Plants turn air into leaves, roots, and fruit, yet every molecule of the carbon they store has to squeeze through microscopic pores first. These pores, called stomata, dot the surface of nearly every leaf and set the pace for both growth and water loss.



The latest study from <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a> shows that each new stoma is the product of a lively conversation among neighboring cells and a hard look in the mirror. 



Dominique Bergmann and her team traced those talks in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/35048692" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis</a> (Arabidopsis thaliana), the small mustard plant whose genome was first decoded in 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-form-and-adjust-pores">How plants form and adjust pores</h2>



Stomata behave like adjustable valves, opening when light and water are plentiful and closing when drought or darkness loom. Their numbers are not fixed; plants can make more or fewer during development, tweaking their gas exchange to match the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">environment</a>.



For that plasticity to work, precursor cells must decide whether to divide again or settle down as part of the pavement around a stoma. 



The new research focuses on these larger daughters, called stomatal lineage ground cells, which had been thought to be passive passengers in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-sugar-in-ways-we-never-imagined/">leaf</a> development.



The Stanford team captured day‑long movies of living leaves and tracked every fate choice. They discovered that the future of each cell depends on its own size and on the crowd of neighbors encircling it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-nearby-cells-to-control-pores">Plants use nearby cells to control pores</h2>



Signals drift through the leaf in the form of tiny peptides such as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20010603/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">epidermal patterning factor 1</a> (EPF1) and its sibling EPF2, which tell nearby cells to slow down or stop forming new stomata. 



Because these messages travel only a short distance, the number of stomatal precursors touching a cell sets the strength of the “slow down” order.



Cells bordered by two or more precursors received a louder signal and dismantled an internal protein called <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982218302392" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPEECHLESS</a> before it could trigger another split. Those with just one signaling neighbor heard only a whisper and often went on to divide again.



The researchers measured how fast SPEECHLESS disappeared and found that the rate jumped with every extra neighbor. By evening, many well‑connected cells had emptied their nuclei of the division‑promoting factor and settled into a quiet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">life</a> as pavement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-cell-size">The role of cell size </h2>



Size turned out to be the second half of the script. When two sister cells emerged from a split, one was noticeably larger and carried a larger nucleus.



Bigger nuclei diluted the amount of SPEECHLESS even before degradation kicked in, pushing the concentration below the threshold needed to spark another round of division. Smaller sisters packed the protein more tightly and were free to keep the lineage going.



To confirm the link, the team boosted SPEECHLESS levels across the board. Large cells that normally would have retired instead re‑entered the cell cycle, proving that concentration, not mere presence, calls the shots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-use-internal-guides-to-shape-pores">Plants use internal guides to shape pores</h2>



“Compasses have dual roles,” said Bergmann. The study builds on earlier work showing that internal “compasses” guide each split so that one daughter remains small and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">stem</a>‑like while the other grows large.&nbsp;



Bergmann explained that the same molecular north arrow orients the division plane and then reorganizes the contents of the newborn cells to cement their different futures. 



Computational models confirmed that size, neighbor count, and SPEECHLESS levels together predict a cell’s fate better than any factor alone.



Warm nights add another twist: higher temperatures activate a photoreceptor called PIF4 that limits SPEECHLESS production, cutting back the formation of new stomata. 



The Stanford data suggest that heat might tilt the balance further by shrinking protein levels just enough to keep big cells out of the cell cycle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improving-crops-and-farming">Improving crops and farming</h2>



Why should anyone without a microscope care how many times a leaf cell divides? Because every stoma trades water for carbon, the final stomatal count shapes a crop’s thirst and yield.



Breeders are already lowering <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37923396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stomatal density</a> in wheat, barley, and rice to save water without hurting photosynthesis. Knowing that cell size and neighbor signals tune those numbers could make such tweaks more precise and less likely to backfire.



The work also hints at strategies for future‑proofing plants against heat waves. If larger precursor cells naturally avoid dividing under high temperature, selecting varieties with slightly bigger epidermal cells could be a subtle way to reduce water loss.



There is an evolutionary angle as well. Fossil leaves show that ancient plants reduced their stomatal density when atmospheric CO₂ climbed, mirroring the choices Bergmann’s cells make on a microscopic scale.



Understanding the cell‑level logic may help scientists read the rock record more accurately and model how modern forests will respond to rising greenhouse gases. It could even inform designs for synthetic leaves or bio‑inspired materials that need self‑regulating pores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-on-plants-and-their-pores">Research on plants and their pores</h2>



The Bergmann lab now wants to trace the still‑mysterious signals that link cell size to peptide output. They suspect a size‑sensing pathway unrelated to SPEECHLESS that may give big cells an extra nudge toward differentiation.



If that circuit can be mapped, it might be possible to rewire it, allowing crops to adjust their stomata on demand without penalties in growth. Such control would be a powerful tool in regions where water scarcity and heat routinely threaten harvests.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-57730-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How plants decide where to put their breathing pores

Plants turn air into leaves, roots, and fruit, yet every molecule of the carbon they store has to squeeze through microscopic pores first. These pores, called stomata, dot the surface of nearly every leaf and set the pace for both growth and water loss. The latest study from Stanford University shows that each new stoma is the product of a lively conversation among neighboring cells and a hard look in the mirror. Dominique Bergmann and her team traced those talks in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), the small mustard...

A research team led by <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/">UNSW Sydney</a>, in collaboration with governmental and non-governmental organizations, has developed a way to classify the world's ecosystems. This development aids ecosystem typology, a relatively new approach to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-hotspots-for-soil-conservation-are-poorly-protected/">conservation</a>.



"For the first time, we have a common platform that identifies, defines and describes the full suite of the whole planet's ecosystems," said Professor David Keith, who led the team with Richard Kingsford and Emily Nicholson.



"It may seem rather odd that we haven't had this before, but historically scientists have forged advances by working somewhat separately in marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems. This is the first time that all of this detailed knowledge has been brought together into a single framework taking advantage of common theory across the disciplines."



The experts believe this research will aid conservation policy since it offers a clearer picture. "It's very hard to see the big picture on a jigsaw puzzle until you have all the pieces in place – and that's what we now have. We have a much more substantial foundation to move ahead with a new era of ecosystem conservation and management policy," said Professor Kingsford.



"Efforts on biodiversity conservation have largely centered at the species level, because it's seen to be more tangible," explained Professor Keith. "But a broader focus on both ecosystems and species is more likely to succeed in conserving all plants and animals, as well as the essential services that nature provides people."



Professor Keith noted that by using <a href="https://global-ecosystems.org/">global ecosystem typology</a>, conservationists are more likely to consider lesser-studied ecosystems. "We don't think often about what's in the deep oceans, for example. There's a tremendous variety of life down there and it's organised into a number of different ecosystems. And those ecosystems are beginning to feel the impact of human expansion."



Future analyses will focus on mapping and monitoring the world’s ecosystems. "Although many of the world's 110 ecosystem types are already served with high quality maps updatable with satellite technology, the data for some other types is still rudimentary,'' said Professor Keith.



"We can't plan effectively where to protect ecosystems or how to manage them sustainably unless we have reliable maps for the full range of ecosystem types, and integrate them into decision-making and monitoring systems."



This study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05318-4">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ecosystems classified for the first time across the entire planet

A research team led by UNSW Sydney, in collaboration with...

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) provides a program for the conservation of threatened and endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-damage-to-plants-is-more-severe-now-than-ever-before/">plants</a> and animals and the habitats in which they are found. It was first passed into law in 1973 and has provided the legal framework for identifying threatened and endangered species, and preventing their extinction in the U.S. However, a recent investigation into the success of this Act has revealed that it has failed rather dismally at achieving its aims. Of the <a href="https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp/report/boxscore">thousands of species</a>&nbsp;that have been listed by the ESA in the past 48 years as threatened or endangered, only 54 have recovered to the point where they no longer need protection.&nbsp;



The study, led by Erich Eberhard from Columbia University’s Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Biology, and co-authored by David Wilcove and Andrew Dobson of Princeton University, finds that most species are not receiving protection until their populations are precariously small, by which time their genetic diversity is severely reduced and their chances of recovery even more limited.&nbsp;



“We find that small population sizes at time of listing, coupled with delayed protection and insufficient funding, continue to undermine one of the world’s strongest laws for protecting biodiversity,” wrote the study authors.



Evidence of species not receiving protection under the ESA until their populations had become very small was&nbsp;<a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.07010087.x">first reported in 1993</a>, when a study found that species being listed for protection had, on average, just 1,075 remaining individuals for vertebrate species, 999 remaining individuals for invertebrate species, and 120 remaining individuals for plant species.



In the new study, published in the journal PLoS ONE, the same methodology was used to determine whether the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has become more proactive in listing at-risk species during the roughly 30 years since attention was first drawn to the problem. The researchers also looked at trends in species’ “wait times” – the length of time between a species first being identified as needing protection and then actually receiving protected status under the ESA – and trends in funding for the listing and recovery of endangered species.



The results showed that, unfortunately, the population size of at-risk species at the time of listing has not changed significantly since the first analysis in 1993. It seems that we are still waiting until very few individuals are left before the species gets the legal protection it needs in order to avoid extinction. In addition, the time it takes for a species to become listed under the Act as needing protection remains consistently long. During this wait time the at-risk species inevitably slides inexorably closer to the abyss of extinction.&nbsp;



Add to this the fact that, while the number of species listed for protection increased by over 300 percent between 2010 and 2020, the funding available did not keep pace. In fact, the study found that funding has decreased since 1985 by nearly 50% per species. The authors note that insufficient funding has plagued the effectiveness of the Act for decades, irrespective of which political parties are in power in the White House and Congress.



“As the number of imperiled species – and the threats that they face – multiply, the unfortunate conclusion is that the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is being asked to do more with less resources,” said Eberhard.



“Increased funding is essential for sustained, substantial progress in protecting imperiled species. Studies have shown that government expenditures for imperiled species management do contribute to an improvement in recovery status and [have] averted extinctions," the study authors concluded.



This study presents a grim picture as the upcoming meeting of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity draws near. The meeting aims to finalize a framework that will guide conservation efforts around the world through 2030, and the authors hope leaders in the U.S. and across the world will learn from the poor success rate of the ESA and come up with better strategies to protect and conserve imperiled species across the globe.&nbsp;



The planet currently faces&nbsp;<a href="https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2019/03/26/endangered-species-matter/">accelerating rates of species extinction</a>, with a projected loss of&nbsp;<a href="https://ipbes.net/global-assessment">over one million species</a>&nbsp;in the foreseeable future; taking an approach that gives too little, too late, is no longer an option.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

U.S. Endangered Species Act may be too little, too late

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) provides a program for the...

Hand,Holding,Vegan,Sweet,Potato,Black,Bean,Burger,With,Kale

In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.surrey.ac.uk/">University of Surrey</a>, researchers set out to analyze changes in supermarket sales of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/replace-meat-with-seafood-for-a-healthier-planet/">meat</a> products and plant-based alternatives. The analysis revealed that the average weekly sales of plant-based foods increased by 57 percent, yet without a reduction in meat sales.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Efforts to reduce meat consumption have remained absent from the UK political agenda to date, but the need to shift to lower-meat diets is gaining traction in wider society. Veganuary, an annual campaign which encourages individuals to adopt a vegan diet for the month of January, is an example of a civil society initiative to support consumer diet change," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



The research was focused on UK supermarket sales during the "Veganuary" period in January 2021. The experts compared these figures to sales before and after the campaign.&nbsp;



"Our study suggests that while retail-led campaigns are driving increased sales of plant-based foods, we are not yet seeing meat replacement at scale, which is key to drive progress toward healthy, sustainable diets," said study lead author Joanna Trewern.



"Retailers have an important role to play in enabling the adoption of healthier, more sustainable consumer diets. It’s great to see them taking action, but more is needed to reduce our reliance on meat and dairy.”&nbsp;



The team found evidence that the retailer’s efforts to make plant-based products more affordable were effective, as the increase in plant-based food sales was the greatest in low-income areas and superstores.



Currently in the UK, individual meat consumption far exceeds the government's recommendations. The National Food Strategy has proposed a 30-percent reduction in meat consumption to support the nation's commitment of reaching Net Zero by 2050.



"For there to be any chance of meeting UK climate change targets, government, food companies, civil society, scientists, and health professionals need to work together urgently to implement action plans and policies that can deliver swift and sustained change," said Trewern.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/public-health-nutrition/article/does-promoting-plantbased-products-in-veganuary-lead-to-increased-sales-and-a-reduction-in-meat-sales-a-natural-experiment-in-a-supermarket-setting/CB44968AAD1E86856D01CA47A7BC884D">Public Health Nutrition</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant-based food sales do not always reduce meat sales

In a new study led by the University of Surrey,...

Japanese,Barberry.,Yellow,Flowers.,Berberis,Thunbergii.,Flowering,Of,Thunberg's,Barberry.

For several centuries scientists have noticed that, when a visiting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-insect-pollinated-plant/">insect</a>’s tongue touches the nectar-producing parts of certain flowers, the stamen containing the pollen snaps forward, deterring the insect from lingering longer. Now, a study led by the <a href="http://english.ccnu.edu.cn/">Central China Normal University</a> (CCNU) in Wuhan has found that this action increases the flowers’ reproductive success, while reducing the costs of insects lingering too long to feed on the flowers’ nectar.



“We tested three scenarios,” said study lead author Deng-Fei Li, a PhD student in Evolution and Ecology at CCNU. “These included whether snapping stamens help flowers by controlling how much pollen each insect takes, filtering out less proficient pollinators, or reducing the amount of nectar taken by each visitor.”



The scientists immobilized the stamen on the flowers of barberry bushes by dipping the flowers’ floral pedicels in an alcoholic solution for 35 to 45 minutes. This alcohol treatment did not seem to deter pollinators. Then, they compared the behavior of insects and the pollination success of flowers with mobile versus immobile stamens, and tracked how efficiently the insects transported the pollen to other flowers.



The analysis revealed that insects visiting flowers with immobilized stamens stayed 3.6 times longer and removed more nectar than those visiting flowers with mobile stamens. Nonetheless, these insects deposited two times fewer pollen grains for each flower visit. Moreover, insects deposited pollen from flowers with mobile stamens on three times more flowers, as well as on flowers further away, thus increasing the likelihood of the plants’ reproductive success.



“Our study helps resolve the mystery of the purpose of insect-triggered movement of flower parts that has troubled botanists since Linnaeus first observed mobile stamen in 1755,” concluded senior author Shuang-Quan Huang, a professor of Evolution and Ecology at CCNU. “We’ve shown that plants use rapidly moving stamens to enhance the turnover of bees and flies on their flowers, thereby reducing their nectar costs per successfully transported pollen grain.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.81449">eLife</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Insect-slapping flower stamens help maximize pollination

For several centuries scientists have noticed that, when a visiting...

Many developing countries currently face challenges that pit economic growth against environmental protection. As they expand their agricultural production, they often convert forests into croplands and pastures, thus weakening the world’s ability to prevent future climate deterioration and biodiversity loss.&nbsp;



For instance, Brazil’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/10-largest-rainforests/">rainforest</a> – the largest in the world, with an area of more than 1.2 million square miles - has been severely decimated over the past decades in order to increase agricultural production (particularly soybean, Brazil being the world’s largest exporter of this legume). However, according to a new longitudinal study led by the <a href="https://www.unl.edu/">University of Nebraska-Lincoln</a>, Brazil could in fact strengthen its agricultural sector while protecting the rainforest.&nbsp;



“In the current context of high grain prices and food supply disruptions, we believe there is a critical need for major crop-producing countries to reassess their potential to produce more on existing cropland,” the study authors explained. &nbsp;



“Without an emphasis on intensifying crop production within the existing agricultural area, coupled with strong institutions and policies that prevent deforestation in frontier agricultural areas, it would be difficult to protect the last bastions of forests and biodiversity on the planet while being sensitive to the economic aspirations of countries to develop.”



According to the researchers, with a carefully managed strategy to intensify production on existing acres, Brazil could increase its annual soybean output by 36 percent by 2035, while reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 58 percent. The scientists described a three-pronged “intensification strategy” which involves 1) significantly increasing soybean crop yields, 2) growing a second crop of corn on soybean fields in several areas, and 3) raising more cattle on smaller pastures in order to free up more land for soybean cultivation.



This strategy could “eliminate deforestation completely and essentially reduce the amount of carbon dioxide equivalents released into the atmosphere, helping to mitigate climate change,” as study senior author Patricio Grassini – an associate professor of Agriculture and Horticulture at Nebraska - put it. “This approach strengthens agriculture while protecting fragile ecosystems that are important from a perspective of climate change mitigation, as well as biodiversity conservation.”



However, achieving the dual goal of agricultural expansion and rainforest conservation will require strong institutions, as well as proper policy and enforcement to make sure that productivity gains effectively translate into forest preservation.



“By showing that it is possible to produce more on existing agricultural land, this research study is bringing real solutions to the table and can have a massive impact to help Brazil produce more while protecting the environment,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00968-8">Nature Sustainability</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Brazil could protect its rainforest while expanding agriculture

Many developing countries currently face challenges that pit economic growth...

Herbivorous insects eat leaves and can damage a plant’s ability to photosynthesize if enough leaves are eaten. This relationship goes back for as long as there have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ozone-pollution-threatens-the-health-of-plants-and-pollinators/">plants</a> and leaf-eating insects on Earth. According to new research led by scientists from the <a href="http://www.uwyo.edu/">University of Wyoming</a>, today’s insects are doing more damage to the forests than their ancient ancestors did.&nbsp;



The first-of-its-kind study compares the damage due to insect herbivory on modern-era plants with damage identified on fossilized leaves from as far back as the Late Cretaceous period, nearly 67 million years ago. The findings are published in the prestigious journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2202852119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



“Our work bridges the gap between those who use fossils to study plant-insect interactions over deep time and those who study such interactions in a modern context with fresh leaf material,” says lead researcher Lauren Azevedo-Schmidt. “The difference in insect damage between the modern era and the fossilized record is striking.”



The researchers examined fossilized leaves with evidence of insect feeding damage from the Late Cretaceous through the Pleistocene era, a little over 2 million years ago. The results were compared with leaves collected by Azevedo-Schmidt from three modern forests. The analysis considered three different types of damage caused by insects, and in all three categories the damage was more prevalent in modern leaves than in those from the fossil record. &nbsp;



“Our results demonstrate that plants in the modern era are experiencing unprecedented levels of insect damage, despite widespread insect declines,” wrote the scientists, who suggest that the disparity can be explained by human activity.



“We hypothesize that humans have influenced (insect) damage frequencies and diversities within modern forests, with the most human impact occurring after the Industrial Revolution. Consistent with this hypothesis, herbarium specimens from the early 2000s were 23 percent more likely to have insect damage than specimens collected in the early 1900s, a pattern that has been linked to climate warming.”



The authors state, however, that climate change doesn’t fully explain the increase in insect damage. They highlight the need for more research to determine the precise causes of increased insect damage to plants, but the scientists say a warming climate, urbanization and introduction of invasive species are all likely have had a major impact.



“This research suggests that the strength of human influence on plant-insect interactions is not controlled by climate change alone but, rather, the way in which humans interact with the terrestrial landscape,” the researchers concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Insect damage to plants is more severe now than ever before

Herbivorous insects eat leaves and can damage a plant’s ability...

Although we cannot see them without the aid of a microscope, bacteria are all around us, occurring at high densities in diverse habitats. Many bacterial species produce substances that kill other microbes as a way of gaining an ecological advantage in environments that support an array of competing bacterial and fungal species. These substances, once identified, often form the basis of our own antibiotic and antifungal medications that help to fight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-with-infections-are-less-able-to-adapt-and-survive/">infections</a> in our bodies and in our crop plants and livestock. In fact, most therapeutic antibiotics used today have been derived from soil bacteria belonging to the phylum Actinobacteria.



Unfortunately, our increasing dependence on antibiotics has resulted in widespread resistance to these medications which, according to the World Health Organization, represents one of the biggest threats to global health, food security, and development today. This has lead researchers to seek alternative new compounds with antifungal and antibiotic properties wherever possible.&nbsp;



In a new discovery, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mbio.02472-22">mBio</a>, the peer-reviewed, open access scientific journal published by the American Society for Microbiology, a multinational team of researchers from Europe report on one such compound that may have the potential to protect agricultural crops against fungal infections. The new antifungal antibiotic has been named solanimycin, and was initially isolated from a pathogenic bacterium that infects potatoes.&nbsp;



Solanimycin acts against a wide range of fungi known to infect and devastate agricultural crops, according to the researchers. In lab studies, the compound also acted against&nbsp;Candida albicans, a fungus that occurs naturally in the human body but that can also cause dangerous infections. The results suggest that solanimycin, and related compounds, could be useful in both agricultural and clinical settings.



The new discovery suggests that, instead of focusing on antibiotics produced by bacteria isolated from soil microbes, researchers seeking new compounds with antibiotic properties would do well to look more closely at plant-based microorganisms as potential sources. This is especially relevant as crops develop resistance to existing treatments, says microbiologist Rita Monson, Ph.D., from the University of Cambridge. She co-led the study with molecular microbiologist Miguel Matilla, Ph.D., at the Spanish Research Council’s Estación Experimental del Zaidín, in Granada.



“We have to look more expansively across much more of the microbial populations available to us,” Monson said.



The pathogenic potato bacterium&nbsp;Dickeya solani, which produces solanimycin, is not new to researchers. It was first identified more than 15 years ago in the lab of molecular microbiologist George Salmond, Ph.D., at the University of Cambridge. At that time, it was found to produce an antibiotic called oocydin A, which was highly effective against multiple fungal pathogens in plants. In the current study, Matilla, Monson, Salmond and colleagues followed a hunch that D. solani may be capable of producing other compounds with antifungal properties.&nbsp;



After genomic analysis of the bacterial DNA, they proceeded to silence those genes responsible for the production of oocydin A. Interestingly, they found that the bacterium continued to show antifungal activity under these conditions. That observation led to the identification of solanimycin and the identification of the gene clusters responsible for the proteins that make the compound.



The researchers found that the bacterium uses the compound sparingly, producing it in response to cell density. An acidic pH environment – as is present in a potato – also activates the solanimycin gene cluster. Monson said it almost looks like a clever protective mechanism.



“It’s an antifungal that we believe that will work by killing fungal competitors, and the bacteria benefit so much from this,” said Monson. “But you don’t turn it on unless you’re in a potato.”



Monson said the researchers have begun collaborating with chemists to learn more about the molecular structure of solanimycin and understand how it works. Then, she and Matilla said, they hope to see continued testing of the compound in plant and animal models.



“Our future steps are focused on trying to use this antibiotic antifungal for plant protection,” Matilla said. The research team see the discovery as an encouraging sign that plant pathogens – like&nbsp;D. solani – could be coaxed to make compounds that may be used against diseases in plants and people.



“We have to be open to the exploration of everything that’s out there to find new antibiotics,” Matilla said.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Antibiotic produced by potato pathogen offers new hope

Although we cannot see them without the aid of a...

Livestock production contributes an estimated 14.5 percent of greenhouse gas emissions, exacerbating global warming and leading to degraded ecosystems, as well as loss of biodiversity and water resources. According to a variety of recent studies, adopting a mainly <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/is-a-plant-based-diet-healthy/">plant-based diet</a> could be an important step towards solving these problems.



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has investigated what strategies are most effective in promoting such diets. Their analysis revealed that one way of promoting sustainable diets is to label food products with information about sustainability (eco-labeling), such as providing details of water and land usage and greenhouse emissions by using a traffic light system. Another effective strategy was found to be social nudging, which involved telling consumers that a particular product is the most popular choice.



The scientists enrolled a cohort of UK adults in order to form three groups. In each group the participants were shown a menu containing three different meal options – a beef burrito, a chicken burrito, and a vegetarian burrito – and asked to choose one option that they might like to eat in the future. 



The first group were shown the burrito options accompanied by an eco-label showing the sustainability level of each meal in a traffic light system (beef burrito – red, or unsustainable, chicken burrito – amber, or neither sustainable nor unsustainable, and vegetarian burrito – green, or sustainable). Group two were shown the vegetarian burrito accompanied by a popularity label consisting of a gold star next to the works “Most Popular,” and group three (the control group) were shown neither the eco-label nor the social nudge.



The researchers discovered that both the eco-label and the social nudge were highly effective at influencing the choice of the most sustainable option, with the eco-label being the most effective between the two in promoting sustainable choices. Moreover, participants with a higher motivation to act sustainably were more likely to choose the vegetarian burrito.



These findings suggest that future policy should include eco-labeling and/or social nudges to reduce meat consumption and mitigate global warming. “Consumer choices could further benefit from more information about their meal, via a mandatory eco-label, being presented on packaging. A regulated traffic light eco-label, similar to standardized nutritional information on food packaging, would facilitate more sustainable choices and decrease customer confusion,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2022.27">Behavioral Public Policy</a>.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Eco-labeling promotes sustainable food choices

Livestock production contributes an estimated 14.5 percent of greenhouse gas...

View,From,Above,Of,Dense,Pine,Forest,With,Canopies,Of

Attempting to decipher all the factors that influence the behavior of complex ecological communities can be a very difficult task. However, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has discovered that the behavior of these ecosystems can be predicted based on solely two pieces of information – the number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-native-species-can-have-unexpected-benefits/">species</a> in the community and how strongly they interact with one another.



The dynamics of natural ecosystems are notoriously difficult to study. Scientists can make observations about how species interact with one another, but they generally cannot perform controlled experiments in the wild. This led the MIT researchers to use microbes such as bacteria and yeast to analyze interspecies interactions in a controlled way, hoping to learn more about how natural ecosystems behave.



By creating communities ranging from two to 48 species of bacteria, controlling the number of species by forming different synthetic communities with different sets of species, and strengthening the interactions between the species by increasing the amount of food available, the scientists were able to define three phases of ecological communities and calculate the necessary conditions for them to move from one state to another.&nbsp;



Initially, each ecological community existed in a phase called “stable full existence,” with all species coexisting without interfering with one another. However, as either the number of the species or interactions among them increased, the communities entered a new phase called “stable partial coexistence” in which populations remain stable, but some of the species become extinct. Finally, as the number of species or strength of interactions further increased, the communities entered a third phase, featuring more dramatic fluctuations in population. In this stage, ecosystems became unstable, and populations persistently fluctuated over time.



“While we cannot access all biological mechanisms and parameters in a complex ecosystem,&nbsp;we demonstrate that&nbsp;its diversity and dynamics may be emergent phenomena that can be predicted from just a few aggregate properties of the ecological community: species pool size and&nbsp;statistics of interspecies interactions,” said study lead author Jiliang Hu, an engineer at MIT.



These findings could help ecologists make predictions about what might be happening in complex ecosystems such as forests, even with little information available, since all they need to know is the number of species and their degree of interaction.



“We can make predictions or statements about what the community is going to do, even in the absence of detailed knowledge of what’s going on. We don’t even know which species are helping or hurting which other species. These predictions are based purely on the statistical distribution of the interactions within this complex community,” concluded senior author Jeff Gore, an MIT physicist.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abm7841">Science</a>.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ecosystem stability can be predicted by species interactions

Attempting to decipher all the factors that influence the behavior...

Marine heatwaves helped invasive algae wipe out a native underwater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-forests-are-losing-their-capacity-to-trap-carbon/">kelp</a> forest in Mexico, with potentially dramatic effects for the entire ecosystem, according to a new study published by <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/?lang=en">De Gruyter</a>.



The waters of the Todos Santos Islands in Mexico are usually dominated by the giant kelp species Macrocystis pyrifera. However, an unusually long period of heat known as the "warm blob" - which affected the Pacific coast of North America from 2013 to 2016 - shifted the location and population of several marine species.



“Those of us who have dived there before noticed the dramatic community change,” said study co-author Dr. Luis Malpica-Cruz.



Between 2018 and 2019, the researchers assessed the density of the invasive species at a rocky reef to see how the community had changed. The results showed that native kelp suffered greatly. M. pyrifera went from an average of 0.7 individuals per square meter in 2018 to zero in 2019.&nbsp;



The study also revealed a threefold increase of the invasive macroalgae species Sargassum horneri and kelp species Undaria pinnatifida. The research team was shocked at their discovery.&nbsp;



"We looked at other local sites that witnessed M. pyrifera loss and saw other native species had taken its place. But the Todos Santos site had a completely different kelp ecosystem.” said Malpica-Cruz.



It is suspected that the "warm blob" marine heatwave held back the native species and allowed invasive species to thrive. This ecosystem alteration could be a sign of wider changes. The dramatic loss of M. pyrifera is likely to affect other algae, invertebrates and fish further up the food chain.&nbsp;



The kelp may have regained territory in other locations, but this was not the case in the Todos Santos Islands, where invasive species took over. Given the short period of this shift, within only one year, it is doubtful that the native species will return.&nbsp;



“There is hope that not all M. pyrifera kelp forest will be lost. However in those forests that do change it is uncertain how the community will ultimately be impacted," said Malpica-Cruz.



The experts plan to continue studying the invasive species to help design strategies to manage invasive kelp during future marine heatwaves.



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/bot-2022-0037">Botanica Marina</a>.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

"Warm blob" helped invasive algae wipe out kelp forest

Marine heatwaves helped invasive algae wipe out a native underwater...

Individuals who consume <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-processed-foods-can-make-you-feel-mentally-unwell/">foods</a> high in omega-3 fatty acids during midlife may have superior thinking ability compared to those who do not, according to a recent study published in an online issue of <a href="http://www.neurology.org/">Neurology®</a>, the medical journal of the <a href="https://www.aan.com/">American Academy of Neurology</a>. Omega-3 fatty acids may also lead to better brain structure.&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Improving our diet is one way to promote our brain health," explained study co-author Dr. Claudia L. Satizabal of the University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. "If people could improve their cognitive resilience and potentially ward off dementia with some simple changes to their diet, that could have a large impact on public health."



"Even better, our study suggests that even modest consumption of omega-3 may be enough to preserve brain function. This is in line with the current American Heart Association dietary guidelines to consume at least two servings of fish per week to improve cardiovascular health."



The researchers conducted a cross-sectional study of 2,183 participants with an average age of 46. The experts measured levels of omega-3 fatty acids, performed brain scans, and tested thinking skills. The participants had no history of stroke and had not been diagnosed with dementia.



Omega-3 fatty acids are found in several types of fish, fortified foods, and supplements. According to the researchers, an ideal level of omega-3 fatty acids is 8 percent of all fatty acids. The researchers broke the participants into two groups. The "low" group had an average of 3.4 percent, and the "high" group had an average of 5.2 percent.&nbsp;



The study authors found that those with higher average levels of omega-3 were better at abstract reasoning and had a larger hippocampus - the part of the brain essential for memory.&nbsp;



"These results need to be confirmed with additional research, but it's exciting that omega-3 levels could play a role in improving cognitive resilience, even in middle-aged people," said Dr. Satizabal.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Omega-3 fatty acids may provide superior cognitive ability in midlife

Individuals who consume foods high in omega-3 fatty acids during...

A,Powerful,Whirlpool,Is,Generated,At,The,Surface,Of,The

Subtropical gyres are massive rotating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-making-the-ocean-more-acidic/">ocean</a> currents which generate sustained circulations in the Earth’s subtropical regions to the north and south of the equator. These gyres are slow-moving whirlpools, circulating within large basins around the world, and gathering up nutrients, organisms, and sometimes even trash, as the currents rotate from coast to coast. At their surface, the gyres host healthy populations of phytoplankton – microorganisms that feed the rest of the ocean trophic chain, and are responsible for extracting a significant proportion of atmospheric carbon dioxide.



However, the currents themselves would not be able to maintain enough nutrients to sustain all the phytoplankton. Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) has found that phytoplankton may receive deliveries of nutrients from outside the gyres through eddies – much smaller currents that swirl at the edges of gyres. These eddies pull nutrients in from equatorial regions and push them into the centers of gyres, where they are taken up by other currents and pumped to the surface to feed the phytoplankton.



According to the scientists, ocean eddies are a major source of nutrients in subtropical gyres. Their replenishing effect – called “nutrient relay” – helps maintain vast populations of phytoplankton, which play a fundamental role in carbon sequestration. While current climate models project a decline in the ocean’s ability to sequester carbon during the following decades, this “nutrient relay” could help sustain carbon storage in the subtropical oceans.



“There’s a lot of uncertainty about how the carbon cycle of the ocean will evolve as climate continues to change,” said study lead author Mukund Gupta, a postdoctoral fellow in Environmental Science and Engineering at the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/">California Institute of Technology</a> (Caltech), who led the study as a graduate student at MIT. “As our paper shows, getting the carbon distribution right is not straightforward, and depends on understanding the role of eddies and other fine-scale motions in the ocean.”



Although scientists have previously thought that nutrient replenishment occurs largely through the recycling of “marine snow” – dead phytoplankton that sinks through the ocean’s layers and is subsequently pumped back to the surface to feed living phytoplankton – these findings paint a more complex picture of how nutrient travels through subtropical gyres.



“The vertical process that recycles nutrients from marine snow is only half the story. The other half is the replenishing effect of these eddies. As subtropical gyres contribute a significant part of the world’s oceans, we think this nutrient relay is of global importance,” Dr. Gupta concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2206504119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Small eddies play a big role in nutrient cycling

Subtropical gyres are massive rotating ocean currents which generate sustained...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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