When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



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How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography. A new study led by researchers from Purdue University and Peking University has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress. Fungi hidden beneath forests Jingjing Liang, an associate...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> have found evidence that trees are bulking up due to increased carbon in our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-in-a-planets-atmosphere-could-be-a-sign-of-life/">atmosphere</a>.&nbsp;



“Forests are taking carbon out of the atmosphere at a rate of about 13 percent of our gross emissions,” said Brent Sohngen, co-author of the study. “While we’re putting billions of tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, we’re actually taking much of it out just by letting our forests grow.”



While the ecosystem, as a whole, may be suffering due to human carbon emissions, trees are one of the exceptions. They are using carbon to increase their rate of photosynthesis, allowing them to grow larger. The phenomenon is known as carbon fertilization.



“It’s well known that when you put a ton of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, it doesn’t stay up there forever,” Sohngen said. “A massive amount of it falls into the oceans, while the rest of it is taken up by trees and wetlands and those kinds of areas.”



The scientists used data from the U.S. Forest Service Forest Inventory and Analysis Program (USFS-FIA) to determine that vegetation is 20 to 30 percent larger than it was 30 years ago. Moreover, they also noticed that older trees continue to gain mass later in life.&nbsp;



While the researchers believed that planted trees, which are more carefully cultivated, would be more greatly influenced by the carbon influx, they found that the benefit was the same for planted and naturally growing trees. Also, since carbon dioxide mixes evenly in the air, vegetation all over the world should be benefiting from this carbon influx.&nbsp;



The researchers hope that the findings of this study will encourage policymakers to step up their utilization of trees as climate change mitigation since they are already active as carbon sinks and will more than likely become more efficient and cheaper to grow. For example, it may cost $50 to plant an acre of trees now, but carbon fertilization could bring the cost to $40 per acre in the future.&nbsp;



“Carbon fertilization certainly makes it cheaper to plant trees, avoid deforestation, or do other activities related to trying to enhance the carbon sink in forests,” said Sohngen. “We should be planting more trees and preserving older ones, because at the end of the day they’re probably our best bet for mitigating climate change.”



The study is published in the Journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-33196-x">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Trees are bulking up from increased carbon emissions

Researchers at Ohio State University have found evidence that trees...

A new study published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/eurjpc/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/eurjpc/zwac189">European Journal of Cardiology</a> suggests that drinking two to three cups of coffee per day may prolong your life. The research findings apply to instant, ground and decaffeinated coffee.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“In this large, observational study, ground, instant and decaffeinated coffee were associated with equivalent reductions in the incidence of cardiovascular disease and death from cardiovascular disease or any cause,” said study co-author Professor Peter Kistler of the Baker Heart and Diabetes Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia. “The results suggest that mild to moderate intake of ground, instant and decaffeinated coffee should be considered part of a healthy lifestyle.”



The researchers used data from the UK Biobank to investigate the associations between coffee and arrhythmias, cardiovascular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/night-owls-may-have-greater-risk-of-heart-disease/">disease</a> and death in 449,563 people between the ages of 40 and 69 years. The median age of study participants was 58, with 55.3 percent being women.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study participants were questioned about whether they usually drank instant, ground, or decaffeinated coffee. They were then grouped into six consumption categories ranging from zero to more than five cups a day.&nbsp;



The data showed that 198,062 (44.1%) of the participants drank instant, 82,575 (18.4%) drank ground, and 68,416 (15.2%) drank decaffeinated coffee. The analysis also included 100,510 (22.4%) non-coffee drinkers as a control group. Age, sex, ethnicity and various health issues were controlled for in the study.&nbsp;



Overall, 6.2 percent of participants died before follow up and 9.6 percent were diagnosed with cardiovascular disease. The median follow up was 12.5 years. All types of coffee consumption were shown to lower the chances of death by any cause, with two to three cups being the most effective. 



Two to three cups a day of decaffeinated, ground and instant coffee were associated with a lower risk of premature death by 14, 27, and 11 percent respectively.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Caffeine is the most well-known constituent in coffee, but the beverage contains more than 100 biologically active components," said Professor Kistler. "It is likely that the non-caffeinated compounds were responsible for the positive relationships observed between coffee drinking, cardiovascular disease and survival. Our findings indicate that drinking modest amounts of coffee of all types should not be discouraged but can be enjoyed as a heart healthy behavior.”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Coffee lowers risk of premature death from all causes

A new study published in the European Journal of Cardiology...

Honeydew is a sugary solution produced by several different types of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-struggle-to-adjust-to-high-temperatures/">insects</a>, particularly those that feed by inserting their proboscis into the phloem vessels of a plant. These vessels carry dissolved sugars and other nutrients all over the plant, and the sucking insects use their spike-like mouthparts to access the flow of goodies. Strangely, when an insect taps into the liquid and begins to suck, the high pressure in the phloem vessel causes a big droplet of honeydew to emerge from the insect’s anus. It is a valued source of food for other insects, including different species of ants.&nbsp;



Although the chemical composition of honeydew has been studied from the perspective of its nutritional value to ants and other species that feed on it, the nature of the volatile (or smelly) components has not been investigated. It is possible that scents from honeydew secretions are used by insects to communicate with each other, especially around the time of reproduction. A new study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/finsc.2022.982965">Frontiers in Insect Science</a>, has now shown that the honeydew produced by spotted lanternflies gives rise to many airborne organic molecules that are attractive to other members of the species, and probably play an important role in the behavior of the insects.&nbsp;



Spotted lanternflies (Lycorma delicatula) are not native to the U.S., but have been introduced inadvertently from China, where they are indigenous. The first individual was recorded in Pennsylvania in September 2014. Unfortunately, this species is invasive and feeds on a wide range of fruit, ornamental and woody trees. Individuals can spread long distances with the help of people who translocate infested material or items containing egg masses. It is critical that this pest be controlled before it spreads too widely, or it could do serious damage to the country’s grape, orchard, and logging industries.



“This research is important because the first step to managing any pest is to understand their biology and behavior,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://loop.frontiersin.org/people/1710547/overview">Dr. Miriam Cooperband</a>&nbsp;of the United States Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Plant Protection and Quarantine Division (USDA APHIS PPQ) in the U.S. “As we learn more about the behavior of the spotted lanternfly, we hope to find a vulnerability that we can use to develop pest management tools to reduce its population and spread.”



It seems that spotted lanternflies do have one rather unusual behavior that may prove a vulnerability. Not only do they leave their honeydew secretions dotted onto the understory of trees in their habitat, but they also form mass aggregations on the trunks of select trees. There, they secrete so much honeydew that the surface of the tree trunk becomes white and frothy, and begins to smell like fermenting fruit. Multitudes of lanternflies gather at these sites and add to the secretions, while neighboring tree trunks are left untouched.



Cooperband and her collaborators wondered whether the honeydew that is excreted in these copious quantities perhaps contains semiochemicals, pheromones that convey signals to other lanternflies and modify their behavior. In previous studies the researchers had fixed small samples of either male or female spotted lanternflies to the trunk of a tree, enclosed in a fine mesh sleeve. These groups soon generated large aggregations of free lanternflies on the tree trunks, suggesting to the researchers that pheromones were indeed involved in attracting the lanternflies to each other.



To find out whether the honeydew contains any behaviorally active components that could influence lanternfly behavior, the researchers collected honeydew samples separately from male and female lanternflies in the field, to test in the lab. They found numerous semiochemicals present, including four ketones, six esters, and three alcohols, all of which existed in both sexes but at different ratios. Two compounds occurred at ratios over 1.5 times higher in male than in female honeydew, whereas five other compounds were found at higher concentrations in female than in male secretions.&nbsp;



The researchers then investigated how the honeydew influenced lanternfly behavior by giving captive lanternflies a choice to move to areas with or without the different types of honeydew. Their results showed that male flies were strongly attracted to male honeydew, while both males and females were only slightly attracted to female honeydew. Although it is not clear what would cause this behavior, this is consistent with observations of how these insects behave in the field.



The team went on identify which components of the honeydew produced the strongest signals. Five molecules were tested for attraction and found to have specific sex-attractant profiles. Two molecules called benzyl acetate and 2-octanone attracted both sexes, one molecule called 2-heptanone attracted only males, one molecule, 2-nonanone, attracted only females, and one molecule, 1-nonanol, repelled females but not males. All five of these compounds also serve as pheromone components for species across multiple insect orders, including bees and bed bugs.



These findings are just the initial steps to obtaining a better understanding of how, potentially, to control this invasive pest. The authors suggest that their findings can help develop non-insecticide control measures, such as the development of semiochemical lures for detecting lanternfly presence, or to use as mass trapping tools. There are many more questions to answer, such as whether there are seasonal variations in this behavior, and whether there are interactions with microbes in the honeydew that produce the necessary chemicals.&nbsp;



“Spotted lanternfly behavior and communication is quite complex, and this is only the tip of the iceberg. In addition to our work studying chemical signals, such as those in honeydew, we are also interested in the role of substrate vibrations in their communication system,” said Cooperband. “Future research might focus on understanding how they locate each other when they gather and find mates using multiple types of signals.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honeydew secretions could be used to manage crop pests

Honeydew is a sugary solution produced by several different types...

Looking,Up,The,Trunk,Of,A,Giant,Rainforest,Tree,To

The ability of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-largest-rainforests/">rainforests</a> to store carbon may significantly decrease due to climate change, according to a new doctoral thesis written by Maria Wittermann, a postgraduate student at the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a>. This problem is caused by the fact that photosynthesis rates in the leaves of rainforest tree species are falling at higher temperatures and the trees’ natural cooling systems are failing during droughts.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Some species of fast-growing rainforest trees which established themselves early as the forests had been growing – called “early successional trees” - are able to handle rising heat by sucking up large quantities of water to their leaves and transpiring through wide-opened pores in the leaves. However, this does not seem to hold for trees that make up the canopy of rainforests in old growth forests (“late successional trees”), and grow slower, but get bigger and taller, thus losing their ability to cool themselves via transpiration.



“The tropics have not experienced Ice Ages and have thus had a relatively stable climate historically as well as seasonally. With climate change, it has started to get warmer and then we have seen that some species of trees are showing increased mortality rates, but we have not really known why before,”&nbsp;Wittermann said.



While early successional trees open the pores wider in their leaves, and transpire large amounts of water that helps them keep down the temperature in their leaves (much like an air conditioning system), the late successional species have more difficulties to stay cool since they don’t open their pores so much.



“We found large temperature differences in the leaves in our measurements. There could be a difference of 10 degrees Celsius between late successional species and early successional species growing in the same location. The late successional species had more difficulty coping with abnormally high temperatures. These trees had a higher mortality rate,”&nbsp;Wittermann reported.



Unfortunately, the early successional trees’ profuse transpiration requires a lot of water – which is not available during droughts. By contrast, late successional species’ reduced consumption of water makes them more resistant to droughts.



“Our results show that photosynthesis rates in rainforest trees falls when the temperature rises in their leaves, which occurs mainly in late successional species. The proteins and membranes in their leaves, that are essential for photosynthesis, fail, and eventually the trees die due to carbon starvation because they cannot convert enough carbon dioxide from the air. This affects the entire ecosystem. We know, for example, that some animals eat the fruits of the late successional species,” she added.



In her conclusion, Wittermann argued that, while this situation is currently worse in the Amazon – a carbon sink that might turn into a carbon source by as early as 2035 - in African rainforests climate change has fortunately not gone as far yet.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Trees are overheating in warmer rainforests

The ability of rainforests to store carbon may significantly decrease...

An important aspect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-houseplants-can-poison-children-and-pets/">plant</a> development is gravitropism, the directional growth of organisms in response to gravity. This process allows plants to compete for limited resources. For example, if crop roots could be directed to grow down at a steeper angle, the plants could gain access to deeper water and nutrient reserves and potentially become more drought resistant.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin</a> has revealed four genes that are involved in gravitropism in corn and the model plant Arabidopsis. The research will help explain why some plant roots make a steeper turn towards gravity than others.&nbsp;



In collaboration with experts at the University of Illinois, the team used advanced techniques to observe subtle differences in root gravitropism in thousands of seedlings. This data was combined with genetic information for each seedling. The results allowed the researchers to map the likely positions of gravitropism genes in the genome.



“Because we had previously performed the same experiment with the distantly related Arabidopsis plant, we were able to match genes within the relevant regions of the genome in both species. Follow-up tests verified the identity of four genes that modify root gravitropism," explained study lead author Professor Edgar Spalding. "The new information could help us understand how gravity shapes root system architectures."



“We looked at an under-researched trait in maize that is important for a number of reasons, especially in the context of climate change. And we did it by making the evolutionary differences between plants work in our favor," said study co-author Professor Matt Hudson.



Corn and Arabidopsis evolved about 150 million years apart. Although both species share basic plant functions, the genes controlling them have likely been jumbled within the genome over time, explained Professor Hudson.



“I thought it was super cool that we could identify genes we wouldn’t have found otherwise just by comparing genomic intervals in unrelated plant species. We were pretty confident they were the right genes when they popped right out of this analysis, but Spalding’s group then spent seven or eight more years getting solid biological data to verify they do, indeed, play a role in gravitropism. Having done that, I think we’ve validated the whole approach such that in future, you could use this method for many different phenotypes," said Professor Hudson.



According to Professor Spalding, the method was probably particularly successful because precise measurements were made in a common environment. “Often, maize researchers will measure their traits of interest in a field, whereas Arabidopsis researchers tend to raise their plants in growth chambers. We measured the root gravitropism phenotype in a highly controlled way. These seeds were grown on a petri plate, and the assay lasted just hours, as opposed to traits you might measure in the real world that are open to all sorts of variabilities.”



“Gravitropism may be especially amenable to study through this approach because it would have been key to the original specialization of shoots and roots after the successful colonization of land."



Professor Hudson pointed out that gravitropism will be key to colonization of a different landscape, as well. “NASA is interested in growing crops on other planets or in space and they need to know what you'd have to breed for to do that. Plants are pretty discombobulated without gravity.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study reveals genes that help plant roots grow toward gravity

An important aspect of plant development is gravitropism, the directional...

In intensive agriculture landscapes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bees-struggle-to-recover-after-extreme-weather-events/">wild bees</a> are rare due to the low availability of flowers as nectar and pollen sources, leading to significant problems for crop systems such as apple orchards, which are dependent on pollination. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/">University of Freiburg</a> in Germany has found that using a combination of hedges and perennial flower strips could support wild bee diversity and abundance in orchards by providing continuous resources during the entire growing season.&nbsp;



Between 2018 and 2020, the researchers compared flower resources and wild bee populations across 18 apple orchards in the Lake Constance area of Germany, one of the country’s leading apple growing regions. The analysis revealed that orchards housing a combination of hedgerows and perennial flower strips had a larger and more diverse population of bee pollinators. Wild bee species were found to visit flowering hedges from March to June, and perennial flower strips from June to August in the first year of planting, and from April onwards in subsequent years.



“For enhancing wild bees in intensive agricultural landscapes one should provide a network of perennial flower strips and some well-maintained hedges to create a continuous flower offer over the entire growing season,” said study lead author Vivien von Königslöw, an expert in Nature Conservation and Landscape Ecology at Freiburg.



“Our results suggest preferential establishment of perennial flower strips rather than annual flower strips because perennial flower strips flower much earlier in the second year of establishment than in the year of sowing and attract different bee communities over the years. Thus, they are more suitable to enhance bee diversity,” she added.&nbsp;



Although hedges and perennial flower strips were found to complement each other, the scientists nevertheless argued that the latter are benefitting wild bees the most, since they are in bloom during periods when other flowers are scarce, while hedges predominantly overlap with apple trees and orchard ground vegetation flowering in spring.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.14277">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Flower strips can boost wild bee populations

In intensive agriculture landscapes, wild bees are rare due to...

Since they produce fruit all year round, fig trees are essential components of tropical forests, ensuring that there is sufficient food for forest birds and mammals, even during periods when other plants do not bear fruit. However, in order to be able to provide this crucial ecological role, fig trees need to be pollinated by fig <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wasps-are-undervalued-as-predators-and-pollinators/">wasps</a> – a type of insect measuring two to three millimeters in length, living an average of two to three days, and often flying ten or more kilometers to get from a ripe tree to a flowering one.



Unfortunately, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.uu.se/">Uppsala University</a> in Sweden has now found that rising temperatures caused by global warming have a negative impact on these important pollinators, significantly reducing their lifespans. The experts collected ripe figs from five different species of fig trees - Ficus obtusifolia, Ficus citrifolia, Ficus popenoei, Ficus insipida, and Ficus maxima – and opened them in the lab. The wasps which had developed inside the figs were kept in climate chambers at different temperatures, and counted every few hours. The analysis revealed that all five pollinator fig wasp species lived shorter lives at higher temperatures.



“We found that all tested pollinator wasp species had a significantly shorter lifespan in 30, 32, 34, and 36°C compared to the current diurnal mean temperature of 26°C. At 36°C pollinator median lifespan decreased to merely 2–10&nbsp;h (6%–19% of their median lifespan at 26°C),” the study authors reported.



Besides rising temperatures shortening the lifespan of the wasps, the massive deforestation across the tropics is increasing the distance between fig trees, which also makes pollination more difficult. Hopefully, fig wasps will be able to avoid higher temperatures by adapting their behavior, such as flying at night when it is cooler.



“Unless wasps can adapt, such a dramatic reduction in lifespan is expected to reduce the number of pollinators that successfully disperse to flowering fig trees, and may therefore jeopardize both fruit set and eventually survival of the mutualism,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9311">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rising temperatures shorten the lifespan of fig tree pollinators

Since they produce fruit all year round, fig trees are...

Colorful,Pink,And,Purple,Calla,Flowers,Composition

According to horticulture expert Paul Alder, several common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-can-instantly-reduce-indoor-air-pollution/">houseplants</a>, such as the daffodil, Aloe Vera, or English Ivy contain toxic chemicals which can cause kidney stones, swelling of the throat, and vomiting in adults, and are almost impossible for children or pets to break down, often leading to irreparable damage if consumed.



One of the most dangerous houseplants is the elegant calla lily, which has a curved bloom and can be found in a variety of colors. However, this plant contains calcium oxalate crystals which cannot be broken down by the human body, and can lead to renal or liver failure, particularly in children and pets.&nbsp;



Another toxic plant for pets is the bird of paradise, a beautiful plant with brightly colored flowers resembling the head of a feathered bird, which contains hydrogen cyanide – an extremely dangerous substance for cats and dogs, causing vomiting, drowsiness, and even death. Similarly, the Sago palm – a slow-growing subtropical plant native to Japan and Southern China – contains a toxin called cycasin, which causes liver damage and death if consumed by pets.



Parents should take particular care in keeping their children away from the philodendron plant, which is currently very common in indoor gardens. Although it is not fatal, eating its leaves can cause nausea, burning skin, swelling of the throat, vomiting, and diarrhea, particularly in young children. Even more dangerous is the English Ivy, an evergreen perennial climbing vine which stays green all year round. Just touching this plant’s leaves or sap can cause skin irritation, swelling, and shortness of breath.



Even the innocent-looking daffodil, a beloved springtime flower, harbors toxins such as lycorine, a chemical which can be lethal if ingested in large amounts. And regardless of its name, the Peace Lily can be extremely toxic for cats and other small animals, injuring their tissues if touched or ingested – a phenomenon observed also in the case of the medicinal plant Aloe Vera, which can cause severe vomiting and diarrhea, while lowering blood sugar levels in both children and pets.



Other houseplants that can be dangerous include the Easter Lily, a springtime flower which can irritate the mouth and throat of children if ingested, the Monstera deliciosa, a beautiful, low maintenance plant that causes stinging sensations if touched or eaten, or the Pothos, an easy to care for evergreen plant which leads to burning sensations in the mouth, throat, and tongue.



According to Alder, these beautiful but dangerous houseplants could be replaced by other non-toxic ones, such as the Areca Palm, the Pilea Ivy, the Haworthia Zebra, or the White Orchid.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Common houseplants can poison children and pets

According to horticulture expert Paul Alder, several common houseplants, such...

The bacteria that live in our digestive systems break down components of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-animal-feed-could-supply-food-for-one-billion-people/">food</a> we eat. This not only provides the bacteria with food, but also enables us to access nutrients that are essential for our own health. The importance of a rich and vibrant microbial community in our guts has been emphasized by numerous recent research studies, and yet scientists know little about exactly how some of the bacteria go about digesting certain molecules present in our food.



Complex carbohydrates form an important source of nutrients available to the microbes in our guts, and bacteria have a vast array of enzymes, sometimes more than 300 different types, capable of breaking them down. Of particular interest to scientists from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> and Newcastle University in a recent study, was a genus of gastrointestinal bacteria called Bacteroides. These microbes make up the most substantial portion of the human gut microbiota and are very good at digesting the carbohydrates known as plant glycans.



In their study, the researchers investigated the pathway by which the bacteria break down N-glycans, which are sugars found bonded to the protein molecules of plants. Since plants form the majority of the human diet, N-glycans are very common in the human gut. The researchers, whose findings are published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2208168119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, used genomic data from the bacteria to identify specific enzymes produced by them that were capable of digesting different types of glycans.&nbsp;



Using this novel genome association approach the researchers were able to identify five different carbohydrate-active enzymes that are involved in the breakdown of N-glycans. This information about enzymes that are produced by the gut microbes will enable researchers to understand better how to manage good gut health, say the authors of the study. In addition, since glycans are sometimes associated with allergies to pollen or to plant-based foods such as soya, the researchers propose that the newly-identified enzymes that break down glycans could be used to make some foods or medicines less allergenic.&nbsp;



“The gut microbiome is an incredibly important feature for human health, and this finding will enable us to better understand the microbiome," said study lead author Dr. Lucy Crouch from the Institute of Microbiology and Infection at the University of Birmingham. "By identifying the particular enzymes that these microbes use to digest their food, we can consider how future diets can be developed that promote a healthy gut, and as a result improve our general health.”



The researchers state that one of the potential uses of the enzymes that specifically target N-glycans is in the production of pharmaceutical proteins from plants. Plants such as maize, rice, tobacco, flax, and strawberry have already been used to produce proteins for use as antibodies (“plantibodies”), collagen, vaccines and enzymes, but in order to reduce the allergenic properties of these proteins before being given as human treatments, it would be useful to remove the N-glycan sugars from the protein molecules.&nbsp;



In addition to showing how plant N-glycans are degraded in the human gut, the researchers also found that glycans bonded to the proteins from insects were also degraded by some of the same enzymes. This implies that insects, when included in the human diet, would also be a source of suitable nutrients for gut microbes. Insects have been a human food source for centuries for some populations, they are common in other primate diets, and there is an increased interest in the use of insect protein in human diets for environmental and sustainability reasons.



"We are still learning the role our gut plays in our overall health and so learning how microbes in our gut are able to use plant N-glycans is vital," said study co-author Dr David Bolam from Newcastle University. "This has developed our knowledge both in terms of understanding how these sugars are broken down by the microbiota, but also to discover new enzymes that could be used to alter and analyse N-glycan structures for medical and industrial applications.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human gut bacteria feed on complex plant sugars

The bacteria that live in our digestive systems break down...

Lignin is a complex organic polymer which forms key structural materials in the support tissues of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-energy-do-plants-use-to-lift-water-from-the-soil/">plants</a>. This substance allows plants to conduct water and stand upright, and plays a fundamental role in the formation of cell walls, particularly in wood and bark.&nbsp;



According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university">Stockholm University</a>, it is possible to create and/or select plants that can better recover from droughts without affecting the plants’ size or seed yield by genetically modifying their lignin chemistry. These findings could be applied in both agriculture and forestry to tackle climate change-related challenges.



“Plants are made of many different cells, some of them are reinforced with lignin and assemble to each other to form a pipe that conducts water, like a straw to drink your cocktail,” said study lead author Delphine Ménard, an expert in Plant Sciences at Stockholm University.&nbsp;



For a long time, scientists believed that lignin does not have a “code” like DNA or proteins. However, Dr. Ménard and her colleagues have now challenged this old paradigm, by showing that each plant cell uses a chemical code to adjust their lignin to function optimally and cope with environmental stressors. This important finding could have major applications in agriculture and forestry.



“It takes only one simple chemical change, just one hydrogen atom apart from alcohol to aldehyde to make plants highly resilient to drought in conditions where alcohol-rich plants would all die,” said study senior author Edouard Pesquet, an associate professor of Molecular Plant Physiology at Stockholm.



Interestingly, such large increases of lignin aldehydes can also occur naturally in the wild. For instance, mulberries with the highest lignin aldehyde levels are more frequently used by silk caterpillars across Japan.&nbsp;



“These results revise our understanding of lignin and plant water conduction, but also open great possibilities to use the lignin code to improve crops and trees to face water availability problems. The modification of lignin chemistry at the single cell level is ultimately the mechanism enabling plants to grow, hydrate, and resist climate change stresses,” Professor Pesquet concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/plcell/koac284">The Plant Cell</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Plants adjust a “chemical code” to cope with climate change

Lignin is a complex organic polymer which forms key structural...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.jic.ac.uk/">John Innes Centre</a> have found a correlation between early winter temperatures and crop yields for some economically significant crops. The researchers combined laboratory work with fieldwork to conduct their study and found that a chilling period in late November/early December promotes growth in oilseed rape plants. Although this process has been well studied in perennial plants, this was the first study to demonstrate this phenomenon in an annual crop.



“It was surprising to find that winter annuals have this flower bud dormancy - no one has ever suggested that this mechanism is important to flowering time control in annual plants," said Professor Steve Penfield, a group leader at the John Innes Centre. "Our experiments further show that if flower buds experience warmer than average temperatures then growth slows down and plants produce aberrant flowers and low yield. Conversely, we know that if plants get chilled at this stage this promotes faster growth and higher yield.”&nbsp;



Study first author Dr. Carmel O’Neil explained why this information is critical: “We want to understand the effect of climate change on the UK crop yields. To predict these effects and respond to them we must understand all the processes by which varying weather affects yield. And that is what we have done here in this study – proving experimentally what we have seen previously in correlated studies.”&nbsp;



The researchers determined that the expression of a gene called FLC influenced the bud dormancy response to winter temperatures.&nbsp;



“We had seen this correlation between chilling and yield in the data, but until now we could not say that chilling was linked to the physiology of the crop - it is not for example that chilling just kills some disease or pest - although it might do that as well," explained Professor Penfield. "But we now know why chilling influences yields and it is down to physical effect on the growth rate of the plants.”&nbsp;



Researchers hope that this study can be used to help us adapt our agricultural practices in a changing climate.&nbsp;&nbsp;



This study is published in <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2204355119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warmer winters lead to lower crop yields

Experts at the John Innes Centre have found a correlation...

Dried,Green,Tea,Leaf,And,Powder,On,Wooden,Background

According to a systematic review and meta-analysis of 19 cohort studies involving over one million adults from eight countries, moderate to high consumption of black, green, or Oolong tea is associated with a lower risk of developing type 2 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weight-loss-can-prevent-or-reverse-diabetes/">diabetes</a> (T2D). The experts – led by the <a href="https://www.wust.edu.cn/english/">Wuhan University of Science and Technology</a> in China – have found that drinking at least four cups of tea per day was linked to a 17 percent lower risk of developing T2D over an average period of ten years.



“Our results are exciting because they suggest that people can do something as simple as drinking four cups of tea a day to potentially lessen their risk of developing type 2 diabetes,” said study lead author Xiaying Li, a researcher at Wuhan University.



Although scientists have long known that regular tea consumption has many health benefits due to tea’s various antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic compounds, until now the relationship between drinking tea and the risk of diabetes has not been investigated systematically.&nbsp;



In an initial phase, the Wuhan researchers studied 5,199 adults (2583 men and 2616 women with an average age of 42) with no history of T2D from the <a href="https://ghdx.healthdata.org/record/china-health-and-nutrition-survey">China Health and Nutrition Survey</a> (CHNS – a multicenter prospective study investigating the economics, sociological issues, and health of Chinese residents) who were recruited in 1997 and followed until 2009.&nbsp;



The participants had to fill in a drink and food frequency questionnaire and provide information about lifestyle factors including exercise, smoking, and alcohol consumption. Overall, 2,379 (46 percent) of the participants reported drinking tea, and by the end of the study, 522 (10 percent) of them had developed T2D. However, after adjusting for factors such as age, sex, and physical activity, the scientists found that tea drinkers had a similar risk of developing T2D as non-drinkers.



In a second step, the researchers performed a systematic review of all cohort studies investigating the correlation between tea drinking and T2D risk in 1,076,311 adults from eight countries, and explored the potential impact of different types of tea (green, black, and oolong), the amount of tea consumed (less than one cup per day, one to three cups, and four or more cups), sex, and location on the risk of developing T2D.



The analysis revealed that each cup of tea consumed per day reduced the risk of T2D by one percent. However, those who drank at least four cups each day reduced their risk by 17 percent, regardless of the type of tea they consumed. “While more research needs to be done to determine the exact dosage and mechanisms behind these observations, our findings suggest that drinking tea is beneficial in reducing the risk of type 2 diabetes, but only at high doses (at least four cups a day),” Li explained.



“It is possible that particular components in tea, such as polyphenols, may reduce blood glucose levels, but a sufficient amount of these bioactive compounds may be needed to be effective. It may also explain why we did not find an association between tea drinking and type 2 diabetes in our cohort study, because we did not look at higher tea consumption,” she concluded.



The study will be presented at the <a href="https://www.easd.org/annual-meeting/easd-2022.html">European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) Annual Meeting</a> in Stockholm, Sweden (19-23 September, 2022).



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Drinking plenty of tea reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes

According to a systematic review and meta-analysis of 19 cohort...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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