> both locally and globally. These winds influence precipitation patterns, ocean circulation, and tropical cyclones. For this reason, it is critical for scientists to gain a better understanding of how the westerly winds may be altered by climate change.

The westerlies typically blow from west to east across the middle latitudes, but experts have noticed in recent decades that these winds have begun migrating toward the poles. While research suggests that this shift is caused by climate change, scientists have debated whether the winds will continue to migrate as atmospheric CO2 and temperatures rise. 

Prior to this study, little was known about the behavior of the westerly winds during past warm climates. Experts at Columbia University's Earth Institute have developed a method to track the history of the winds, which will provide clues as to what will happen in today's warming world. The researchers found evidence to suggest that atmospheric circulation patterns will change with climate warming.

The experts used dust in deep sea sediments to reconstruct wind patterns that occurred three to five million years ago. The sediment cores examined for the study were from the North Pacific Ocean, which is downwind from Eastern Asia, one of the largest dust sources for the past several million years. 

By measuring the dust in cores from two different sites that were thousands of kilometers apart, the researchers were able to map changes in dust and in the westerly winds.

"We could immediately see the patterns. The data are so clear. Our work is consistent with modern observations, and suggests that wind patterns will change with climate warming," said study lead author Jordan Abell.

During the warm spells of the Pliocene three to five million years ago, the Earth was about two to four degrees Celsius warmer than it is today, yet had approximately the same concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. The study revealed that, at this time in history, the westerly winds were located closer towards the poles than during the colder intervals afterwards.

"By using the Pliocene as an analogue for modern global warming, it seems likely that the movement of the westerlies towards the poles observed in the modern era will continue with further human-induced warming," explained study co-author Gisela Winckler.

Storm systems and precipitation patterns will be enormously impacted by the movement of these winds. Although the research does not indicate exactly which regions of the world will be affected most in the coming decades, it confirms that the wind and precipitation patterns will change with climate warming.

"In the Earth history record, tracking down movements of wind and how they've changed, that's been elusive because we didn't have a tracer for it," said Winckler. "Now we do."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

 ---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The westerly winds are changing, and the consequences are unknown

The westerly winds have an effect on the weather and...

About 6,000 years ago, most of the mangrove forests on the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/toxic-algal-blooms-will-become-more-frequent-off-the-u-s-west-coast/">coast</a> of Oman mysteriously vanished. A new study from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/the-university">University of Bonn</a> suggests that the collapse of these coastal ecosystems was caused by climatic changes.

The experts report that the mangroves went extinct at an extremely fast rate, and most of the forests were lost within a few decades. The researchers found no evidence that falling sea levels or human disturbances contributed to the extinctions. 

Mangrove forests grow in coastal areas that are under water at high tide, yet dry at low tide. They depend on a warm climate, and most species need sea surface temperatures of at least 75 degrees Fahrenheit. Mangroves are also sensitive to water salinity, and their tolerance limit varies among species. 

"This is why we find them nowadays mostly in regions where enough rain falls to reduce salinization of the soil," explained study lead author Valeska Decker, an expert at the Institute for Geosciences at Bonn.

Fossil remains show that there were once many mangrove lagoons on the coast of Oman that mostly disappeared. Over the past few years, Decker has compiled numerous geochemical, sedimentological, and archaeological findings into an overall picture. "From our point of view, everything suggests that the collapse of these ecosystems has climatic reasons."

Just over 6,000 years ago, a low-pressure trough known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone moved to the south, but it is not entirely clear why and how fast the zone shifted. 

"That this was the case has been well documented for several years," explained Decker. "Our results now indicate that this climate change had two effects: On the one hand, it caused salinization of the soil, which put the mangroves under extreme stress. On the other hand, the vegetation cover in the affected areas decreased in general due to the greater drought." 

As erosion increased, the wind carried large amounts of barren soil into the lagoons that dried up the mangrove forests. According to Decker, the ecosystems probably disappeared within a few decades.

Previous studies suggest that the environmental changes were gradual, and the mangrove forests struggled up until a certain threshold was reached and then collapsed very quickly. Today, mangroves are only found in a few places in Oman.

"Archaeological findings also speak against a man-made ecological catastrophe. It is true that there were humans living in the coastal regions who used the mangroves as firewood. However, they were nomads who did not build permanent settlements. This meant that their need for wood was relatively low - low enough to rule out overuse as a cause."

Decker and her colleagues plan to investigate further, and their findings could be particularly relevant today as the climate is changing in many regions of the world at a very rapid pace. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/quaternary-research">Quaternary Research</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mangrove forests in Oman were wiped out by climate change

About 6,000 years ago, most of the mangrove forests on...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">UC Boulder</a> have investigated the air quality of gyms, specifically focusing on the impacts of high bodily <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/long-term-emissions-cuts-are-needed-to-slow-ocean-acidification/">emissions</a> during workouts, which are intensified by chemical reactions with cleaners. The experts report that one exercising individual emits as many chemicals from their body as up to five sedentary people.

The study shows that human emissions, including amino acids from sweat or acetone from breath, react with bleach cleaners to form new airborne chemicals with unknown impacts to indoor air quality.

"Humans are a large source of indoor emissions," said study lead author and CIRES research scientist Zachary Finewax. "And chemicals in indoor air, whether from our bodies or cleaning products, don't just disappear, they linger and travel around spaces like gyms, reacting with other chemicals."

In 2018, the CU Boulder team set up equipment to sample air quality in a weight room in the Dal Ward Athletic Center, a campus facility for university student athletes. The instruments measured a range of airborne chemicals before, during, and after athletic workouts. 

The analysis revealed that the athletes' bodies produced 3 to 5 times the emissions during a workout compared to when they were at rest.

"Using our state-of-the-art equipment, this was the first time indoor air analysis in a gym was done with this high level of sophistication. We were able to capture emissions in real time to see exactly how many chemicals the athletes were emitting, and at what rate," said study co-author Demetrios Pagonis.

Many gym facilities use chlorine bleach-based products to sanitize equipment on a frequent basis. When the cleaning products combine with emissions from sweat, they create a new cocktail of chemicals.

The researchers found that chemicals called N-chloraldimines were produced in the gym air from the mixing of bleach products and amino acids. This means that chlorine from bleach cleaner sprayed onto equipment was reacting with the amino acids released from sweating bodies, explained the study authors.

Further research is needed to determine the specific impacts that these compounds may have on indoor air quality. Compounds that are chemically similar, which form from the reaction of ammonia mixing with bleach, are known to be harmful to human health.

"Since people spend about 90 percent of our time indoors, it's critical we understand how chemicals behave in the spaces we occupy," said study co-author Professor Joost de Gouw. 

While all of the data was collected for this study prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the experts say that a modern gym with low occupancy and good ventilation may still be relatively safe for a workout, especially if masks are used.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/16000668">Indoor Air</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gym air quality is impacted by reactions of sweat and bleach

Researchers at UC Boulder have investigated the air quality of...

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone. The reawakening of the world's tallest active geyser is not a forewarning of explosive <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/why-australias-east-coast-is-a-hotbed-of-volcanic-activity/">volcanic</a> activity in Yellowstone National Park, according to a study from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">UC Berkeley</a>. In 2018, the Steamboat Geyser entered into a prolonged period of frequent activity after three and a half years of dormancy.

Yellowstone National Park has over 10,000 hot springs and geysers. Some of the geysers erupt as frequently as 300 times a year, while others remain dormant for decades at a time. 

"Hydrothermal explosions - basically hot water exploding because it comes into contact with hot rock - are one of the biggest hazards in Yellowstone," said study senior author Professor Michael Manga. "The reason that they are problematic is that they are very hard to predict; it is not clear if there are any precursors that would allow you to provide warning."

The researchers established that the ground around the Steamboat Geyser has risen, and that seismic activity increased somewhat before the geyser reawakened. In addition, the area is currently radiating more heat into the atmosphere. However, no other dormant geysers in the basin have restarted, and the temperature of the groundwater propelling Steamboat's eruptions has not increased. 

"We don't find any evidence that there is a big eruption coming. I think that is an important takeaway," said Professor Manga, who has studied geysers around the world and created some in his own laboratory.

The experts set out to answer three questions about Steamboat Geyser, including why it reawakened and why its activity is so variable. The team also wanted to know how the geyser has the potential for such powerful explosions. While minor eruptions of 10 to 15 feet are much more frequent, major eruptions have thrown water more than 375 feet into the air. 

The researchers managed to answer two out of three questions. First, by comparing geysers in the United States, Russia, Iceland, and Chile, the team determined that the deeper the reservoir, the higher the eruption jet. Steamboat Geyser, with a reservoir about 82 feet below ground, has the highest column of up to 377 feet. Meanwhile, two of the other geysers that were measured in Chile had eruptions of only about three feet high from up to 16-foot-deep reservoirs.

"What you are really doing is you are filling a container, it reaches a critical point, you empty it and then you run out of fluid that can erupt until it refills again," said Professor Manga. "The deeper you go, the higher the pressure. The higher the pressure, the higher the boiling temperature. And the hotter the water is, the more energy it has and the higher the geyser."

The researchers also analyzed historical records that included weather data and seismometer and readings to predict which factors cause the variability of Steamboat's eruptions, which ranges from three to 17 days. 

The study authors concluded that variations in rainfall and snowmelt were likely responsible for most of this variability. For example, melting snow and rainfall in the warmer months will fill the reservoir up faster, providing geysers with enough water to erupt more frequently.

Professor Manga and his team were unable to determine why Steamboat Geyser reawakened on March 15, 2018, after three years and 193 days of inactivity. They found no definitive evidence that it was triggered by new magma rising below the geyser.

According to Professor Manga, studies of water eruptions from geysers could give insight into the eruptions of hot rock from volcanoes.

"What we asked are very simple questions and it is a little bit embarrassing that we can't answer them, because it means there are fundamental processes on Earth that we don't quite understand."

"One of the reasons we argue we need to study geysers is that if we can't understand and explain how a geyser erupts, our hope for doing the same thing for magma is much lower."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone

Geysers do not forecast explosive volcanic activity in Yellowstone. The...

In a surprising new study, experts at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia Engineering</a> have found that drylands are not getting drier. The researchers discovered that soil moisture exerts a negative feedback on surface <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-may-greatly-improve-the-production-of-clean-water/">water</a> availability in drylands, which offsets some of the anticipated decline.

It was previously expected that as a result of global warming, surface water availability would increase in wet regions and decrease in dry regions.

As a result of rising temperatures, the atmosphere will become more humid. This climate factor is expected to amplify the existing pattern of water availability, causing the "dry-get-drier, and wet-get-wetter" responses to global warming.

However, the Columbia team wondered why climate model predictions do not project significant "dry-get-drier" responses over drylands, even when researchers use the high emissions global warming scenario. 

Study co-author Sha Zhou theorized that soil moisture-atmosphere feedbacks may play an important part in future predictions of water availability in drylands.

The researchers discovered a long-term soil moisture regulation of atmospheric circulation and moisture transport that largely offsets the potential decline of future water availability in drylands.

"These feedbacks play a more significant role than realized in long-term surface water changes," said Zhou. "As soil moisture variations negatively impact water availability, this negative feedback could also partially reduce warming-driven increases in the magnitudes and frequencies of extreme high and extreme low hydroclimatic events, such as droughts and floods. Without the negative feedback, we may experience more frequent and more extreme droughts and floods."

By combining a multi-model land-atmosphere coupling experiment with a new statistical approach developed for the study, the researchers found strong declines in surface water availability in response to global warming. The drying of soil moisture actually negatively feeds back onto water availability.

"Our work finds that soil moisture predictions and associated atmosphere feedbacks are highly variable and model dependent," said study co-lead author Pierre Gentine. "This study underscores the urgent need to improve future soil moisture predictions and accurately represent soil moisture-atmosphere feedbacks in models, which are critical to providing reliable predictions of dryland water availability for better water resources management."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nclimate">Nature Climate Change</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Drylands are not getting drier as temperatures rise

In a surprising new study, experts at Columbia Engineering have...

A new method of identifying heat-stressed corals could help scientists pinpoint the species that need protection from rising <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-icebergs-affect-seawater-and-ocean-currents-far-from-the-continent/">ocean</a> temperatures. Experts led by <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a> have developed a tool that can detect a coral's response to heat stress based on chemicals produced for metabolism.

"This is similar to a blood test to assess human health," said study senior author Professor Debashish Bhattacharya. "We can assess coral health by measuring the metabolites (chemicals created for metabolism) they produce and, ultimately, identify the best interventions to ensure reef health." 

"Coral bleaching from warming waters is an ongoing worldwide ecological disaster. Therefore, we need to develop sensitive diagnostic indicators that can be used to monitor reef health before the visible onset of bleaching to allow time for preemptive conservation efforts."

Coral reefs provide habitat for an estimated 25 percent of all marine life, including over 4,000 species of fish, while supporting the livelihoods of about 500 million people. Warming ocean temperatures, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, unsustainable fishing, and invasive species are all major threats to the future survival of corals.

Heat stress can lead to the loss of algae that live in symbiosis with corals, which results in bleaching that can be deadly. The Rutgers team set out to identify the chemical indicators of stress by examining how Hawaiian stony corals respond to heat. 

The scientists exposed the heat-resistant Montipora capitata and heat-sensitive Pocillopora acuta coral species to several weeks of warm seawater in tanks at the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology. Next, they investigated the metabolites that were produced and compared them with other corals not subjected to heat stress.

"Our work, for the first time, identified a variety of novel and known metabolites that may be used as diagnostic indicators for heat stress in wild coral before or in the early stages of bleaching," said Professor Bhattacharya.

Currently, the researchers are validating their coral diagnosis results in a much larger study. They are also developing a "coral hospital" that could check coral health in the field through metabolite and protein indicators.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New tool can detect heat stress in corals

A new method of identifying heat-stressed corals could help scientists...

A recent study from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">UC San Diego</a> is providing new insight into where iceberg <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/summer-meltwater-is-drilling-giant-holes-through-greenlands-ice/">meltwater</a> enters the Southern Ocean. The research lays the groundwork for large Antarctic icebergs to be included in global climate models. 

Some Antarctic icebergs are massive - as big as the size of New York City - but they have been largely overlooked in climate models. The researchers have developed the first model of its kind to represent how the icebergs deteriorate as they drift around Antarctica.

Climate scientists are interested in icebergs because the fresh water they put into the ocean affects currents. The water's density, which is a major driver of ocean currents, is affected by temperature and salinity. These two variables are changed by the cold meltwater from Antarctic icebergs. As a result, the ocean currents that are crucial in regulating global climate are impacted. 

Previous climate models essentially ignored tabular icebergs, which are mostly flat on top. Tabular icebergs survive much longer and behave differently than smaller icebergs. 

"We know that large tabular icebergs deliver about half of the freshwater from the Antarctic ice sheets to the Southern Ocean, and their importance in the climate system will likely increase over the coming century," said study lead author Mark England. 

"We think this an important step forward towards including these giant icebergs in global climate models and being able to incorporate their effects into climate change projections."

"In the North Atlantic, icebergs have been systematically monitored since the Titanic sunk more than a century ago, and models have been developed to make operational forecasts of their drift and deterioration over time," said study co-author Professor Ian Eisenman. "But such models really had not been developed for the large tabular icebergs that break off Antarctica and drift in the Southern Ocean, which could be important for future climate change."

The team used a previous model developed by Professor Eisenman's lab that includes variables like winds, currents, and sea surface temperature to predict where Antarctic icebergs will drift over time. Based on this information, the experts created a new model to predict how frequently large tabular icebergs would break up.

The researchers found that the "parent" iceberg does not actually melt much. Instead, they calve their own smaller "children" icebergs - smaller chunks of ice that are delivered far away from the Antarctic continent. When these smaller chunks melt, they inject cold freshwater into the Southern Ocean.

The experts stress that these larger icebergs, especially given the possibility of a dramatically increased number of them in the future, need to be taken into consideration when developing climate models.

"Our results show that giant icebergs spread Antarctic freshwater much further from the coast than previous studies have assumed," said study co-author Till Wagner. "This may have important consequences for the dynamics of the Southern Ocean."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antarctic icebergs affect seawater and ocean currents far away

A recent study from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at...

The frozen ground in the northern hemisphere is estimated to contain about twice as much carbon as Earth's <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-beyond-moon/">atmosphere</a>. But now, these permafrost soils are collapsing under warmer conditions, and releasing unknown amounts of carbon in the process. 

An international team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">CSU</a> Professor Thomas Borch investigated how the thawing process may be affecting microorganisms in the soil. 

The experts tested the theory that thawing increases the availability of organic carbon for microorganisms to process, subsequently releasing vast amounts of carbon dioxide and methane. Both of these heat-trapping gases accelerate climate warming and cause more permafrost to thaw in a vicious cycle. 

"The organic material naturally present in the samples accumulated as peat over thousands of years. With permafrost thaw, microbes become active and are able to decompose the peat," said study co-lead author Andreas Kappler. "We also know that iron minerals preserve organic carbon from biodegradation in various environments - and thus they could be a carbon sink even after the permafrost has thawed."

The reactive iron is present as a kind of rust that could potentially trap the organic material in what is referred to as a "rusty carbon sink." The team analyzed the storage potential of the rusty carbon sink at a permafrost peatland in Abisko, Sweden. The researchers collected samples of the soil porewater and drill cores of the active layer along a permafrost thaw gradient. 

The permafrost soil samples were used to evaluate how much organic material was bound to reactive iron minerals, how stable these iron-carbon associations are with permafrost thaw, and whether the microorganisms present could use the material as a source of energy. 

The study revealed that microorganisms are, in fact, able to use the iron as a food source, thereby releasing the bound organic carbon.

"That means the rusty carbon sink cannot prevent the organic carbon from escaping from the thawing permafrost," said Kappler. "Based on data available from elsewhere in the northern hemisphere, we expect that our findings are applicable for permafrost environments worldwide," added study co-lead author Casey Bryce.

The researchers explained that the rusty carbon sink is only found in intact permafrost soils and is lost during permafrost thaw. 

"It appears that the previously iron-bound carbon is highly bioavailable and, therefore, bacteria could immediately metabolize it into greenhouse gas emissions," said study co-author Monique Patzner. "This is a process which is currently absent from climate-change prediction models and must be factored in."

The researchers will now investigate how this newly discovered process affects greenhouse gas emissions, and will study the chemical nature and fate of the organic matter released from permafrost soils. According to Professor Borch, these further inquiries should help to improve our understanding of carbon cycling in these sensitive ecosystems.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Permafrost soils are collapsing under rising temperatures

The frozen ground in the northern hemisphere is estimated to...

Experts at the U.S. Department of Energy's <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a> are working to understand which conditions are the most conducive to large wildfires. Using machine learning to group past fires with the conditions that preceded them, the researchers found an increased risk of almost every type of wildfire. 

Study co-authors Ruby Leung and Xiaodong Chen combined decades-long wildfire records and new simulations of past <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-are-losing-their-ability-to-help-mitigate-climate-change/">climate</a> conditions to identify variables that lead to wildfires. 

The team was surprised to find that having humidity in the air, but not quite enough to lead to precipitation, can boost the likelihood of dry grasslands or trees being ignited by lightning. For example, the CZU Lightning Complex fires in California were triggered by lightning on August 16, 2020, and burned nearly 1,500 structures.

According to Leung, scientists have known the importance of such hydro-meteorological conditions, but generating enough data to tease out lengthy soil moisture or humidity trends and thoroughly representing their influence is only recently possible through computational advances in modeling.

The researchers used this technology to group wildfires into various types, such as those that strike when soil is damp or during cloudy days. 

The most rapidly increasing fires are those that spark on sunny days that are hot and dry. These "compound case" wildfires, named for their multiple contributing factors, strike more frequently than any other type. A warming climate is likely to exacerbate the trend, said Leung.

"Based on the historical trends we see over the past 35 years, it is very likely that trend will continue. That is partly driven by rising temperature and partly driven by reduced soil moisture as snowmelt starts earlier in spring, reducing soil moisture in summer and fall."

The study represents progress toward building a more comprehensive understanding of how wildfires evolve. "This allows us to draw a very complete picture of how wildfire is triggered across the whole Western United States," said Chen.

The researchers found that nearly all types of wildfire, including cloudy day fires, are happening more often. "Wet case" fires, which occur when soil moisture levels are higher, are the only exception. Their decline coincides with an overall drying trend in the Western United States. Leung pointed out that California's wet season window is also narrowing, adding another challenge to an already fire-ravaged state.

The research was presented at the <a href="https://www.agu.org/fall-meeting">American Geophysical Union's 2020 fall meeting</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Increasing wildfire risk linked to multiple conditions

Experts at the U.S. Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National...

During the first half of 2020, global greenhouse gas emissions dropped by about nine percent in the midst of the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/how-is-covid-19-affecting-children/">COVID-19</a> outbreak. People around the world reported seeing signs that "nature was healing" as a result of a steep decline in human activities such as transportation and production. 

However, a new study from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">UC Boulder</a> has shown that the positive changes seen in natural ecosystems were not reflected throughout Earth's oceans. 

Professor Nicole Lovenduski reports that there were no significant reductions in ocean acidification as a result of lower emissions. Even if emissions had been reduced at four times the rate in the first half of last year, changes in the ocean would have been barely noticeable, according to the study.

"It's almost impossible to see it in pH," said Professor Lovenduski. "So has this solved ocean acidification? No, it has not."

On the bright side, the research has produced important insight into tracking changes in ocean carbon going forward. The experts now have a better idea of where to look for the signs of how emissions are impacting the Earth system, as well as ways to collect relevant data. 

The findings also provide a new perspective on how short-term emissions reductions compare to the long-term cuts that are needed to mitigate the impacts of climate change.

"It's a little bit wild to think that that complete economic shutdown of the world didn't do anything immediately that we could detect in terms of ocean acidification or atmospheric carbon. But it's also a little bit wild to think that this reduction in emissions is what it will take every single year to get us back to something that's a healthy version of our climate," said Professor Lovenduski.

The research was focused on data shared by a group of Canadian modelers who extensively investigated the climates response to reduced emissions in 2020. 

While Professor Lovenduski found no perceptible change in ocean acidity, her analysis showed that by 2021, the oceans were already absorbing slightly less carbon from the atmosphere as a result of COVID-19 emissions reductions.

"What this suggests is that pretty much immediately, the exchange of carbon between the ocean and atmosphere responds to the change in the loading of carbon in the atmosphere because we've decreased our emissions."

By absorbing a large amount of global carbon emissions each year, the ocean serves as a major buffer that limits the immediate impacts of climate change, such as rising temperatures. The increased carbon in the ocean causes acidification, which is harmful to coral reefs and other wildlife.

If we mitigate our emissions year after year to avoid the worst global warming scenarios, we have a chance to slow the rate of ocean acidification in the long term, explained Professor Lovenduski.

"This sudden precipitous drop in emissions is a big deal. It can offer insight into what might happen if we actually follow a plan like the Paris Climate Agreement."

The research was presented at the <a href="https://www.agu.org/fall-meeting">American Geophysical Union 2020 Fall Meeting</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Long-term emissions cuts are needed to slow ocean acidification

During the first half of 2020, global greenhouse gas emissions...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

[sendtonews key="Ccjk8KEMzv-2550719-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Closeup,Of,Fresh,Green,The,Napier,Bush,Grass,As,Animal

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="http://www.ntu.edu.sg/">NTU Singapore</a> reveals that some plants can remove toxic heavy metals from soil.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed samples of various tropical plant species to test for levels of heavy metals and metalloids. The study showed that there are existing plants with high levels of these contaminants, which means that these species are great candidates for drawing pollutants out of the soil.&nbsp;



Among the plants examined in the study, 12 species had accumulated several types of heavy metals and metalloids. These plants are widely available, including species that are native to Singapore.



“In a small nation like Singapore, land may be repurposed to support new development plans, so it is important that we have a green and sustainable way to remediate land that is contaminated," said Professor Lam Yeng Ming.



"We set out to uncover how to better make use of tropical plants to do phytoremediation and through advanced characterization techniques, we showed how some of these tropical plant species can be an environmentally friendly and literally a 'green' way to remove contaminants in soil."&nbsp;



"Phytoremediation also has benefits of cost effectiveness, simplicity of management, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability and sustainability. The strategy prevents erosion and metal leaching by stabilizing or accumulating heavy metals, so that helps reduce the risk of contaminant spread.”



Video Credit: NTU Singapore



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants help remove heavy metals from contaminated soil

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes why herbicides are not as effective in killing weeds anymore. In the 20th century, chemical companies developed thousands of herbicides. The most commonly used herbicide was glyphosate, which was introduced in 1974.



Over the past few decades, dozens of species of weeds have evolved resistance to glyphosate. Depending on the site of action, the part of the plant that an herbicide interacts with, weeds may even be resistant to herbicides that have not been developed yet.&nbsp;



With increasing resistance to glyphosate and other herbicides, weeds are - once again - becoming a major concern for farmers.&nbsp;



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Weeds are becoming increasingly resistant to herbicides

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> (JPL) describes a dust storm on Mars that was nearly twice the size of the United States. As the storm covered the southern hemisphere of the planet, some of NASA’s explorers had to delay their normal activities.



NASA’s Insight lander put itself in a "safe mode" for 11 days to conserve battery power because solar power was disrupted by the dust. The Ingenuity Mars Helicopter postponed flights until conditions improved.



"A fleet of NASA orbiters monitor Martian dust storms like this one and serve as lifelines to Earth by relaying data from the rovers and lander on the ground back to the team. This includes the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, MAVEN, and Odyssey," reports JPL.



"Dust storms like this recent one start close to the ground and are spread by wind as they rise – warming the cold Martian atmosphere."



The images in the video were captured by NASA’s Curiosity as the dust rolled in. A fleet of orbiters monitored the dust storm from above, relaying data from Mars’ explorers back to scientists on Earth.



Video &amp; Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/MSSS



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

NASA monitors giant dust storms on Mars

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="http://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz. This strait provides the only sea passage from the Persian Gulf to the open ocean.



Qeshm is separated from the Iranian coast by the Clarence Strait, also known as Khuran.&nbsp;The Hara Forest Protected Area is a network of shallow waterways and forest located between the island and the mainland. This protected region is home to sea turtles, snakes, and more than 150 species of migrating birds.



Qeshm is famous for its wide range of&nbsp;ecotourist&nbsp;attractions, such as the&nbsp;Hara marine forests. According to environmentalists, about 1.5 percent of the world birds and 25 percent of Iran's native <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-avoid-sexual-harassment-by-looking-like-males/">birds</a> annually migrate to the forests, which are the first national geo park in Iran.



Tourists are also drawn to the island to see an age-old Portuguese&nbsp;fort, historic mosques, the&nbsp;Seyyed Mozaffar&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bibi Maryam&nbsp;shrines, and the "Valley of Stars."



The average temperature on the island is 81 degress and the region is often hot and humid. From June to August, the island is described as being oppressively hot. The ideal time to visit is during the winter season. 



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Qeshm Island in the Strait of Hormuz

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique.&nbsp;



"Inhambane Bay is a deep inlet into which the small Mutamba River flows," says ESA. "On one side of the bay lies the historical city of Inhambane, capital of the Inhambane Province, while the sister city of Maxixe, the economic capital of Inhambane, sits across from it. The province is the second largest grower of cashews, after Nampula, and it also produces coconut and citrus fruits."



The beaches of Barra and Tofo are popular with tourists. There are also coral reefs along the long coastline of Inhambane, making it an ideal destination for scuba diving and snorkeling.



"Mozambique’s extensive coastline heightens the country’s vulnerability to tropical cyclones that develop in the Indian Ocean as well as storm surge flooding," says ESA.



"More than half of the population lives in low lying coastal areas, putting communities at risk. Inhambane Bay was dangerously close to where Cyclone Idai made landfall in 2019 causing widespread destruction to the country."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Inhambane Bay in southeast Mozambique

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency </a>&nbsp;features the Kangerlussuaq Glacier, one of the largest tidewater outlet glaciers in Greenland. The glacier is located on the east coast of the Greenland ice sheet.



As human-induced climate change continues to drive up temperatures, global ice loss is accelerating at an alarming rate. ESA reports that, over the past decade alone, 3.5 trillion tons of ice have melted from the Greenland ice sheet. This is enough to cover the UK with meltwater 15 meters deep.



Based on satellite imagery, researchers determined that Kangerlussuaq entered a new phase of rapid retreat and acceleration in 2017. In their study, published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/feart.2019.00123/full">Frontiers in Earth Science</a>,&nbsp; the experts report that the glacier's ice front is now at its most retreated position since the early 20th century.



"Given Kangerlussuaq’s previous impacts on both the magnitude and pattern of ice sheet wide mass loss, we predict that its new phase of retreat, acceleration and thinning will markedly enhance the south-east region’s contribution to increasing discharge from the ice sheet," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"More broadly, accurate forecasting of the ice sheet’s contribution to sea level rise will require a deeper understanding of, and responses to, these non-linear ice dynamic processes."



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kangerlussuaq Glacier on the Greenland ice sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the complex relationship between ocean and climate. ESA's Climate Change Initiative will help us understand how oceans influence the climate and how climate change is impacting the oceans.&nbsp;



"Earth’s oceans are huge heat stores, soaking up 93% of the excess heat from human activity over the past 70 years. Ocean currents redistribute heat around the planet, from the Equator to the poles. Where this ocean heat goes influences weather patterns and regional climate," explains ESA.



"As well as absorbing heat, oceans are a natural carbon sink, absorbing a quarter of carbon dioxide emissions from human activity. This has led to the acidification of ocean water, threating marine life."



The amount of heat and carbon dioxide soaked up by the ocean depends on specific variables, including phytoplankton, temperatures, waves, salinity, and ice cover. Satellites can be used to measure these variables from space.



"From their unique vantage point, satellites provide key information for understanding the complexities of our planet and monitoring environmental issues," says ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Ocean heat influences regional climate

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes the importance of monitoring the shape of the sea surface, which is constantly changing. These observations have many applications, such as ship routing, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-modem-ocean-is-a-tough-place-for-whales-to-survive/">ocean</a> current forecasting, and debris tracking.



"A project supported by the Discovery element of ESA’s Basic Activities recently investigated a new technique to measure sea surface topography very precisely," reports ESA.



"The technique involves looking at satellite navigation (GNSS) signals that have been reflected off of the sea surface at very low angles. At these so-called grazing angles, waves and surface roughness have very little impact on the reflection process; the sea surface acts as a very smooth mirror."



Estel Cardellach is the principal investigator at the Institute for Space Studies of Catalonia, who first submitted the idea for the project.



“In a mirror-like reflection the phase of the signal can be tracked – it is continuous," said Cardellach. "Different surface heights result in different phase measurements. It gives a very precise measurement of the surface altitude at a few centimetres’ precision.”



The researchers developed a GNSS receiver and set up an experiment in the Balaeric Islands to collect signals from the receiver that were reflected off the sea surface. Ultimately, these signals will provide improved measurements of the shape of the sea surface.



Image/ Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring the dynamic shape of the sea surface

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Aerial,Photo,Of,River,In,Amazon,Rainforest,Jungle,In,Peru

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> describes how scientists are using autonomous sound sensors to monitor deforestation in the Amazon. By recording soundscapes, the experts can determine which animals are present through their distinct sounds.&nbsp;



Using this method, sounds can be used as scientific measurements to analyze the effects of deforestation. The researchers will gain a better understanding of how the acoustics of a forest can be used to measure its health.&nbsp;



"From space, parts of the Amazon rainforest that have previously been logged or burned may look lush and green, like a place buzzing with activity and full of sounds. But inside the rainforest, the animal life may tell a different story, of a harsh environment and a quieter soundscape," says NASA.



Video Credit: NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Monitoring deforestation in the Amazon through sounds

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