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By focusing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root systems</a>, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods.



For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">draw carbon dioxide</a> out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-game-changing-ai-tool-that-creates-plants">SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants</h2>



Talmo Pereira and Professor <a href="https://www.salk.edu/scientist/wolfgang-busch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Busch</a> from Salk’s <a href="https://www.salk.edu/harnessing-plants-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harnessing Plants Initiative</a> have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI software initially designed for tracking animal movement, to the study of plants. 



Their research introduces a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41592-022-01426-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new protocol</a> for using SLEAP to analyze plant root phenotypes, such as depth, width, and mass.



"This collaboration is truly a testament to what makes Salk science so special and impactful," says Pereira. "We're not just 'borrowing' from different disciplines -- we're really putting them on equal footing in order to create something greater than the sum of its parts."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-streamlining-plant-analysis-with-ai">Streamlining plant analysis with AI</h2>



Prior to SLEAP, analyzing plant and animal characteristics was a labor-intensive process that slowed scientific progress. 



Researchers had to manually flag parts of images frame-by-frame, part-by-part, and pixel-by-pixel before older AI models could process the data.



SLEAP's unique combination of computer vision and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-help-save-mangrove-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep learning</a> allows researchers to skip this intermediary step, jumping straight from image input to defined plant features. 



This approach significantly reduces analysis time and human error while emphasizing accessibility and ease of use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-roots-digging-deep-into-plant-biology">sleap-roots: Digging deep into plant biology</h2>



The Salk team developed sleap-roots, a downloadable toolkit for SLEAP that enables the software to process biological traits of root systems, such as depth, mass, and angle of growth. 



The toolkit, available as open-source software, was tested on various plants, including soybeans, rice, canola, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis thaliana</a>.



"We created a robust protocol validated in multiple plant types that cuts down on analysis time and human error, while emphasizing accessibility and ease-of-use -- and it required no changes to the actual SLEAP software," says Elizabeth Berrigan, a bioinformatics analyst in Busch's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-secrets-of-climate-saving-plants">Deciphering the secrets of climate-saving plants</h2>



By connecting phenotypic data, such as a plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep root system</a>, with genotype data obtained through genome sequencing efforts, researchers can identify the genes responsible for creating desirable traits. 



This step is crucial in Salk's mission to create plants with AI that hold on to more carbon for longer periods, as these plants will require root systems designed to be deeper and more robust.



"We have already been able to create the most extensive catalogue of plant root system phenotypes to date, which is really accelerating our research to create carbon-capturing plants that fight climate change," says Busch, the Hess Chair in <a href="https://pbio.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Science at Salk</a>. 



"SLEAP has been so easy to apply and use, thanks to Talmo's professional software design, and it's going to be an indispensable tool in my lab moving forward," Busch concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-hidden-world-of-plant-root-systems">Understanding the hidden world of plant root systems</h2>



To further clarify, plant root systems are intricate networks of roots that play a crucial role in anchoring plants to the soil, absorbing water and nutrients, and storing essential compounds. 



There are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">two main types of root systems</a> exist in plants: taproot systems and fibrous root systems. 



<ul>
<li>Taproot systems feature a single, dominant root that grows vertically downward, with smaller lateral roots branching off from it. </li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Fibrous root systems, on the other hand, consist of numerous small roots that grow outward from the base of the plant, forming a dense network.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Functions of root systems</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-follow-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Root systems</a> perform several critical functions for plants:



<ul>
<li>Anchoring: Roots secure plants to the soil, providing stability and preventing them from toppling over.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Absorption: Fine root hairs absorb water and dissolved nutrients from the soil, which are then transported to the rest of the plant.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Storage: Some plants, such as carrots and beets, use their roots to store carbohydrates and other essential compounds.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Factors influencing root growth</h3>



Several factors influence the growth and development of plant root systems:



<ul>
<li>Soil type: Different soil types, such as sandy, loamy, or clay soils, affect root growth and distribution.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Water availability: Plants adapt their root systems in response to water availability, with some species growing deeper roots to access water in times of drought.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Nutrient availability: The presence or absence of essential nutrients in the soil can impact root growth and architecture.</li>
</ul>



Healthy root systems are essential for overall plant health and productivity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Well-developed roots</a> enable plants to efficiently absorb water and nutrients, leading to stronger growth and increased resilience to stresses such as drought or disease. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-climate-saving-plants">AI and the future of climate-saving plants</h2>



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots have the potential to revolutionize plant research worldwide. The Salk team has already begun discussions with NASA scientists hoping to utilize the tool to guide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon-sequestering plants</a> on Earth and to study plants in space.



In summary, the Salk Institute's pioneering research in plant-based carbon capture, powered by the innovative SLEAP software and sleap-roots toolkit, paves the way for a greener future. 



As scientists continue to refine and expand these tools, they accelerate the development of climate-saving plants with optimized root systems capable of storing more carbon for longer periods. 



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots invite researchers worldwide to join the fight against climate change, fostering global collaboration and innovation. 



With the Harnessing Plants Initiative at the forefront, Salk scientists are rooting for change, digging deep into plant biology, and branching out to make a lasting impact on our planet's future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/plantphenomics.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Phenomics</a>.



-----



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AI is creating new plants that can help fight climate change

By focusing on root systems, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods. For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to draw carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants Talmo Pereira and Professor Wolfgang Busch from Salk’s Harnessing Plants Initiative have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI...

Over millions of years, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-vanishing-biodiversity-hotspots/">plants</a> and animals have evolved complex immune systems to protect from disease-causing pathogens. However, plants do not have the adaptive immune system of many animals that can recognize dangerous substances that have already attacked, Plant cells, therefore, have to work harder to defend themselves against all potential pathogens.

Every plant cell contains a collection of proteins that are encoded by disease resistance genes. When harmful invaders are detected in the environment, these proteins are activated to coordinate their defense.

A team of experts at <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> has now discovered how plant resistance proteins trigger localized cell death. This finding could ultimately lead to new strategies for developing disease-resistant crops.

The team managed to pinpoint the mechanism used by an intracellular signaling domain of plant resistance proteins called the toll-interleukin-1 receptor, or the TIR domain. The study revealed that during the plant immune response, the TIR domain degrades a molecule called NAD+. Because this molecule is essential for metabolism in all organisms, the severing of NAD+ destroys infected cells.

In 2017, experts at Washington University School of Medicine observed an unusual animal TIR domain, found in a protein called SARM1, that functioned as an enzyme. This contradicted the previous theory that TIR domains act like physical scaffolds, building a structure that attaches to the cell's plasma membrane and recruiting other proteins to initiate an immune response.

In the current study, the team set out to investigate whether the TIR domain could have a similar function in plant immunity.

The researchers discovered that the plant TIR domain is itself an enzyme that cleaves NAD+, rather than acting as a structural scaffold. However, while the animal TIR domain in SARM1 kills cells by depleting NAD+ levels, plant TIR domains appear to split NAD+ to generate a signaling molecule that is not seen in animal cells. The scientists are now working to understand how this signaling molecule influences cell death and disease resistance.

"For 25 years, we didn't know what TIR domains did in plants," said study lead author Professor Marc Nishimura. "So these results were very interesting in terms of advancing our understanding of how TIR domains actually trigger immunity."

According to Professor Nishimura, uncovering individual biochemical pathways in the plant immune response may be crucially important to how plant systems are manipulated to protect food crops, particularly as new pathogens emerge and global food supplies become vulnerable.

"Hopefully, really mechanistically understanding immune receptors will help us transfer existing receptors while retaining function, and ultimately let us rationally engineer new receptors to recognize emerging pathogens."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Barbol

Scientists pinpoint a crucial new aspect of plant immune response

Over millions of years, plants and animals have evolved complex...

Plants breathe in carbon dioxide through tiny pores in their leaves called stomata and expel oxygen as part of the photosynthesis process. 

Now, researchers have discovered how stomata provide a steady flow of air throughout the plant’s network of air channels, revealing a closer look at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deeper-look-plants-breathe/">how plants breathe</a>. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.sheffield.ac.uk/sustainable-food">University of Sheffield’s Institute for Sustainable Food</a> led the study, which was published in the journal Nature Communications. 

Stomata were first described in the 19th century, but how these pores carried CO2 throughout entire plant has remained a mystery.

“Until now, the way plants form their intricate patterns of air channels has remained surprisingly mysterious to plant scientists,” said Andrew Fleming, a member of the research team. “This major discovery shows that the movement of air through leaves shapes their internal workings - which has implications for the way we think about evolution in plants.” 

The researchers used X-ray imaging to create a 3D model of a plant leaf’s cellular structure. This showed up close how the formation and placement of the stomata drive airflow to the cells. 

A complex network of air spaces and stomata allow the exchange of airflow and expansion of air spaces. These air channels serve as the lungs of the leaf. 

[caption id="attachment_1874496" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/wheat-leaf.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1874496" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/wheat-leaf.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="134" /></a> Confocal overview of a TaEPF1 OE wheat leaf showing epidermal layer (purple), subtending mesophyll cells (green), a stomate (St), Image Credit: University of Sheffield[/caption]

The researchers also found that how CO2 moves through the stomata determine the shape and size of the air spaces. 

“Scientists have suspected for a long time that the development of stomata and the development of air spaces within a leaf are coordinated,” said Dr. Marjorie Lundgren, an author of the study. “However, we weren’t really sure which drove the other. So this started as a ‘what came first, the chicken or the egg?’ question. While we show that the development of stomata initiates the expansion of air spaces, we took it one step further to show that the stomata actually need to be exchanging gases in order for the air spaces to expand.”

Plants that have fewer stomata require less water, and this could help develop drought-resistant plants in a future where food security is uncertain due to climate change. 

“The fact that humans have already inadvertently influenced the way plants breathe by breeding wheat that uses less water suggests we could target these air channel networks to develop crops that can survive the more extreme droughts we expect to see with climate breakdown,” said Flemming. 

--

By<a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com"> Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Smileus

Understanding how plants breathe could help create drought resistant crops

Plants breathe in carbon dioxide through tiny pores in their...

A new study found that eating garlic can combat age-related changes in gut bacteria that are associated with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/moving-older-adults-preserve-memory/">memory issues</a>. These health benefits come from a compound in garlic called allyl sulfide.

"Our findings suggest that dietary administration of garlic containing allyl sulfide could help maintain healthy gut microorganisms and improve cognitive health in the elderly," said co-lead researcher Jyotirmaya Behera, PhD, from the <a href="http://louisville.edu/">University of Louisville</a>.

The team set out to better understand how the gut microbiota — that being the collective term for the trillions of gut microorganisms — changes with age and how it may be linked to other age-related health issues.

"The diversity of the gut microbiota is diminished in elderly people, a life stage when neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's develop and memory and cognitive abilities can decline," said co-author Neetu Tyagi, PhD, also from the University of Louisville. "We want to better understand how changes in the gut microbiota relate to aging-associated cognitive decline."

Behera, Tyagi, and their team fed allyl sulfide to 24-month-old mice, which correlates to humans aged 56 to 69. These mice were compared to controlled 4-month- and 24-month-old mice who were not taking oral allyl sulfide.

The older mice taking allyl sulfide showed better short- and long-term memory, spatial memory, and overall gut health than the older mice not taking the allyl sulfide.

Researchers found via further experimentation that reduced gene expression of neuronal-derived natriuretic factor (NDNF) in the brains of older mice not taking allyl sulfide is to blame for their cognitive decline. Mice who were consuming allyl sulfide showed higher levels of NDNF gene expression. NDNF was just recently discovered by scientists at the University of Louisville and is pertinent to long-term and short-term memory consolidation.

Furthermore, the team found that when mice were fed allyl sulfide, hydrogen sulfide gas was produced in the gut lumen. This gas acts as a messenger molecule that prevents intestinal inflammation. Therefore, the researchers believe that by restoring gut health, the allyl sulfide in garlic promotes memory consolidation.

More experimentation is needed to better understand gut health and memory, however this new information could potentially lead to garlic being used as a memory treatment within the aging human population.

These findings will be shared at the <a href="http://www.the-aps.org/">American Physiological Society</a> annual meeting during the <a href="https://experimentalbiology.org/2019/home.aspx">2019 Experimental Biology meeting</a>, which runs from April 6th to April 9th in Orlando, Florida.

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Garlic can enhance memory by improving gut health

A new study found that eating garlic can combat age-related...

Sunflower pollen protects bees from infection A new study led by <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has revealed that sunflower pollen makes bees less susceptible to infection and disease. The researchers found that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/save-native-bees/">bees</a> had dramatically lower rates of infection by specific pathogens when they were fed a diet of sunflower pollen. 

In bumble bees, sunflower pollen was found to reduce infection by a particular pathogen, Crithidia bombi. Sunflower pollen protected European honey bees from a different pathogen, Nosema ceranae. Both pathogens have been shown to stunt the growth of bee colonies by increasing the rate of fatalities.

Honey bees, however, were also negatively impacted by the sunflower pollen diet. These bees had mortality rates roughly equivalent to honey bees not fed a pollen diet, and death rates four times higher than honey bees fed buckwheat pollen. 

This mortality effect was not observed in bumble bees. In fact, bumble bees showed improved colony health when fed the sunflower pollen compared to pollen from other flowers. 

Study co-author Jonathan Giacomini said that bees already seem to be skilled at collecting sunflower pollen. According to Giacomini, around two million acres in the United States and 10 million acres in Europe are devoted to sunflowers annually. Sunflower pollen protects bees from infection

“We've tried other monofloral pollens, or pollens coming from one flower, but we seem to have hit the jackpot with sunflower pollen,” said co-senior author Professor Rebecca Irwin. “None of the others we've studied have had this consistent positive effect on bumble bee health.”

Professor Irwin explained that sunflower pollen should not be considered as a standalone meal for bee populations because it is low in protein and some amino acids. She said that sunflower could be a good addition to a diverse wildflower population for bees, particularly bumble bees and honey bees.

“We don't know if sunflower pollen is helping the host bees fight off pathogens or if sunflower pollen does something to the pathogens,” said Professor Irwin. The NC State team plans to analyze this in further detail, and will also investigate whether other species of bees show any positive effects from sunflower pollen.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/scientificreports">Scientific Reports</a> .

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Jonathan Giacomini, NC State University

Sunflower pollen protects bees from infection

Sunflower pollen protects bees from infection A new study led...

Just a glance at the prickly, outward appearance of a <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/prickly-pear-cactus-hazmat-suits/">cactus</a> is enough for us to get the message: “get away.” Those menacing spines are not something any person or animal wants to tangle with, and for good reason. A recent study published in <a href="http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a> details the biomechanics of these prickly, puncturing plants and how their spine structure influences their effectiveness.

The jumping cholla (Cylindropuntia fulgida) is one of the six species analyzed by <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> postdoctoral research Stephanie Crofts and animal biology professor Philip Anderson. This specific cactus has barbed spines that stick within flesh so tightly, a segment of the cactus often breaks off and grips to its unsuspecting victim. 

The other species evaluated were the Echinocactus grusonii, the golden barrel cactus; Opuntia fragilis, also called the brittle prickly pear; Pereskia grandiflora, the rose cactus; Echinopsis terscheckii, or the Argentine saguaro; and Opuntia polyacantha, the plains prickly pear. “We’re looking at the fundamental mechanics of a puncture event and how differences in cactus spines – in particular their microstructure – affect how they puncture and anchor into whatever they’re puncturing,” explains Crofts.

In their assessment of each cactus, the researchers tested the spines in skinless chicken breasts, pork shoulders with skin, and synthetic elastomers of varying densities. They measured the amount of force needed to puncture and withdraw the spines from each material. “Before we started the experiments, we looked at the spines under a scanning electron microscope,” says Crofts. “The barbed spines – like those on the cholla – looked incredibly similar to porcupine quills studied by other groups.”

[caption id="attachment_1862138" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/catctus.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1862138" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/catctus-1024x683.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="467" /></a> Image Credit: John Trager[/caption]

It turns out that these cactus spines have a shingled appearance due to overlapping layers of barbs – a similar characteristic to porcupine quills. Both spines are also the exact right size to catch onto animal muscle fibers. The researchers discovered that spines with barbs more easily penetrated their targets and required less force to do so than their barbless counterparts. They were also more difficult to remove after they had punctured the animal tissue.

Analysis of each spine type determined significant differences in performance between the plant species. The researchers found that O. polyacantha “required significantly more work to withdraw from the chicken than any other species,” while cholla spines were more difficult to pull from pig tissue. 

While cactus spines provide a variety of functions to the plants they protect – such as providing shade and collecting water from fog – cholla spines serve a reproductive purpose as well. Through their ability to latch onto any animal that brushes by them, the spines help the plant distribute pieces of itself to surrounding areas – proving that cactus spines provide more than just a pointy face.

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: L. Brian Stauffer

The pointy spines of a cactus provide more than just a menacing look

Just a glance at the prickly, outward appearance of a...

Fruits and vegetables linked to lower risk of memory loss in men. A new study published by the <a href="https://www.aan.com/">American Academy of Neurology</a> has revealed that orange and red vegetables, berry fruits, orange juice, and leafy greens all contribute to a lower risk of memory loss among men.

“One of the most important factors in this study is that we were able to research and track such a large group of men over a 20-year period of time, allowing for very telling results,” said study co-author Changzheng Yuan. “Our studies provide further evidence dietary choices can be important to maintain your brain health.”

The investigation was focused on 27,842 male health professionals with an average age of 51. Over two decades, the men reported every four years on how many servings of fruits, vegetables, and other foods they had each day.

At least four years before the end of the study, the participants were also tested for thinking and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/stress-affecting-memory/">memory skills</a> using an evaluation that was designed to detect subtle changes that would likely go unnoticed in objective cognitive tests. Any reported changes in memory would be considered precursors to mild cognitive impairment.

Overall, 55 percent of the men had good thinking and memory skills, 38 percent had moderate skills, and 7 percent had poor thinking and memory skills.

The participants were divided into five groups based on their fruit and vegetable consumption. The highest consumption rate of vegetables was about six servings per day, compared to two servings for the lowest. The top group ate about three servings of fruit per day, compared to the lowest rate of half a serving each day.

The study revealed that men who consumed the most vegetables were 34 percent less likely to develop poor thinking skills compared to the group that ate the least vegetables. In addition, men who drank orange juice every day were 47 percent less likely to develop poor thinking skills.

The experts also found that men who ate larger amounts of fruits and vegetables 20 years earlier were less likely to develop cognitive issues, regardless of whether they continued to do so up until the testing took place 16 years later.

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.neurology.org/">Neurology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fruits and vegetables linked to lower risk of memory loss in men

Fruits and vegetables linked to lower risk of memory loss...

Experts are reevaluating the oldest known use of vanilla after finding three jugs in an Israeli tomb that dates back around 3,600 years to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/europeans-making-cheese-7000-years/">Bronze Age</a>. Prior to this discovery, the use of vanilla was believed to have originated in Mexico about 1,000 years ago.

According to archaeologist Vanessa Linares of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> in Israel, the jugs were found to contain traces of two chemical compounds in natural vanilla extract - vanillin and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde. Various chemical analyses also detected residues of plant oils, including a compound found in olive oil.

“Bronze Age people at Megiddo may have used vanillin-infused oils as additives for foods and medicines, for ritual purposes or possibly even in the embalming of the dead,” Linares told <a href="https://www.sciencenews.org/">Science News</a>.  

Linares explained that the chemical profile of the vanillin best matches vanilla orchid species that are found today in East Africa, India, and Indonesia. Trade routes used during the Bronze Age likely facilitated the movement of vanillin from India or East Africa to the Middle East. 

Linares described the study findings at the annual meeting of <a href="http://www.asor.org/">American Schools of Oriental Research</a> on November 16 in Denver.

In the presentation, she explained: “Until now it has been commonly accepted that vanilla was domesticated in the New World and subsequently spread to other parts of the globe.”

“Once all possibilities of contamination were ruled out, a post-organic residue analysis investigation of various species within the plant kingdom from which these principle compounds could have been exploited was conducted.”

“These results shed new light on the first known exploitation of vanilla, local uses, significance in mortuary practices, and possible long-distance trade networks in the ancient Near East during the second millennium BC.”
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Human were using vanilla 3,600 years ago, new fossils reveal

Experts are reevaluating the oldest known use of vanilla after...

Climate change could bring an end to the truffle industry. Truffles are a delicacy prized for their unique, musky flavor. But due to their limited growing season, difficulty to cultivate, and rare qualities, truffles are also very expensive. 

Some truffles can cost upwards of $1,500 per pound and the truffle industry is worth millions.

Reports suggest that the truffle industry could soon be worth 4.5 billion UK pounds over the next ten to twenty years, but a new study projects a much grimmer outlook for the world’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/market-mushrooms-truffles/">most prized mushroom. </a>

A new study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.stir.ac.uk/">University of Stirling</a> predicts that the truffle industry could all but disappear due to climate change in the next 50 years. 

Climate change will make for hostile conditions for truffles with temperatures expected to increase along with droughts and precipitation expected to decrease. 

If European truffle production is wiped out by climate change, the researchers say it will have a major economic impact. 

“We risk losing an industry worth hundreds of millions of pounds to the economy,” said Paul Thomas, the leader of the study which was published in the journal Science of the Total Environment. “However, the socio-economic impact of the predicted decline could be substantially larger as truffle harvesting, and related activities form a key component of local history and cultural activity.” 

Truffle production could drop by 78 to 100 percent by 2100, according to Thomas. 

“However, the decline may well occur in advance of this date, when other climate change factors are taken into account, such as heatwaves, forest fires, drought events, pests, and disease,” said Thomas.

For the study, the researchers reviewed 36 years of truffle yield records and weather data from France, Spain, and Italy. By comparing yields and weather data, the researchers were able to understand better how climate impacts truffle growth and harvest. 

Next, the researchers used the data to create climate model projections for the future and found climate change could severely decline truffle production in Europe. 

“This is a wake-up call to the impacts of climate change in the not-too-distant future,” said Thomas. “These findings indicate that conservational initiatives are required to afford some protection to this important and iconic species. Potential action could include the expansion of truffle plantations into new territories of a more favorable future climate.”

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>

Climate change could bring an end to the truffle industry

Climate change could bring an end to the truffle industry....

A new study has found that plants in the Arctic have been growing taller and taller through the years due to climate change-driven increases in soil moisture and temperature. 

The Arctic contains a vast flora of shrubs, grasses, and wildflowers and these plants play an important role in the region’s carbon cycle. 

Much attention has been paid to the Arctic with a heavy focus on sea ice retreat, but researchers from the <a href="https://www.ed.ac.uk/">University if Edinborough</a> recently led a thorough study, the first of its kind, of native Arctic plants. 

The researchers' findings, published in the journal Nature Today, show that plants in the Arctic have been growing taller across the tundra over the past 30 years and spreading into new areas all because of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/national-parks-climate-change/">climate change</a>.

“Quantifying the link between environment and plant traits is critical to understanding the consequences of climate change, but such research has rarely extended into the Northern hemisphere, home to the planet's coldest tundra ecosystems,” said Isla Myers-Smith, a member of the research team. “This is the first time that a biome-scale study has been carried out to get to the root of the critical role that plants play in this rapidly-warming part of the planet.”

A team of 130 scientists collaborated on the study, and the researchers analyzed data from over 60,000 observations across hundreds of sites in the Arctic and alpine tundra.

The researchers studied relationships between temperature, soil moisture, and plant form and tracked plant height in the different sites. 

Of all the different plant factors, traits and environmental changes that the researchers analyzed, only plant height increased over time and these changes were driven by increases in both soil moisture and temperature. 

“Rapid climate warming in the Arctic and alpine regions is driving changes in the structure and composition of plant communities, with important consequences for how this vast and sensitive ecosystem functions,” said Anne Bjorkman who helped pioneer the Arctic plant research.

The changes don’t appear to be slowing down and Bjorkman predicted that plant height in the tundra could increase by 20 to 60 percent by the end of the century. 

The results of the study are especially concerning because much of the world’s carbon is stored in permafrost in the Arctic, and if the permafrost melts it could release huge quantities of carbon into the atmosphere. 

“Shorter plants trap more snow, which insulates the underlying soil and prevents it from freezing as quickly in winter,” said Bjorkman “An increase in taller plants could speed up the thawing of this frozen carbon bank, and lead to an increase in the release of greenhouse gases.”

Further research is needed to better understand how soil moisture levels are changing in the Arctic as this has such a huge influence on plant growth. 

“This research is a vital step in improving our understanding of how Arctic and alpine vegetation is responding to climate change,” said Helen Beadman, a member of the <a href="https://nerc.ukri.org/">Natural Environment Research Council</a> which funded the new study. “Shrub growth and expansion could have a profound impact not only on the Arctic ecosystem, but also further afield if it results in an increase in the release of greenhouse gases.”

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By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Image Credit: Anne D Bjorkman

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Plants in the Arctic are growing taller due to climate change

A new study has found that plants in the Arctic...

The calming effect of lavender could help treat anxiety, study finds. A new study has demonstrated for the first time that the calming effect of lavender is produced by smelling, and not by inhaling, the fragrant compound linalool. The research suggests that linalool could be a safer alternative to current anxiolytic drugs such as benzodiazepines, which are used to treat <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/depression-anxiety-heart-attack/">anxiety</a>.

Study co-author Dr. Hideki Kashiwadani is an expert in Neurobiology and Brain Physiology at <a href="https://www.kagoshima-u.ac.jp/en/">Kagoshima University</a> in Japan.

“In folk medicine, it has long been believed that odorous compounds derived from plant extracts can relieve anxiety,” said Dr. Kashiwadani. 

The findings of the research add to a growing collection of evidence that linalool, a scented alcohol found in lavender extracts, produces strong relaxing effects. However, according to Dr. Kashiwadani, previous investigations have failed to address the specific site where this biochemical reaction may take place. 

Many experts have speculated that linalool is absorbed through inhalation into the bloodstream, where it directly influences brain cell receptors called GABAA receptors (GABAARs). These receptors are also the target of benzodiazepines. 

Pinpointing the true mechanism that underlies the calming effects of linalool is a critical step in developing clinical treatments for humans. The research team designed a trial involving mice to investigate whether the smell of linalool, and the subsequent stimulation of olfactory neurons, may be responsible for the relaxation associated with the compound.

“We observed the behavior of mice exposed to linalool vapor, to determine its anxiolytic effects,” said Dr. Kashiwada. “As in previous studies, we found that linalool odor has an anxiolytic effect in normal mice. Notably, this did not impair their movement.” The calming effect of lavender could help treat anxiety, study finds

On the other hand, there was no anxiolytic effect found in mice who had lost their sense of smell after their olfactory neurons were destroyed. This discovery implies that the scent of linalool triggers olfactory signals that promote relaxation.

The study also revealed that the anxiolytic effect in normal mice disappeared when they had been treated with flumazenil, which blocks GABAA receptors.

“When combined, these results suggest that linalool does not act directly on GABAA receptors like benzodiazepines do - but must activate them via olfactory neurons in the nose in order to produce its relaxing effects,” explained Dr. Kashiwadani.


Further research is needed to establish how and where linalool could be safely and effectively administered before human trials can be developed.

“These findings nonetheless bring us closer to clinical use of linalool to relieve anxiety - in surgery for example, where pretreatment with anxiolytics can alleviate preoperative stress and thus help to place patients under general anesthesia more smoothly,” said Dr. Kashiwadani. “Vaporized linalool could also provide a safe alternative for patients who have difficulties with oral or suppository administration of anxiolytics, such as infants or confused elders.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/behavioral-neuroscience">Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The calming effect of lavender could help treat anxiety, study finds

The calming effect of lavender could help treat anxiety, study...

Tropical trees are moving to higher elevations to escape the heat. An international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> has found that tropical forests across the Andes Mountains are migrating to higher, cooler elevations in response to rising temperatures. The study, which is the most comprehensive of its kind,  also revealed that the trees are not moving fast enough to avoid functional collapse. 

The research has confirmed for the first time that trees across the Andean and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/president-brazil-amazon-rainforest/">Amazon forests</a> of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and northern Argentina have been moving upward due to climate change - just like many other plant and animal species. Tropical trees, however, are encountering some environmental roadblocks as they move into higher elevations that are threatening their migration efforts. 

“In the Andes, the ecosystems can change very fast and very dramatically, for example, from sunny and dry premontane forests to sopping-wet cloud forests. These changes, called ecotones, appear to be blocking species migrations,” explained study lead author Belén Fadrique. “These ecotone barriers make it hard for plants to relocate their populations - and if they can't relocate, they will go extinct.”

Fadrique teamed up with study co-author Professor Kenneth J. Freeley and 18 other experts around the world to create a new database that tracks thousands of highland trees in 186 plots of land located in what is known as the Tropical Andes Biodiversity Hotspot.


The plots, which are at elevations from 300 to over 3,000 meters above sea level, are about the size of an American football field and have been inventoried multiple times over the past couple decades. According to Professor Keeley, these forest plots contain more diversity than all of the United States and Canada combined.Tropical trees are moving to higher elevations to escape the heat

The research team used newly developed modeling techniques to combine the data from all the plots into a single comprehensive analysis. The results confirmed that tropical trees are seeking more optimal conditions by migrating to higher and cooler altitudes.

The researchers were surprised to learn that, while this phenomenon of thermophilization is widespread across the Andes, the rates of the change in forest composition are not uniform across elevations.

“Thermophilization is a mouthful of a word but it means that forests are becoming more heat-loving over time because, as the world warms up, the species that prefer the cold are being kicked out or are dying off and the heat-loving species are moving up and taking their place,” said Professor Feeley. “Everything is moving up the mountain so the species near the tops of the mountains are running out of places to go and may soon face the risk of mountain-top extinction.”

The team hopes to conduct follow-up studies to investigate how specific Andean species are being impacted by climate change, and what the consequences will be if they are lost.

“Tropical forests are one of the most important players in the world's global carbon cycle,” said Professor Feeley. “They slow down climate change by taking a lot of carbon out of the atmosphere and putting it into their growth. So the faster climate change happens, the faster we will lose our tropical forests, which in turn means that climate change will happen even faster.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tropical trees are moving to higher elevations to escape the heat

Tropical trees are moving to higher elevations to escape the...

A study focused on how non-native insects and diseases invade U.S. forests has identified strong relationships between the diversity of native tree species and the number of invasive pests, which threaten the nation's forests both economically and ecologically.

Study co-author Kevin Potter is a professor in the Department of Forestry and Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>.

“Every few years we get a new exotic insect or disease that comes in and is able to do a number on our native forests,” said Professor Potter. 

“Emerald ash borer is clobbering a number of ash species in the Midwest and increasingly in the South. The chestnut, a magnificent tree that had immense ecosystem value as well as economic value in the South and North, is pretty much gone because of a pathogen. And hemlocks are under attack by the hemlock woolly adelgid from the Northeast along the Appalachian Mountains into the South.”

The researchers tested two conflicting ideas about <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-dictates-biodiversity-hotspots/">biodiversity</a>. One theory is that having more tree species can facilitate the diversity of pests by providing more places for them to become established. Another idea is that tree biodiversity can have protective effects for forests by diluting the concentration of host trees and making it harder for pests to flourish.

“We found that both facilitation and dilution seem to be happening at the same time,” said Professor Potter. “What we found is that native tree biodiversity really is important, but it's important in different ways at different times.”

The study revealed that relationships between tree diversity and pest diversity followed a hump-shaped curve.

“As you have an increasing number of tree species, you have an increasing number of pest species, up to an inflection point where that relationship changes,” explained Professor Potter. “Then you have a decreasing number of pest species as the number of host tree species increases.”

According to the researchers, forests that have 30 to 40 different host tree species tend to have the most non-native pests. The extent of this effect depends on whether the invader is a specialist that can infest only a single tree species or a generalist that can spread to many different hosts.

“What we see is that forests in the Midwest and up into New England are at the middle part of that hump-shaped curve in terms of the number of host tree species, and those are places where there have been a lot of insect and disease problems,” said Professor Potter.

“Out West we have fewer insect and disease pests, but in some cases they still do a lot of damage because the forests are not diverse. If you have a specialist pest come in and knock back one of the major components of your biodiversity, then that can have a greater impact. An example of how that works would be Sudden Oak Death, a disease in California that's affecting oaks there.”

Professor Potter said that tree biodiversity was a better predictor of non-native pests compared to other factors such as human population density and environmental conditions. “The unfortunate reality is that a lot of times we don't notice these exotic pests and diseases until they've gotten established and start having an impact on our native species, when it's almost too late.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Kevin M. Potter, North Carolina State University

Forests with higher tree diversity also have higher pest diversity

A study focused on how non-native insects and diseases invade...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...