Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. 



The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use.



In this work, a team at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen conditions.



The study extends earlier proof-of-concept in rice, with efforts underway to translate the approach to other staple cereals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthetic-nitrogen-fuels-global-harvests">Synthetic nitrogen fuels global harvests</h2>



Worldwide, synthetic nitrogen fuels modern harvests but at a steep environmental and economic price. Wheat alone accounts for about 18 percent of global nitrogen fertilizer use. Of the hundreds of millions of tons produced each year, plants capture only 30 to 50 percent.



The remainder washes into rivers and coasts, feeding oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/">dead zones</a>, or escapes as nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. For smallholder farmers, especially in low-income regions, cost and access make fertilizer a gamble.



“In Africa, people don't use fertilizers because they don’t have money, and farms are small, not larger than six to eight acres,” Blumwald said. “Imagine, you are planting crops that stimulate bacteria in the soil to create the fertilizer that the crops need, naturally. Wow! That’s a big difference!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wheat-learns-microbes-nitrogen-trick">Wheat learns microbes’ nitrogen trick</h2>



Nitrogen fixation is carried out by specialized bacteria using an enzyme called nitrogenase, which only functions in low-oxygen conditions. Legumes such as beans and peas solve this by hosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-root-microbiomes-like-humans-do-vital-for-survival-defense/">microbes</a> in root nodules, which are tiny oxygen-poor chambers. 



Cereals like wheat lack nodules, which is why they rely on bagged nitrogen. Rather than trying to give cereals nodules or force microbes to colonize roots - a strategy that has long struggled to stick - the team flipped the problem.



The researchers screened roughly 2,800 plant-made chemicals and found a small set, including flavones, that prompt soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">bacteria</a> to form protective biofilms. Those sticky microbial coats reduce oxygen exposure enough for nitrogenase to work.



“For decades, scientists have been trying to develop cereal crops that produce active root nodules, or trying to colonize cereals with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, without much success. We used a different approach,” Blumwald said.



“We said the location of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria is not important, so long as the fixed nitrogen can reach the plant, and the plant can use it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edit-flips-fertilizer-switch">Gene edit flips fertilizer switch</h2>



Using CRISPR, the researchers boosted wheat’s production of apigenin, a common flavone. Plants kept what they needed and exuded the surplus through their roots.



In soil tests, the extra apigenin encouraged local bacteria to spin up biofilms, protecting nitrogenase, fixing nitrogen, and making ammonium available for the crop. In low-fertility conditions, edited wheat assimilated the microbially supplied nitrogen and outyielded control plants.



The amazing thing lies in what the plant does automatically. It manufactures the signal, leaks it when nitrogen is scarce, and benefits from the neighborhood effect. No external inoculants are required, and the microbes remain free-living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">soil</a> rather than locked inside a root.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-down-resilience-up"><a></a>Pollution down, resilience up</h2>



If scaled, the approach could trim the fertilizer footprint that drives water pollution and climate forcing in wheat and other crops. Less soluble nitrogen applied to fields means less runoff during storms, smaller algal blooms, and fewer oxygen crashes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">lakes</a> and coastal zones. 



Cutting back on industrial nitrogen also reduces upstream emissions from natural-gas-intensive fertilizer production.



Because the mechanism amplifies microbial activity already present in many soils, it may also help stabilize yields under input constraints. In places where fertilizer is scarce or prohibitively expensive, the crop’s own chemistry becomes a lever to unlock atmospheric nitrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-saved-with-less-fertilizer">Billions saved with less fertilizer</h2>



The United States alone saw nearly $36 billion in fertilizer spending in 2023. Cereals cover close to 500 million acres nationally. Even modest reductions in inputs translate into real money while lowering risk in volatile markets.



“Imagine, if you could save 10 percent of the amount of fertilizer being used on that land,” Blumwald said. “I’m calculating conservatively: That should be a savings of more than a billion dollars every year.”



Those savings would not come solely from buying less nitrogen. Fewer passes to apply fertilizer mean lower fuel use and less soil compaction. Reduced losses to waterways could also ease regulatory pressure and improve community relations in vulnerable watersheds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-stability-across-soil-types">Proving stability across soil types</h2>



The road from greenhouse pots to farm fields is long, but the milestones are clear. Researchers will need to confirm that the nitrogen boost holds under diverse soils, climates, and microbiomes, and that it plays nicely with existing rotations and management. 



They will need to show stable performance across seasons and varieties, measure effects on soil ecology, and ensure that yields and grain quality are maintained.



Because the edit increases a native metabolite rather than introducing a foreign gene, regulatory pathways may be more straightforward in some jurisdictions. Still, farmers and policymakers will want transparent data on environmental outcomes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-solar-power-can-transform-urine-into-fertilizer/">fertilizer</a> savings, and return on investment.



If the results scale, gene-edited cereals like wheat that recruit their own microbial fertilizer factories could become a practical tool in the nitrogen toolbox - cutting costs where budgets are tight, trimming pollution where waters run foul, and building resilience in the breadbaskets of a warming world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pbi.70289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Gene-edited wheat turns soil microbes into fertilizer

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use. In this work, a team at the University of California, Davis, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used CRISPR to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-microplastics-originate-in-european-rivers/">Microplastics</a> in wastewater come in several different sizes, colors and chemical compositions. They include fibers, fragments, pellets and flakes, and originate from the washing of textiles, cosmetic products, the decomposition of plastic packaging, deposition from the atmosphere, and from contaminated runoff. Although wastewater can be treated to remove some of the plastic particles, this involves the use of chemicals that are toxic and disadvantageous for water quality.



In a study that is to be presented at the spring meeting of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) between March 20 and 24, scientists report success in using extracts from common food plants such as okra, tamarind and fenugreek, to remove suspended microplastics during the water treatment process.&nbsp;



Usually, microplastics are removed during water treatment using two methods. Those that float can be skimmed off the surface. The majority, however, are suspended in the water and must be treated with flocculants to make them stick together in clumps and sink to the bottom, where they can be separated from the rest of the water.&nbsp;



Dr. Rajani Srinivasan, principal investigator for the project, points out that some of the substances currently used to remove plastic contaminants are potentially harmful, themselves. This includes the common flocculant, polyacrylamide, which can break down into toxic components under certain conditions. “It doesn’t help if we try to clean up water but add potentially toxic substances to remove the pollutants,” said Dr. Srinivasan.



Dr. Srinivasan and her team from&nbsp;Tarleton State University have had some success in previous research using food-grade plant extracts as nontoxic flocculants to remove textile-based pollutants, such as dyes, from wastewater. They focused specifically on polysaccharides in the extracts because these biopolymers possess the appropriate chemical and biological properties to attract and capture pollutants like dyes or even bacteria.



“I was working with the removal of microorganisms and things like that, and I thought, ‘Why not try microplastics?’” said Dr. Srinivasan.



To investigate, the researchers tested polysaccharide extracts from fenugreek, cactus, Aloe vera, okra, tamarind and psyllium as flocculants to capture microplastics. These plants are usually eaten as foods, but they also sometimes serve as thickening agents. Okra is a potent thickener of stews and soups, and the "goo" it produces, along with slimy extracts from other plants, such as aloe, cactus and psyllium, have been shown to clean water of certain contaminants in the past.&nbsp;



The researchers tested compounds from the individual plants, as well as using combinations of the different extracts. They added the plant extracts to water containing microplastics and then examined the flocculated clumps microscopically. They counted the microplastics in the water before and after treatment each time, to determine how many plastic particles had stuck to the plant polysaccharides during the process.&nbsp;



The results showed that the polysaccharide extracts from okra, when paired with those from fenugreek, worked best to remove microplastics from seawater. The plastics in freshwater were removed most effectively using the extract from okra paired with the polysaccharides produced by tamarind plants. Overall, the plant-based polysaccharides worked as well as, or better than, the traditional flocculant polyacrylamide, depending on the combination of extracts and the water source.



Importantly, the plant-based flocculants can be implemented in existing water treatment processes, without developing additional technology. “The whole treatment method with the nontoxic materials uses the same infrastructure,” said Dr. Srinivasan. “We don’t have to build something new to incorporate these materials for water treatment purposes.”



In the next phase of the study, the researchers plan to identify the optimal ratios and combinations of plant-based flocculants to remove different microplastic types from ocean water, estuary water, freshwater and groundwater. They also plan to take their studies out of the lab and conduct practical studies in the field.&nbsp;



The long-term effects of ingesting these microplastics are not yet known, but it is estimated that people unintentionally consume tens of thousands of these particles every year.&nbsp;Their removal will undoubtedly become more and more urgent in future, and the researchers hope to commercialize their plant-based method so that microplastics can be removed from water on an industrial scale, to ensure cleaner and safer water for everyone to drink.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Okra can help remove microplastics from wastewater

Microplastics in wastewater come in several different sizes, colors and...

People usually think of the highly beneficial omega-3 fatty acids as connected mainly to fish. But now, a new study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> has found that a plant-based version of this nutrient – the alpha-linoleic acid (ALA) – has a positive effect on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eat-a-handful-of-walnuts-every-day-for-better-heart-health/">heart health</a>, significantly reducing the risk of heart disease for those who do not eat seafood.



In a comprehensive review of previous studies, Penn State researchers discovered that consuming ALA found in plant-based foods such as walnuts or flaxseeds was associated with a 10 percent lower risk of cardiovascular disease and a 20 percent reduced risk of fatal coronary heart disease.



“People may not want to eat seafood for a variety of reasons, but it’s still important for them to consume omega-3s to reduce the risk of heart disease and to promote overall health,” said study co-author Penny Kris-Etherton, a professor of Nutritional Sciences at Penn State. “Plant-based ALA in the form of walnuts or flaxseeds can also provide these benefits, especially when incorporated into a healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.”



The scientists found evidence that even for people who consume seafood regularly, adding plant-based omega-3s to their menu could further improve their heart health.&nbsp;



“When people with low levels of omega-3s in their diet ate ALA, they saw a benefit in terms of cardiovascular health. But when people with high levels of omega-3s from other sources ate more ALA, they also saw a benefit. It could be that ALA works synergistically with other omega-3s,” explained study co-author Jennifer Fleming, an assistant professor of Nutrition at Penn State.



According to the researchers, ALA has beneficial effects on reducing atherogenic lipids and lipoproteins – such as total cholesterol, low density-lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides – as well as inflammation and blood pressure. Current dietary guidelines recommend to consume half an ounce of walnuts or just under a tablespoon of flaxseed oil per day in order to reap these benefits.



Further studies are needed to clarify the effects of ALA on other major chronic diseases and to evaluate whether the recent scientific literature supports new, higher dietary recommendations for ALA, particularly for people who also consume significant amounts of seafood.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmac016">Advances in Nutrition</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant-based omega-3s are beneficial for heart health

People usually think of the highly beneficial omega-3 fatty acids...

Heat is often intensified in cities, since asphalt, concrete, and similar materials absorb and retain significantly more heat than vegetation – a phenomenon known as the <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/climate-change-impacts/urban-heat-islands">urban heat island</a> effect. According to a new study led by climate scientists from NASA’s <a href="https://www.giss.nasa.gov/">Goddard Institute for Space Studies</a> (GISS), rooftop gardens and greenery could help ease some of the severe heat in cities by harnessing the cooling power of plants to lower the temperature.



“As cities grow and develop, they need to make good decisions about their infrastructure, because these decisions often last for 30 or 50 years or longer,” said&nbsp;study co-author Christian Braneon, a climate scientist and civil engineer at <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> and GISS. “In the context of more frequent heat waves and more extreme heat, it’s important to understand how these urban design interventions can be effective.”



By using freely available satellite data, Dr. Braneon and his colleagues studied three sites in Chicago to assess how rooftop gardens affected surface temperatures around the buildings. While two of the roofs reduced temperatures, the other one did not, thus indicating that effectiveness may depend on a variety of factors, ranging from geographical location and plant diversity to rooftop structure and the cooling efficiency of the building itself.



“In a lot of places, you might be developing an area that didn’t have something there before; it just had overgrown vegetation. You might think that putting a green roof on your new building would make a significant impact. But what we see is that a lot of impervious material may also be added there – such as a parking lot around the building. As a result, you might reduce the impact of the parking lot, but you certainly haven’t created the cooling effect that the overgrown vegetation had,” explained Dr. Braneon.



Further research is needed to assess the effectiveness of the use of greenery and rooftop gardens in other locations in various cities. This could help experts fully understand the diversity of factors that influence processes of urban heating and cooling. Most importantly though, the dynamics of the climate should always be taken into account.



“Traditionally, civil engineers and urban planners assumed a stationary climate,” said Dr. Braneon. “The whole practice is built on the premise that we can look at the past to assess risk in the future. Everything is being flipped on its head due to climate change, so I’m hoping to do more work that changes how civil engineers and urban planners practice.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103376210670721006491">Sustainable Cities and Society</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rooftop gardens can lower city heat

Heat is often intensified in cities, since asphalt, concrete, and...

The green industry experienced a spike in sales during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-doubles-the-risk-of-severe-pregnancy-complications/">COVID-19</a> pandemic, as people turned to gardening and landscaping during quarantine. A new study from the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> shows that while plant nurseries and greenhouses may not continue to boom as they did in 2020, some people who took up gardening will continue to raise plants as a lifelong hobby.&nbsp;



"The COVID-19 pandemic altered the way many consumers and businesses transacted business. Concerning the green industry, many households began gardening and/or purchased more green industry products. As the pandemic ends and households begin to return to normal, green industry firms need to understand this new normal," explained the study authors.&nbsp;



"Using an online national survey of households, we assessed which households were more likely to remain in the market after entering during the height of the pandemic."



Among more than 4,200 survey respondents, about one out of every three people began gardening in 2020 because they were home more. Many of these individuals also put in new grass lawns or tackled other outdoor renovations and landscaping projects.



“You had low interest rates, so you had a lot of people refinancing, which gave them money to invest in their homes,” said study lead author Professor Benjamin Campbell. “You had people at home looking for something to do, whether by themselves or with their kids. That led to a huge demand for plants.”



Nearly half of the respondents said they did not plan to garden in the future, even if they had in 2020. On the other hand, one in ten participants who had gardened in 2020 said they planned to keep it up going forward.



The survey results suggest that millennials and younger individuals were more likely to have started gardening during the pandemic, yet also more likely to report that they would not continue to garden as states returned to normal.



“We saw a lot of younger consumers come into the market because of the pandemic and because they were having to stay home,” said Professor Campbell. “Plants have been shown to help with a lot of different things related to people’s psyche. Gardening not only gave people something to do, but it also gave them a little bit more happiness.”



The results of the analysis show that food insecurity motivated some people to pick up gardening so they could grow their own food. Many of the study participants said they planned to garden in the future because they were concerned about food shortages.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.ashs.org/horttech/view/journals/horttech/horttech-overview.xml">HortTechnology</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gardening got a major boost from the COVID-19 pandemic

The green industry experienced a spike in sales during the...

In 2012, the <a href="https://www.un.org/en/ga/">United Nations General Assembly</a> designated today, March 21, as the International Day of Forests to raise awareness of the importance of all forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a>.&nbsp;



"When we drink a glass of water, write in a notebook, take medicine for a fever or build a house, we do not always make the connection with forests. And yet, these and many other aspects of our lives are linked to forests in one way or another," reports the UN.



"Forest sustainable management and their use of resources are key to combating climate change, and to contributing to the prosperity and well-being of current and future generations. Forests also play a crucial role in poverty alleviation and in the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Yet despite all these priceless ecological, economic, social and health benefits, global deforestation continues at an alarming rate."



According to the UN, around 1.6 billion people are directly dependent on forests for food, shelter, energy, medicines and income. Meanwhile, 10 million hectares of forest are lost every year.&nbsp;



The State of the World’s Forests 2020 report, released by the the Food and Agriculture Association of the United States, notes that deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, and this is a major contributor to the ongoing biodiversity crisis.



"Since 1990, it is estimated that 420 million hectares of forest have been lost through conversion to other land uses, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades," says the report.&nbsp;



"Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990."



In the Amazon forest alone, thousands of plant and animal species are threatened with extinction as a direct result of deforestation. The <a href="https://www.bgci.org/globaltreesearch">GlobalTreeSearch database</a> reports that there are currently 60,082 tree species in existence. More than 20,000 of these tree species are on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.



"International Forest Day is a tremendous occasion to celebrate the world’s wildlife and humanities’ achievements in preservation of it, to educate the public on forests and ecosystems. But it is also a suitable opportunity and the right time to address global problems and to mobilize political will to take action," says the UN.



"Last month, the UN agency on climate change, IPCC, published a report revealing the deadly consequences of climate change for people in all parts of the world in the coming decades. The consequences of climate change are worse than ever, highlighting the importance of global unity."



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

International Day of Forests: a time for global unity

In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly designated today, March...

This Sunday, March 20, 2022 marks the official arrival of spring in the Northern Hemisphere. The so-called “vernal equinox” is one of two moments in the year when the sun is directly above the equator and day and night are almost equal in length. The word “equinox” comes from the Latin aequus (equal) and nox (night). After this equinox, days will start to be increasingly longer than nights until the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/summers-in-the-arctic-could-be-ice-free-by-mid-century/">summer</a> solstice from June 21.



The seasons occur because the Earth is tilted over slightly on its axis. While for half of the year, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun (spring and summer), for the other half, it is tilted further away from the sun (autumn and winter). However, twice a year (in March and September, during the vernal and the autumnal equinoxes), the sun is directly over the equator, so neither hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. In the Southern Hemisphere, the seasons are flipped, with the March equinox marking the beginning of autumn, and the September one the beginning of spring.



The vernal equinox signals new beginnings and nature’s renewal. Worms and grubs start reappearing, birds begin their migration to the north, along the path of the sun, and trees, plants, and shrubs are starting to bloom.&nbsp;



Since prehistoric times, people worldwide have celebrated the arrival of spring through various festivities. Famous examples include the ancient spring equinox celebrations that took place at Chichen Itza in Mexico, where the Mayans built a huge pyramid around the year 1,000 CE. Even today, the way the sun falls on this pyramid signals the passage of seasons. On the vernal equinox, it creates a mixture of light and shade resembling a huge snake slithering down the steps of the pyramid. Mayans called this day “the return of the Sun serpent.”



Other famous <a href="https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/celebrations/article/spring-celebrations">celebrations</a> of the arrival of spring include the Christian festivity of Easter, the Jewish Passover, the Hindi Holi, the Persian Nohruz, and the Thai Songkran. All these events are centered around myths of renewal and rebirth, offering hope to people worldwide that, similarly to nature, they will rise again and start life anew.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spring finally arrives this weekend

This Sunday, March 20, 2022 marks the official arrival of...

California redwoods are famous worldwide for their impressive size and age. The species is the sole living representative of the genus Sequoia, and includes the tallest and oldest living things on Earth. Because of these attributes, redwoods have been thoroughly studied and are considered one of the best understood organisms on the planet. 



However, scientists from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis</a> have recently discovered something brand new about these trees – they have two different types of leaves on their branches, and those leaves have completely different functions.



Redwoods occur naturally in coastal areas that can experience both wet conditions and droughts. The rainfall can be high and coastal fog also coats the trees with moisture much of the time. But dry conditions can prevail in certain seasons, or certain areas of the species’ range, and the plants are able to cope with both types of environmental conditions.



They do this partly through the specializations of their leaves, according to the study by the UC scientists. The peripheral leaves have longer leaflets that are covered with a waxy, water-repellent cuticle. These leaves are on the outer edges of the branches and receive most sunlight. They function as organs of photosynthesis, manufacturing sugars for the tree from carbon dioxide, water and sunlight energy.&nbsp;



In contrast, the axial leaves have very short leaflets that lie flush with the central stem and their function is to absorb water through the leaf blades. Plants usually absorb their water through their roots, so the fact that redwood axial leaves have this ability is already remarkable. In fact, the study found that a large redwood can absorb up to 14 gallons of water in just the first hour after its leaves become wet.



The problem is that leaves need to absorb carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere in order to photosynthesize. They do this through tiny pores, called stomata, which are found on the leaf surface. In wet conditions, the pores clog up with water and photosynthesis becomes inhibited. In contrast, a leaf with a waxy coating may be able to photosynthesize in wet conditions better but will be unable to absorb water in significant quantities.&nbsp;



For redwoods, the different leaf types allow the trees to get wet and still be able to photosynthesize. The peripheral leaves forgo the ability to absorb water but are better adapted for photosynthesis in moist conditions, while the axial leaves don’t contribute to photosynthesis but are able to supply the tree with essential water.&nbsp;



“I’d be surprised if there weren’t a lot of conifers doing this,” said study lead author Alana Chin. “Having leaves that aren’t for photosynthesis is in itself surprising. If you’re a tree, you don’t want to have a leaf that’s not photosynthesizing unless there’s a very good reason for it.”



In order to work out how water uptake by redwood leaves is balanced with the tree’s need to photosynthesize, the researchers collected shoot clusters from six redwood trees at five forest locations between wet Del Norte County and the dry Santa Cruz Mountains. They exposed these shoots to experimental fog conditions and measured how much water they were able to absorb.&nbsp;



The experts also estimated the water absorption potential for seven additional whole trees – including the tallest living tree – by taking samples of their leaf shoots at varying heights and scaling up the numbers of leaves, branch by branch, until they could represent the entire tree canopy. This enabled the team to make the first whole-crown estimates of the capacity of redwood leaves to take up water, using some of the largest trees known. Using this method, they could quantify the contribution of leaf uptake to the water balance of the tree as a whole.&nbsp;



The researchers then compared the anatomy and measured the rates of photosynthesis in the peripheral and axial leaves to understand their functions more completely.&nbsp;



Apart from finding that the two different leaf types have different, complementary functions, the study also found that leaves can be located in different regions of the tree, depending on whether the environment is wet or dry. In the wet, rainy north coast, the water-absorbing leaf type is found on the tree’s lower branches, leaving the upper, sunnier levels to the photosynthesizing leaf type. However, redwoods in the southern, drier regions have their water-collecting axial leaves mainly on the higher branches, to take advantage of the less frequent fog and rain.&nbsp;



“The cool thing here is their ability to thrive under all these circumstances and adjust themselves to these different environments,” said Chin, who grew up near the redwoods in Mendocino County. “That things like this can be happening right under our nose in one of the best-studied species out there – none of us assumed this would be the story.”



Of all the study’s remarkable and novel findings, Chin is most excited to have found an easy and effective way to indicate redwood trees’ ability to access fog. Researchers can monitor how and if redwoods are adapting to changing climate conditions and a future, drier world by simply looking at the visible waxes covering the two types of leaves – something that could be captured on a cell phone camera and shared by other scientists or even members of the public.



The study was published recently in the <a href="https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15372197">American Journal of Botany</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New discovery in Redwoods highlights the species’ mystery

California redwoods are famous worldwide for their impressive size and...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.uni-mainz.de/eng/">Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz</a> (JGU) have collaborated with 32 scientific organizations to analyze the effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-social-nature-of-ants-will-them-tolerate-climate-change/">climate</a> change on Fagus sylvatica, a type of beech tree found in Europe. They discovered that these magnificent trees are threatened by climate change, especially in southern Europe.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Beech is one of the most important forest species in Europe from an ecological and socio-economical perspective," wrote the study authors. "Beech played a dominant role in postglacial reforestation, rapidly spreading from its Mediterranean refuges to the central and northern regions of the continent."&nbsp;



"Currently, in the face of rapid climate change, beech may be endangered in its geographical and ecological range. However, the species’ resilience to predicted changes and its ecological plasticity across the distribution range are not well understood."



The scientists gathered 780,000 ring measurements on 5,800 beech trees at 324 sites across Europe, from the north of Scotland to mainland Greece to carry out the analysis. Not only were the researchers able to extrapolate past growth rates, but they were also able to predict future growth by looking at the growth record for the past 60 years.&nbsp;



By comparing two 31-year periods, 1955 to 1985 and 1986 to 2016, the experts determined that as time passed, beech tree growth had declined in almost all regions studied. In southern Europe, beech tree growth had been reduced by 20 percent.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Based on this information, study lead author Dr. Edurne Martinez del Castillo predicts that over the next 70 years, we will continue to see a considerable decrease in beech tree growth.&nbsp;



"We expect high productivity declines due to increased drought severity, especially at the southern limits of the beech's distribution range," said Martinez del Castillo.



"Even assuming a relatively optimistic climate change scenario, we will see sharp growth reductions of up to 30 percent in southern Europe between 2020 and 2050 compared to the 1986 to 2016 period."



Climate scientists base those numbers on an increase in warming of one-degree Celsius. However, a pessimistic model that expects a five-degree warming predicts a more significant loss in production. "In southern Europe, losses could even exceed 50 percent," said Martinez del Castillo.



Even in northern, mountainous areas such as Sweden and Norway, where climate change could boost beech growth, this growth will not counter the losses sustained in the rest of Europe.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Moreover, this situation could cause a positive feedback loop because beech forests serve as carbon sinks. Fewer and smaller beech trees will lead to less carbon taken up by the trees and more in the air.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that we implement forest adaptation efforts to avoid detrimental environmental and economic impacts.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Beech trees in southern Europe are facing drastic growth declines

Researchers at Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU) have collaborated with...

A large-scale, randomized trial involving 21,000 participants has recently concluded after 3.6 years of data collection. Led by scientists from the <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/research/departments/preventive-medicine/division-of-preventive-medicine">Division of Preventive Medicine</a>&nbsp;at <a href="https://www.brighamandwomens.org/">Brigham and Women’s Hospital</a>, the trial was designed to test the roles of a cocoa flavanol supplement and a multivitamin in the prevention of cardiovascular disease and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-can-detect-cancer-through-smell/">cancer</a>.&nbsp;



Flavanols are phytonutrients found in a range of fruits and nuts, and cocoa flavanol is found specifically in cocoa beans. Previous studies have identified potential benefits of cocoa flavanol to metabolic, neurological and cardiovascular health in humans. However, the amounts required in order to gain such benefits are more than the average person ingests in the form of cocoa drinks or chocolate.&nbsp;



“Previous studies have suggested health benefits of flavanols - compounds in several plant-based foods including cocoa, tea, grapes, and berries,” said Dr. <a href="https://prevmed.bwh.harvard.edu/joann-e-manson-md-dph/">JoAnn Manson</a>. “COSMOS was not a chocolate trial - rather, it’s a rigorous trial of a cocoa extract supplement that contains levels of cocoa flavanols that a person could never realistically consume from chocolate without adding excessive calories, fat, and sugar to their diet.”&nbsp;



The COSMOS trial gave researchers a chance to test whether taking a cocoa flavanol supplement might lead to reductions in clinical cardiovascular events, which they defined as heart attacks, strokes, coronary revascularization, cardiovascular death, carotid artery disease, peripheral artery surgery, and unstable angina. At the same time, the experts also assessed whether the risk of cancer was affected by taking the supplement. The trial was additionally designed to test the effect of a common multivitamin supplement in preventing cancer and cardiovascular disease.&nbsp;



The 21,000 participants were thus divided randomly into four groups; those who took 500 mg capsules of cocoa flavanol (donated by Mars Edge), those who took the multivitamin tablets (donated by GSK Consumer Healthcare), those who took both and those who took neither. Their health was monitored for the following 3.6 years.



The results showed that cocoa flavanols reduced the total incidence of cardiovascular events (the study’s primary endpoint) by 10 percent, but that this was not statistically significant. However, more detailed analyses of the occurrences of individual events showed support for a potential benefit of cocoa flavanols. For example, those receiving the cocoa flavanol capsules had a significant 27 percent reduction in death from cardiovascular disease (the study’s secondary endpoint).&nbsp;



In addition, when the study team excluded data from participants who did not take their capsules regularly, the analysis revealed a stronger effect, namely a 15 percent reduction in total cardiovascular events and a 39 percent reduction in death from cardiovascular disease. Further analysis of the relationship between cocoa flavanol supplementation and major cardiovascular events only (heart attacks, strokes, and cardiovascular deaths), also showed that this was significantly reduced.&nbsp;



“When we look at the totality of evidence for both the primary and secondary cardiovascular endpoints in COSMOS, we see promising signals that a cocoa flavanol supplement may reduce important cardiovascular events, including death from cardiovascular disease,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://prevmed.bwh.harvard.edu/howard-d-sesso-scd-mph/">Howard Sesso</a>,&nbsp;first author on both publications. “These findings merit further investigation to better understand the effects of cocoa flavanols on cardiovascular health.”



The daily multivitamin had no significant effect on total or individual cardiovascular events and, although it was associated with improved levels of several nutritional biomarkers, it had no effect on the risk of cancer either. Cocoa flavanols also had no significant effect on total invasive cancer, although the experts note that 3.6 years is probably too short a time span in which to detect the impacts of these supplements on the development of cancer. They said that continuing to follow COSMOS participants may help to clarify any longer-term effects on cancer and death.



“Although our study suggests intriguing signals for cardiovascular protection with cocoa flavanols, any health benefits due to taking these supplements will need confirmation in a future trial,” said Manson.



“Our message for consumers is to eat a healthy, balanced diet, rich in natural food sources of flavanols, and to stay tuned as we further evaluate other important health outcomes in COSMOS," said Sesso.



The research was part of the COcoa Supplement and Multivitamin Outcomes Study (COSMOS). The results are published today in two separate papers in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ajcn">The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cocoa beans reduce the risk of fatal cardiovascular events

A large-scale, randomized trial involving 21,000 participants has recently concluded...

Big trees play major roles in old-growth <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thirsty-mountain-forests-leave-lower-elevations-with-less-water/">forests</a>, from providing fire resistance to producing genetically strong offspring. A new study led by Utah State University’s <a href="https://qcnr.usu.edu/wild/">Department of Wildland Resources</a> has found that these trees also protect melting snowpacks in water-stressed environments.



Having a sufficient supply of water helps trees endure hot summer temperatures, survive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-is-taking-a-toll-on-the-wine-industry/">wildfires</a>, and fend off invasions of bark beetles. Yet, during hot summers, there is not much precipitation. Thus, maintaining a good, thick snowpack for as long as possible during the spring or even summer months is extremely helpful to the forests.&nbsp;



The longer the water is released into the soil and available to “thirsty” trees, the better these forests fare. Moreover, melting snow is also part of the runoff filling the West’s reservoirs and benefiting human communities.



Ironically, one of the biggest hindrances for building snowpacks in a forest are the trees themselves. Their branches catch snow before it hits the ground and give it back to the atmosphere through evaporation or sublimation. Moreover, large trunks emit a significant amount of heat, or longwave energy, that contributes to melting. For these reasons, the ground beneath large trees tends to build only a shallow snowpack.&nbsp;&nbsp;



However, researchers found that, in the case of big trees, the same wide branches that prevent the snow from reaching the ground directly under a tree also provide a cooling stretch of shade which blocks direct sunlight from melting the snow under a wide radius surrounding the trees. These savings can outweigh the detriment of canopy cover and longwave energy.



The scientists performed calculations to determine what a forest looked like that maximized the benefits of shade and minimized the negative impact of canopy and longwave energy. They discovered that big trees were surrounded by doughnut-shaped zones where snowpack could best endure – away from the longwave energy produced by the trunk, but still within reach of the cooling shade. The best forests for long-lasting snowpacks had trees spaced in such a way that these doughnut-shaped zones bumped up against each other, but did not overlap. However, in order for this equation to work though, the spaced-out trees need to be both big and healthy.



“Snow is a key resource for fresh water supply and ecosystem function. Our study highlights that conserving big trees - the very trees that often survive forest fires - in forest ecosystems where fire is part of the ecological cycle can help facilitate both,” concluded lead author Michaela Teich, a senior researcher at Utah State University.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/eco.2414">Ecohydrology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Big trees protect forests by maintaining snowpack

Big trees play major roles in old-growth forests, from providing...

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, significantly contributing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-microbe-may-help-in-the-fight-against-climate-change/">climate change</a>. For many years, scientists thought that this gas is produced only by single-celled microbes called Archaea, through the decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.mpi-marburg.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology</a> suggests that in fact all organisms release varying degrees of methane.



When researchers from the Max Planck Institute discovered the release of methane from plants in the presence of oxygen 16 years ago, they initially doubted the results. However, once fungi, algae, and cyanobacteria were also observed to form methane under aerobic conditions, scientists have started to realize that methane formation is more widespread than initially thought. Until recently though, enzymatic activities were considered responsible for the formation of this gas. Now, researchers have shown that this process could also take place via a purely chemical mechanism, with no enzymes involved.



“This study is therefore a milestone in our understanding of aerobic methane formation in the environment,” said senior author Frank Keppler, a geoscientist at <a href="http://uni-heidelberg.de/">Heidelberg University</a>. “This universal mechanism also explains the observations of our previous study on the release of methane from plants.”



Professor Keppler and his colleagues have shown, using the bacterium&nbsp;Bacillus subtilis, that there is a close connection between metabolic activity and the extent of methane formation. Under the influence of oxygen, metabolic activity leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species in cells, including hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals. In interaction with iron, highly reactive tetravalent iron compounds and hydroxyl radicals are formed, which later on drive the cleavage of a methyl radical from methylated sulfur and nitrogen compounds. Finally, a chemical reaction between the methyl radical and a hydrogen atom leads to the formation of methane.



The scientists have verified the reactive oxygen species-driven formation of methane in over 30 model organisms, ranging from bacteria and archaea to yeasts, plant cells, and even human cell lines.&nbsp;



“Methane formation triggered by reactive oxygen species most likely occurs in all organisms,” reported study lead author Leonard Ernst, a doctoral researcher at the Max Planck Institute.



Ernst and his colleagues have also discovered that additional oxidative stress – triggered by higher ambient temperatures or the addition of reactive oxygen species-forming substances – led to an increase in methane formation in the examined organisms.&nbsp;



The findings could explain why methane production by a certain organism can significantly vary, and why stress factors deeply impact the amount of production. For instance, changes in environmental and temperature conditions caused by global warming could potentially influence the stress levels of many organisms and thus their methane emissions.&nbsp;



Further research is needed to clarify the chemical underpinnings of methane production and their intricate relationships to environmental stressors.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04511-9">Nature</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study suggests that all living organisms produce methane

Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, significantly contributing to climate...

Agrilus,Planipennis,-,Emerald,Ash,Borer

Invasive insects will destroy hundreds of thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tall-trees-in-the-amazon-face-an-uncertain-future/">trees</a> in the coming years, according to a new study published by the British Ecological Society. The experts report that by mid-century, invasive insects like the emerald ash borer could kill 1.4 million street trees in the United States, with an associated cost of over 900 million dollars.



The study represents the first nationwide forecast of street tree mortality from invasive insects. For the investigation, a research team led by McGill University analyzed data from about 30,000 urban areas across the United States.



The projections show that the emerald ash borer will be, by far, the most destructive of the invasive insects. The experts determined that the emerald ash borer will be responsible for 90 percent of the 1.4 million trees deaths. In particular, this pest is expected to kill every ash tree in more than 6,000 urban areas.



The impact of invasive insects will not be distributed evenly across the country, according to the study. The experts found that less than a quarter of US communities will be hit with 95 percent of all street tree mortality. Some of the areas that will be severely affected include New York, Chicago and Milwaukee.



The researchers noted that their findings can help urban tree managers predict which tree species, in which areas, will be at the greatest risk from invasive insects.&nbsp;



“These results can hopefully provide a cautionary tale against planting a single species of tree throughout entire cities, as has been done with ash trees in North America," said study lead author Dr. Emma Hudgins. "Increasing urban tree diversity provides resilience against pest infestations. While we know this more intuitively for monocultures of crops, many cities continue to plant what are essentially monoculture urban forests.”



“We can see a similar situation in Canada, since emerald ash borer arrived here by spreading across the border with the United States, and cities like Montréal are in the process of losing all of their ash trees. Colder cities like Winnipeg appear to be seeing delayed impacts of emerald ash borer due to its need to complete a longer life cycle at low temperatures.”



Dr. Hudgins pointed out that trees form an important part of our urban environments and provide a number of benefits including improving air quality, cooling streets, carbon capture, habitat provision for wildlife and improving citizens’ mental and physical health.



“This paper shows that unless we plant a variety of tree species in our cities, urban trees are seriously at risk from invasive pests," said Professor Jane Memmott at the University of Bristol, who was not involved in the study. "The take home message to urban planners, is to plant multiple species in cities rather than focus on just a few familiar species; It’ll keep trees wonderful, and it will keep them in our cities."



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652664">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive insects will kill 1.4 million U.S. trees by 2050

Invasive insects will destroy hundreds of thousands of trees in...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

News coming your way