When naturalists tally the frogs in a farm pond or the orchids in a mountain meadow they always encounter the same rule of thumb: when you survey a larger range, the more species you find. The relationship seems simple, yet ecologists have puzzled over an odd signature hidden in species distribution data for nearly a century.



As one zooms out from local plots to regional landscapes. the tally of new species first soars. Then, it plateaus, taking off again at continental and global scales. That curious “S-shaped” curve is technically, the three-phase species–area relationship. 



It has appeared in everything from beetles to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-wings-have-a-surprising-effect-on-island-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> and from coral reefs to desert shrubs. Until now, no single mathematical framework explained why the curve changes its slope where it does.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predicting-species-distributions">Predicting species distributions </h2>



A collaboration of researchers spanning Portugal, Germany, the United States and South Africa has now filled that theoretical gap. 



The experts combined basic geometry with giant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> datasets to show that the three phases arise inevitably from the way individual species spread their geographic ranges across Earth’s surface.



The team's model not only reproduces the classic patterns, it also generates equations that predict how many species should occur at the precise break points between phases - a feat with direct relevance for conservation planners who must estimate extinctions as habitats are lost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-range-size-affects-species-distributions">Range size affects species distributions</h2>



Ecologists formalized the species-area relationship (SAR) in the early twentieth century, discovering that a log-log plot of cumulative species versus area usually forms a straight line. Yet when studies started to cover larger domains, investigators found the line was actually composed of three segments.



In the first segment, from local quadrants to perhaps a few hundred square kilometers, adding more land brings a flood of new species because each little patch contains slightly different microhabitats. In the middle segment, spanning thousands of square kilometers, the pace slackens; the same bird species, for instance, occupy most forests inside a biogeographic region. 



Beyond that, when continents are added, evolutionary history enters the picture and the slope shoots up again as entirely different faunas come into view. Empirically describing those bends was straightforward; explaining them from first principles proved harder. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-ranges-of-species">Individual ranges of species</h2>



“We demonstrated that the individual geographical ranges of all species within the studied areas shape the typical species distribution patterns we observe across the globe,” said lead author Luís Borda-de-Água of <a href="https://www.cibio.up.pt/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIBIO</a> in Portugal.



By mathematically stacking these ranges like overlapping tiles on a floor plan, the team showed that the SAR’s inflection points fall where the average range size of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-temperature-extremes-change-the-distribution-of-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resident species</a> equals the sampling area. At small scales most ranges eclipse the plot, so each extra hectare introduces new species.



At intermediate scales the plot begins to rival range size, so fewer novelties appear. At the largest scales even the widest-ranging species occupy only one continent, restoring the steep climb.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-patterns-and-crunching-records">Testing patterns and crunching records</h2>



To test the idea the researchers turned to the <a href="https://www.gbif.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Biodiversity Information Facility</a>, a compendium of citizen-science sightings and museum records. They extracted roughly 700 million geo-referenced observations spanning birds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-40-of-amphibians-face-extinction-due-to-escalating-climate-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amphibians</a>, mammals and vascular plants.



For each taxonomic group they generated empirical SARs and compared them with the theoretical predictions. The correspondence was striking: predicted transition points - where the slope of the SAR changes - matched the observed curves within confidence bounds for all groups.



Borda-de-Água noted that this is a major step forward in ecology because it links a macroecological pattern to a simple, measurable property - range size - without invoking mysterious external factors. 



Senior author Henrique Pereira is a research professor at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research <a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(iDiv</a>) and Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg. 



Pereira emphasized the significance of the research. “Discovering fundamental principles in ecology is just as thrilling as breakthroughs in physics.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-stakes-for-a-shrinking-planet"><a></a>Practical stakes for a shrinking planet</h2>



Beyond intellectual satisfaction the model carries weighty consequences for biodiversity assessments. International panels such as IPBES rely on SARs to translate lost habitat into predicted extinctions. 



If analysts know where a landscape sits on the three-phase curve they can apply the correct slope and avoid over- or under-estimating risk. The new equations provide exactly that guidance. 



Suppose a logged forest fragment still covers more area than the average range of its endemic beetles; species losses may be modest. But once destruction pushes the fragment below the first transition threshold, disappearing hectares cause a much steeper decline in species count.



Because the theory is scale-free it can also help conservationists decide whether sampling has been adequate. If observed species richness does not yet reach the slowdown phase, additional survey work is warranted before managers proclaim an inventory complete.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-species-distributions">Shifting species distributions </h2>



The authors acknowledge that species’ ranges are not static. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a>, invasive species, and land-use shifts continually redraw distribution maps. 



Incorporating dynamic range models into the three-phase framework will be a priority, as will extending tests to marine organisms and microbes, whose ranges are harder to delineate.



Still, the study offers a rare optimism amid grim extinction headlines. By revealing the geometry behind one of ecology’s most robust laws, scientists gain a clearer lens through which to view and perhaps mitigate humanity’s impact on life’s diversity.



As Pereira puts it, advances like these “unveil hidden patterns that have been shaping life on Earth for millions of years,” providing the knowledge base needed to steer those patterns, responsibly, into the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59239-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Saving biodiversity: Scientists discover hidden pattern guiding species distributions

When naturalists tally the frogs in a farm pond or the orchids in a mountain meadow they always encounter the same rule of thumb: when you survey a larger range, the more species you find. The relationship seems simple, yet ecologists have puzzled over an odd signature hidden in species distribution data for nearly a century. As one zooms out from local plots to regional landscapes. the tally of new species first soars. Then, it plateaus, taking off again at continental and global scales. That curious “S-shaped”...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/41/7/msae114/7708214" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Biology and Evolution</a> reveals that scientists struggle to reliably distinguish between different types of coca plants in South America despite the <a href="https://www.unodc.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime</a>'s efforts to monitor coca cultivation and related deforestation for decades. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-around-identification-nbsp">Limitations around identification&nbsp;</h2>



Typically, identification relies on leaf shape and size, but this method does not accurately differentiate between coca varieties used for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocaine-fingerprints-non-users/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocaine</a> extraction, traditional purposes, and wild-growing plants.



“To monitor the changing landscape of coca plantations, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime collects annual data on their areas of cultivation,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“However, attempts to delineate areas in which different varieties are grown have failed due to limitations around identification.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coca-plants-and-the-rising-demand-for-cocaine-nbsp">Coca plants and the rising demand for cocaine&nbsp;</h2>



Coca has been a crucial crop for Andean and Amazonian communities for at least 8,000 years and remains vital for millions of South Americans today.&nbsp;



Its leaves, rich in active compounds, are used for cultural rituals, medicinal treatments, nutritional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-often-contain-hidden-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supplements</a>, and as an everyday stimulant. 



However, in recent decades, global demand for cocaine has driven intensive coca agriculture, placing it at the center of armed conflict and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origins-of-coca-plants-nbsp">Origins of coca plants&nbsp;</h2>



Coca plants belong to the diverse genus Erythroxylum, which includes over 270 species, primarily native to the American tropics.&nbsp;



Two main cultivated coca species are Erythroxylum coca (Huánuco coca) and Erythroxylum novogranatense. The former is native to wet mountain forests in Peru and Bolivia, while the latter is found in the dry valleys of the Cordilleras and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Traditional use of these plants includes flavoring and stimulant additives, such as for Coca Cola.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inadequate-classification-system-nbsp">Inadequate classification system&nbsp;</h2>



Researchers used statistical methods to analyze 1,163 leaf outlines from 342 digital herbarium specimens of wild and cultivated coca, finding significant overlap between species and varieties.&nbsp;



This overlap likely leads to field misidentifications and highlights the need for diverse plant classification sources.&nbsp;



An inadequate classification system can impede the identification of new varieties, crucial for both cocaine extraction and alternative uses like food supplements, fibers, or pigments.



“We are rethinking how to classify coca plants, both cultivated and wild, after adding new data about their leaves and genes,” said study co-author Fabio Andrés Ávila, a scientist at the New York Botanical Garden.&nbsp;



“This is important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/balancing-agricultural-expansion-and-biodiversity-loss-in-colombia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colombia's biodiversity</a> and for communities that use coca for traditional purposes, providing new information sources about the plants they depend on.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-relationships-between-coca-plants-nbsp">Genetic relationships between coca plants&nbsp;</h2>



In addition to leaf shape and size, the researchers explored genetic relationships between coca plants, comparing these findings with existing taxonomic classifications.&nbsp;



The experts assessed how well leaf traits matched genetic data and estimated when different coca species and varieties originated.&nbsp;



The results indicated that distinct coca plants began evolving long before humans arrived in South America, though the timeline for the emergence of cultivated, cocaine-yielding coca remains uncertain.



While leaf characteristics were found to be unreliable for identification, the study emphasizes the potential of genetic techniques for more accurate identification and monitoring of coca populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-sustainable-bioprospecting-programs">Developing sustainable bioprospecting programs</h2>



“One of the primary objectives of our research is to propose a stable classification system and a comprehensive genetic database. This will enable us to confidently identify the different populations, varieties and species of cultivated coca and their wild relatives,” said Oscar Alejandro Pérez-Escobar of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, another co-author of the paper.&nbsp;



“Such a system is crucial for developing sustainable bioprospecting programs and the coca tree holds immense potential in this regard. But first, it is essential to separate the plant’s valuable attributes from its association with the recreational drug, reshaping its perception and highlighting its positive uses.”



This study provides a new understanding of coca plant classification, which is essential for conservation, sustainable use, and reducing the plant’s association with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-drug-use-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recreational drug use</a>, thereby highlighting its beneficial uses.



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Wild coca plants are hard to distinguish from those used for cocaine

A new study published in the journal Molecular Biology and...

Although tree species appear to prefer certain climates, their true preferences are often obscured by species interactions and dispersal limits.



During a recent yearlong sabbatical, Daniel Laughlin led a study that revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> can thrive in temperatures beyond their current habitats. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-tolerate-a-range-of-climates-nbsp">Trees tolerate a range of climates&nbsp;</h2>



“We were amazed. The result was crystal clear, and that doesn’t always happen in ecology,” said Laughlin, a professor in the <a href="https://www.uwyo.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wyoming</a> Department of Botany. 



“We found that tree species could grow and survive at one common moderate temperature, even though many species are only found in either cold or warm environments. In fact, many trees could expand their ranges by more than 25 percent based on their potential temperature tolerances.”



Laughlin is the lead author of a paper titled “Trees have overlapping potential niches that extend beyond their realized niches” published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adm8671" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-trees-respond-to-climate-change-nbsp">How trees respond to climate change&nbsp;</h2>



Co-authored by Brian McGill, a professor in the School of Biology and Ecology at the <a href="https://umaine.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maine</a>, the study aims to understand how species respond to rapid climate changes by examining occurrences of North American tree species in arboreta worldwide to measure their tolerance to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-global-temperature-exceeded-2c-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme temperatures</a>.



The researchers quantified the realized and potential thermal niches of 188 North American tree species to test the architecture of niches on a continental scale.&nbsp;



The study included 23 tree species native to Wyoming, such as the Engelmann spruce, the subalpine fir, and the ponderosa pine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-and-their-potential-niches-nbsp">Trees and their potential niches&nbsp;</h2>



According to Laughlin, the realized niche of a tree species is where it is found in nature, while the potential niche includes areas where it could survive but does not due to competition or dispersal limitations.&nbsp;



For example, the Engelmann spruce, typically found in high-elevation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-snowmelt-reduces-co2-absorption-in-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">subalpine forests</a>, could also survive in warmer, lower elevations but is outcompeted by faster-growing species like cottonwoods.



The study revealed that tree species at thermal extremes occupy less than 75% of their potential niches, with species’ potential niches overlapping at a mean annual temperature of 12 degrees Celsius (approximately 55 degrees Fahrenheit).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competition-with-other-tree-species-nbsp">Competition with other tree species&nbsp;</h2>



“When we walk in the woods, we see with our own eyes that tree species occur in distinct places. This is a core tenet of ecology,” Laughlin explained.&nbsp;



“However, where species are actually found in nature is a fraction of their potential distribution because competition with other species and dispersal limitation constrain where they actually occur.”



The findings challenge a core assumption of current methods for predicting species distributions, highlighting the need for ecologists to quantify the full range of environments tolerable to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-how-plants-adapt-to-changing-climates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a>.



“This is a critical missing piece of information for predicting how they respond to a warming world,” Laughlin said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fundamental-temperature-tolerances-of-trees-nbsp">Fundamental temperature tolerances of trees&nbsp;</h2>



The results suggest that tree species will have varied fates with climate change. Cold-tolerant trees like Engelmann spruce may not need to move, while warm-tolerant species like live oak will need to migrate.



“North American tree species have been navigating changing climatic conditions for millions of years. We know that, over long time spans, trees have moved across the continent to track suitable climate conditions, but we don’t know how this will play out over the next few decades and centuries,” Laughlin said.&nbsp;



“For example, the climate in Laramie may soon be suitable for trees from the Southwest that are adapted to warmer conditions, but we are uncertain about which species will arrive first.”



“Understanding the fundamental temperature tolerances of trees is an important first step to improving our predictions of how tree species’ ranges will shift over time.”



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Trees have an amazing ability to adapt to new climates

Although tree species appear to prefer certain climates, their true...

Strawberries are undoubtedly one of the most beloved berries in the world. Their tantalizing flavors and health-enriching ingredients are due to complex biochemical compounds, or as scientists call them, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-biomarkers-predict-dementia-onset-15-years-in-advance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biomarkers</a>.



Previous identification of such compounds required the expertise of seasoned scientists and complex analysis.



However, recent advancements in technology have revolutionized the process of identifying biomarkers, making it more accessible and efficient. 



This high-tech approach will ultimately make it possible to produce strawberry varieties that are not only delicious, but also as rich in nutrients as possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-deep-dive-into-the-world-of-strawberries">A deep dive into the world of strawberries</h2>



In a breakthrough study, scientists from <a href="https://tu-freiberg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Bergakademie Freiberg</a>, along with experts from Serbia, conducted a thorough analysis of various strawberry varieties using ultra-high resolution mass spectrometry.



The team scrutinized how biomarkers are distributed within the fruit. This analysis led them to a significant discovery - most of the biomarkers are concentrated in the strawberries' red skin.



"Sensory experience in humans is principally driven by sugars and organic acids in a combined effect with volatile/aroma compounds providing the final perception," wrote the researchers. "Fruit taste quality is often related to internal attributes, primarily the concentration of individual sugars and their ratio."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potent-antioxidant-in-strawberry-skin">Potent antioxidant in strawberry skin</h2>



A crucial discovery was the identification of a biomarker named pelargonidin-3-O-malonyglucoside within the strawberry skin, explained Dr. Jan Zuber, a research associate at the Institute of Analytical Chemistry at TU Bergakademie Freiberg.



This compound boasts antioxidant effects, binding free radicals in the human body, thereby exhibiting anti-inflammatory and vasoprotective benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-sweetness-behind-the-taste">The sweetness behind the taste</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/super-sized-fruit-strawberries-weigh-60-percent-more-than-they-did-12-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strawberry varieties</a> possessed other biomarkers as well, including organic acids like citric acid, or sugars such as glucose.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-strawberry-flavor-for-foods-from-a-fungus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flavor</a> and nutritional quality of a strawberry variety are largely determined by the concentration and ratio of these biomarkers, the majority of which are located within the skin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-highly-innovative-research-method">Highly innovative research method</h2>



You might be curious about how these scientists managed to precisely detect the biomarker concentration within the fruit. 



The answer lies within a high-tech tool known as the ultra-high-resolution mass spectrometer. This device is used to inspect thin slices of strawberries. 



The biomarkers are first transformed into charged particles or ions via a laser and are subsequently separated based on their mass and charge number.



With this highly innovative approach, the researchers were able to differentiate between various biomarkers with masses differing only at the sixth decimal place. 



The findings were represented by a colored image of the strawberry slice's measured signals, which revealed a high concentration of taste and quality relevant biomarkers within the skin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strawberry-breeding-with-precision">Strawberry breeding with precision</h2>



Using this method, the researchers examined 25 new strawberry varieties. This new understanding of the location and concentration of biomarkers can guide strawberry breeding efforts, focusing on high-yielding and nutrient-rich varieties.



The strawberry slice used for analysis is incredibly thin, only a few micrometers in thickness. It is prepared for measurement in the mass spectrometer using a specialized cutting device known as a cryo-microtome. 



The thin disk is then coated with a UV-active matrix essential for turning the biomarkers into corresponding ions.



A measurement grid is placed over this sample, with each point set to be excited by the mass spectrometer’s laser. 



The resulting ions are detected and any minute differences in mass between the ions can be detected and used for differentiation. 



The final step is the evaluation and visualization of the information using distribution images that reveal where certain biomarkers can be found within the thin sections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-science-and-agriculture">Food science and agriculture</h2>



This innovative approach to analyzing strawberries' biochemical composition has far-reaching implications beyond just breeding new varieties. It opens up potential advancements in food science and agriculture. 



By understanding the precise distribution and concentration of beneficial biomarkers, researchers can explore methods to enhance the nutrient profiles of various fruits and vegetables. This could lead to producing foods with higher antioxidant levels, better flavors, and improved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strawberries-promote-cardiometabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health benefits</a>.



Furthermore, this technology can be extended to other crops, helping to improve food security and nutritional quality on a global scale.



The knowledge gained from such studies could also assist in developing targeted agricultural practices that optimize the growth conditions and yield of nutrient-dense crops.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/12/12/2238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wiley Analytical Science</a>.



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Strawberries of the future will be even more healthy and delicious

Strawberries are undoubtedly one of the most beloved berries in...

The Key Largo tree cactus, the only population of its kind in the US, has been recently lost due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-levels-threaten-groundwater-global-cities-underground-infrastructure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising sea levels</a>, marking a significant ecological event. 



The species, known as Pilosocereus millspaughii, continues to grow on some Caribbean islands but had a single population in Florida, discovered in 1992.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bellwether-for-coastal-plants">Bellwether for coastal plants</h2>



Over time, saltwater intrusion, hurricanes, soil depletion, and mammalian herbivores significantly pressured the Key Largo tree cactus population in Florida.&nbsp;



By 2021, the once-thriving group of around 150 stems had dwindled to just six, which researchers salvaged for cultivation.



“Unfortunately, the Key Largo tree cactus may be a bellwether for how other low-lying coastal plants will respond to climate change,” said lead author Jennifer Possley, the director of regional conservation at the <a href="https://fairchildgarden.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-key-largo-tree-cactus-nbsp">Identifying the Key Largo tree cactus&nbsp;</h2>



Initially, researchers were uncertain about the cactus’s identity, confusing it with the closely related Key tree cactus (Pilosocereus robinii), a federally endangered species found elsewhere in the Keys.&nbsp;



The two species share similarities, such as their vertical stems and garlic-scented flowers, but differ in key characteristics.&nbsp;



“The most striking difference is the tuft of long, woolly hairs at the base of the flowers and fruits,” said Alan Franck, the herbarium collection manager at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>. 



These unique features, along with longer spines, led to the confirmation that the Key Largo cactus was indeed Pilosocereus millspaughii, the first of its kind in the US.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-destruction-from-human-development-nbsp">Habitat destruction from human development&nbsp;</h2>



The decline of the Key Largo cactus mirrors the environmental challenges faced by the Key tree cactus. Once abundant, the Key tree cactus’s numbers have plummeted due to habitat destruction from human development.&nbsp;



Botanist John Small observed in 1917 that the species had become scarce in its natural habitat due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a> and land development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-rising-salinity-nbsp">Impact of rising salinity&nbsp;</h2>



Despite being listed as federally endangered in 1984, the Key tree cactus population continued to decrease, dropping by 84% between 1994 and 2007. Researchers from Fairchild have been monitoring these populations annually since 2007.&nbsp;



A study linked higher salt levels in the soil beneath dead cacti to increased mortality following storm surges, highlighting the impact of rising salinity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbivores-and-extreme-weather">Herbivores and extreme weather</h2>



The Key Largo tree cactus faced similar threats, compounded by consumption by herbivores and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-tens-of-millions-of-people-love-watching-videos-of-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a>. In 2015, James Lange and his team observed significant herbivory, likely due to freshwater scarcity caused by king tides. 



Efforts to identify the herbivores using cameras were unsuccessful, but the damage continued. By 2017, Hurricane Irma caused a five-foot storm surge, flooding large parts of Key Largo and severely damaging the cactus habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-largo-tree-cactus-stems">Key Largo tree cactus stems</h2>



In 2021, only six Key Largo tree cactus stems remained. Recognizing the imminent extinction of this population, researchers allowed the plants to flower and fruit before salvaging the remaining green material for cultivation in greenhouses.&nbsp;



“We have tentative plans with the <a href="https://floridadep.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Department of Environmental Protection</a> to replant some in the wild,” said Possley.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-the-key-tree-cactus-nbsp">Protecting the Key tree cactus&nbsp;</h2>



While reintroduction efforts have helped sustain the Key tree cactus in Florida, finding suitable habitats for replanting is challenging.&nbsp;



Possley noted that environments suitable for tree cacti, such as the fringe between mangroves and upland hammocks, are rapidly disappearing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-on-the-front-lines-of-biodiversity-loss-nbsp">On the front lines of biodiversity loss&nbsp;</h2>



The decline of the Key Largo tree cactus serves as a stark reminder of the broader impacts of climate change.&nbsp;



“We are on the front lines of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity loss</a>,” said George Gann, executive director of the <a href="https://www.regionalconservation.org/">Institute for Regional Conservation</a>. 



Over the past 25 years, more than one-in-four native plant species in South Florida have faced regional extinction or severe threats due to habitat loss, over-collecting, and invasive species. More than 50 species have already vanished, including four global extinctions.



This study, published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.17348/jbrit.v18.i1.1350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the Botanical Research Institute of Texas</a>, underscores the urgency of addressing the complex and multifaceted challenges posed by climate change and environmental degradation. 



As researchers strive to preserve the remaining tree cacti, their work highlights the critical need for proactive conservation efforts to protect biodiversity in a rapidly changing world.



Image Credit: Photo courtesy of Susan Kolterman



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Sea level rise claims its first coastal plant victim in the U.S.

The Key Largo tree cactus, the only population of its...

Tropical,Jungle,With,Small,Waterfall

Tropical forests – our verdant guardiansl against climate change, our shelters of unmatched biodiversity – are paying a higher price for human activity than we previously understood.



Eberhard Fritz from Max Planck Society and his team of global scientists have connected the dots between human activity and the ongoing degradation of these vital spaces, and their findings suggest we must rethink our understanding of the situation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-footprint-on-tropical-forests">Human footprint on tropical forests</h2>



Fritz and his team embarked on a challenging quest, leveraging multiple remote sensing data streams and cutting-edge data analysis tools to survey the landscape of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-of-forests-2024-new-solutions-for-a-better-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical moist forests</a> and assess the long-term impacts of our activities.



The result is a perspective rarely seen before – the unfiltered reality of human-driven forest degradation, its long-lasting effects, and the urgency of the situation.



Their study reveals surprisingly high levels of degradation and fragmentation directly caused by human activities. 



But the team didn't stop at the boundaries of the forest; they dug deeper, exploring the intricacies of forest ecosystem dynamics and the consequences of our actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ramifications-of-degradation">Ramifications of degradation</h2>



Fritz and his team used Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (<a href="https://gedi.umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEDI</a>) technology from the International Space Station (ISS) to observe forest cover changes from 1990–2022. Their findings were illuminating.



They found that human activities like road and agricultural expansion or selective logging often reduce the height and biomass of the forest canopy by 20–30%. 



These "edge effects" can also extend deep into the forest, leading to smaller canopy heights and reduced biomass even 1,500 meters inside what seems to be intact forest.



The impact is not only limited to the physical structure of the forest but also affects the biodiversity within these areas. 



Species that depend on tall canopies and dense biomass for survival may find their habitats increasingly fragmented and inhospitable, creating further ecological imbalances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-activities-and-forest-climate">Human activities and forest climate</h2>



Furthermore, the disruption caused by these activities can significantly alter microclimates, leading to potential changes in temperature and humidity levels within the forest. 



These shifts may have cascading effects on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-tree-species-are-moving-to-colder-and-wetter-regions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diverse flora and fauna</a> that thrive there.



Understanding these impacts is crucial, as it highlights the intricate balance of ecosystems and the profound influence human activities can have on our natural world. 



Unsurprisingly, these activities result in significant carbon emissions and biodiversity loss. Yet, our policies aimed at reducing greenhouse gases often overlook forest degradation, focusing instead on the more obvious signs of deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-domino-effect-of-humans-on-tropical-forests">Domino effect of humans on tropical forests</h2>



"Cumulative human disturbances, e.g. due to unsustainable logging, fire, and edge effects are particularly important," says Gregory Duveiller, co-author and project group leader at the <a href="https://www.mpg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute</a> for Biogeochemistry in Jena, Germany.



Such disturbances increase the likelihood of complete deforestation once 50% of the canopy height is lost. This significant reduction in canopy height disrupts the ecosystem, leading to a cascade of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/single-degree-temperature-warming-boreal-forests-wreak-havoc/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">negative effects</a> on biodiversity and soil health.



Moreover, degraded forests are more vulnerable to additional disturbances. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-play-an-overlooked-role-in-the-climate-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate</a> extremes, including severe droughts and intense storms, threaten their potential resilience and long-term future. 



The compounded effects of these disturbances can lead to a vicious cycle of degradation. This makes recovery increasingly difficult.



"Taken together, the study shows that the degradation impacts on canopy structure are greater than previously reported," adds Duveiller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-call-for-forest-protection">Urgent call for forest protection</h2>



In response to these alarming findings, Fritz and his team have called for a surge in efforts to prevent further degradation and protect our already degraded forests.



Their study serves as a clarifying lens, highlighting the urgency of the situation and the need for immediate action to meet the conservation pledges made at the recent <a href="https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/climate-solutions/biodiversity-and-nature-based-solutions" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United Nations Climate Change and Biodiversity</a> conferences.



Can we rise to this challenge? Can we redefine our relationship with tropical forests and implement measures that will ensure their survival? Only time will tell, but one thing is certain - the clock is ticking. 



So let's roll up our sleeves, put our heads together, and work to protect these crucial ecosystems for the sake of our planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07629-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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Human destruction of tropical forests is much worse than believed

Tropical forests – our verdant guardiansl against climate change, our...

Ever wondered where your favorite chocolate comes from? A consortium of scientists from around the globe have discovered three new species closely linked to the cherished chocolate plant, Theobroma cacao.



This research not only broadens our understanding of plant biodiversity but could also swing open the door to climate-resistant cocoa - a vital ingredient for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthier-chocolate-created-by-using-the-entire-cocoa-fruit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chocolate</a> lovers.



This operation has been spearheaded by Dr. James Richardson from the <a href="https://www.ucc.ie/en/bees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College Cork</a> School of Biological, Earth &amp; Environmental Sciences and the Environmental Research Institute, along with other notable experts from the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of São Paulo</a> and the <a href="https://www.nybg.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York Botanical Garden</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cacao-plant-species">Cacao plant species</h2>



The newly unveiled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cacao-trees-5000-year-odyssey-global-domestication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> - T. globosum, T. nervosum, and T. schultesii - are residents of the lush South American rainforests. They belong to the section Herrania, closely related to the Theobroma cacao, the cocoa-bearing tree revered for its economic impact.



"These new species were discovered as a result of studying specimens in herbaria and demonstrate the importance of maintaining these natural history collections as many more species remain to be discovered within them,” said Dr. Richardson.



"That there were recently unknown species closely related to Theobroma cacao, which is of huge importance for the production of chocolate and other products, shows how much more work there is to be done to catalog the vast amount of unknown biodiversity across our planet."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-silver-lining-for-the-chocolate-lining">A silver lining for the chocolate lining</h2>



With climate change looming like a dark cloud over global industries, the cocoa sector is no exception. However, each silver cloud has a chocolate lining. 



This scientific breakthrough could lead to the development of more climate-resilient cocoa trees, promising a more sustainable future for our beloved chocolate production.



"Cacao prices have trebled in recent months due to low production as a result of a prolonged period of drought in West Africa, which is the area of greatest production," noted Dr. Richardson.



"The discovery of new species, in addition to those already known, expands the genetic resources available to us that might allow us to produce drought-tolerant or disease-resistant cocoa trees."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-and-potential-innovations">Future research and potential innovations</h2>



The discovery of these new species opens numerous avenues for future research. Scientists are now keen to sequence the genomes of T. globosum, T. nervosum, and T. schultesii to uncover genetic markers for traits such as drought resistance and disease tolerance.



The research team conducted meticulous examinations of leaves, flowers, and fruits and liaised with multiple botanical institutions on their quest to uncover these new species. 



Like detectives leafing through a case file, they scanned through samples, cross-reference data, and eventually hit the jackpot.



Such knowledge and techniques could be instrumental in breeding programs aimed at developing robust cocoa varieties. 



Collaborative projects are expected to spring up between institutions worldwide, driven by a collective goal: to secure the future of chocolate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-virus-threatens-global-chocolate-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">production</a> in the face of climatic and environmental changes.



The journey of these new species from the hidden depths of herbaria to the forefront of scientific progress exemplifies the limitless potential of human curiosity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chocolate-with-less-sugar-still-tastes-great-with-a-secret-ingredient/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">innovation</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-on-theobroma-cacao-species">More on Theobroma Cacao species</h2>



Theobroma cacao, often hailed as the "food of the gods," is more than just a plant. It's a cornerstone of global agriculture and culture. 



Native to tropical regions of Central and South America, this evergreen tree produces cacao beans. These beans are the heart of the chocolate-making process. 



They undergo a fascinating journey of fermentation, drying, roasting, and grinding to become the chocolate we love.



Botanically, Theobroma cacao is a marvel. Its flowers bloom directly on the trunk and branches, a rare phenomenon called cauliflory. This leads to pods filled with prized seeds. 



With a diverse range of flavors and pest resistances, cacao presents exciting opportunities and challenges. Researchers aim to unlock its full potential.



So, what's next for the team? There's plenty more to explore in this green-and-brown world of chocolate. Who knows, maybe next time you bite into a chocolate bar, you'll be tasting the sweet success of scientific discovery. After all, science is a lot like chocolate – the more you know, the more you enjoy it!



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12225-024-10171-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kew Bulletin</a>.



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New discovery will help 'climate-proof' chocolate

Ever wondered where your favorite chocolate comes from? A consortium...

New evidence suggests that soy foods have great potential to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cheese-may-contain-nutrients-that-prevent-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive</a> abilities among school-aged children.



The pioneering study reveals that an increased intake of isoflavones from soy foods can lead to improved thinking ability and attention span in children.



The research paves a new path for studying the positive implications of soy food on youngsters' cognitive growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-isoflavones-in-soy-foods">Exploring isoflavones in soy foods</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-compound-offers-new-hope-for-people-with-food-allergies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Isoflavones</a>, organic compounds rich in soybeans and other related products, have been studied extensively in adults. This research linked soy foods to enhanced memory function. 



However, it remained unclear whether the cognitive benefits of soy foods extended to the younger population.



“Soy foods are often not a regular part of children’s diets in the United States,” said Ajla Bristina, a neuroscience doctoral student at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>. 



“Our study adds evidence of the importance of nutrients found in soy foods for childhood cognition.”



The in-depth analysis illuminated the significant role of nutrients in soy foods and their direct impact on childhood cognition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-effects-of-soy-foods-in-children">Cognitive effects of soy foods in children</h2>



For the investigation, the research team analyzed cross-sectional data from 128 children between the ages of 7 and 13.



The researchers closely examined the average nutritional intake from the children’s dietary journals, considering the consumption of macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins, and isoflavones.



“Soy consumption for individual participants ranged from 0 to 35 mg/day. To put this into perspective, an 8 fl. oz serving of soy milk provides about 28 mg of isoflavones, a serving of tofu provides about 35 mg and half a cup of steamed edamame provides about 18 mg of isoflavones,” said Bristina.



A blend of carefully constructed pencil and paper tests, adapted per grade level, measured children’s general intellectual prowess. 



Cutting-edge technology and methods, such as the computerized flanker task and electroencephalographic (EEG) assessments, were used to evaluate attention skills. Brain activity was simultaneously recorded to examine information processing speed.



This marked the first time an investigation combined soy isoflavones and EEG measures to explore cognitive functioning.



“No other studies have examined the association between soy isoflavones and attentional abilities using EEG or similar measures to record electrical activity generated by the brain,” said Bristina.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-isoflavones">Impact of isoflavones</h2>



The results were intriguing. The analysis revealed a strong correlation between higher intake of soy-based foods and improved attentional capabilities. 



Children who consumed more isoflavones performed better on cognitive tasks and showed quicker <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caregiver-speech-shapes-infant-language-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">information processing</a> compared to their lower intake counterparts.



“The children in our study consumed an average of 1.33 mg of isoflavones per day, which while relatively low, aligns with previously reported values for the United States,” said Bristina. 



“Overall, the analysis revealed that the children in the study tended to consume low amounts of isoflavone-containing soy foods."



"However, those who did consume more soy foods showed faster responses during the attentional tasks and exhibited faster processing speed. No association was observed between soy isoflavone intake and general intellectual ability.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-soy-foods-to-the-rescue">Soy foods to the rescue</h2>



Soy-rich foods, such as tofu, tempeh, or soy-based nuggets, are a beneficial addition to children's diets. 



Not only are these foods easily accessible and flexible to be incorporated into various meals, but they also play a crucial role in fortifying cognitive capacities in children.



Bristina noted that snacks like roasted edamame, soy nuts, or soy milk are a good way to incorporate more soy into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthy-diet-positively-influences-the-brains-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a>. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed </h2>



Despite the promising results, the research serves merely as a stepping stone. Future experimental studies are crucial to establish the exact quantity of isoflavone intake required to boost cognitive response times and to understand the implications of soy foods on different cognitive abilities.



“Correlational studies like this are only the first step,” said Bristina. “To better understand the effects of eating soy foods on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-profoundly-impairs-childrens-cognitive-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">children’s cognitive abilities</a> and the precise amount of isoflavone intake necessary to elicit faster response times will require intervention approaches.”



To dive deeper, the research team has initiated a clinical trial to explore the effects of soy foods on children's thinking abilities, metabolism, sex hormones, and gut health.



The research was presented at the <a href="https://nutrition.org/n24/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NUTRITION 2024</a> conference.



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Soy foods boost cognitive abilities and attention span in children

New evidence suggests that soy foods have great potential to...

A recent study led by <a href="https://www.samford.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Samford University</a> has found that consuming baby <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-carrots-and-colorful-veggies-really-can-improve-your-eyesight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carrots</a> just three times a week significantly boosts skin carotenoid levels in young adults. This increase is even more pronounced when combined with a beta-carotene <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taking-a-daily-multivitamin-improves-memory-and-slows-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multivitamin</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-spectrum-of-health-benefits">A spectrum of health benefits</h2>



Carotenoids - the bright red, orange, and yellow pigments responsible for the vibrant colors of many fruits and vegetables - offer numerous health benefits. 



These plant-based compounds can be measured in the skin, reflecting the level of fruit and vegetable intake. 



Carotenoids are linked to enhanced immune function, increased antioxidant protection, and reduced risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-eating-habits-can-lead-to-lifelong-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chronic diseases</a>. Simply adding baby carrots as a snack can notably raise skin carotenoid accumulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-baby-carrot-effect">The baby carrot effect</h2>



“Previous studies have demonstrated that skin carotenoid levels can be increased by consuming three times the recommended serving of fruits and vegetables every day for three weeks,” said Mary Harper Simmons, a master of science in nutrition student at Samford.&nbsp;



“Our findings suggest that a small, simple dietary modification - incorporating baby carrots as a snack - can significantly increase skin carotenoid accumulation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



The experts randomly assigned 60 young adults to groups receiving different four-week interventions: Granny Smith apple slices (control group), 100 grams of baby carrots, a beta-carotene multivitamin supplement, or a combination of carrots and the supplement.&nbsp;



The researchers measured skin carotenoids before and after the intervention using a noninvasive “VeggieMeter.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-carrots-boost-skin-carotenoids">Baby carrots boost skin carotenoids</h2>



The analyses revealed a 10.8% increase in skin carotenoids for the group eating baby carrots and a 21.6% increase for those combining carrots with the supplement. There were no changes in the control or supplement-only groups.



“We found that the combination of baby carrots and a multivitamin supplement that contains beta carotene can have an interactive effect on skin carotenoid accumulation,” said Simmons.&nbsp;



“To get a beneficial effect, people should choose a multivitamin that contains beta <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carotenes-have-a-powerful-positive-effect-on-heart-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carotene</a>, and remember to eat baby carrots at least three times a week.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-carotenoid-research">The future of carotenoid research</h2>



The lack of impact from multivitamin supplementation alone suggests potential differences in how carotenoids are absorbed, whether they are food-based or from supplements.&nbsp;



Encouraged by these results, the research team plans to delve into the mechanisms behind these findings and study the effects of other carotenoid-rich foods, like sweet potatoes or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-leafy-green-vegetables-safe-until-ready-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leafy greens</a>.



The research was presented at <a href="https://nutrition.org/n24/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NUTRITION 2024</a>, the annual meeting of the <a href="https://nutrition.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Society for Nutrition</a>.



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Baby carrots: Snack your way to better health

A recent study led by Samford University has found that...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-creates-an-unclear-future-for-u-s-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climate change</a> is likely to push tree species toward the colder and wetter parts of their geographical distribution, according to new research led by the <a href="https://www.uah.es/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alcalá</a> (UAH) in Spain. 



The study, published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2314899121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS), provides the first quantitative evidence that climate change is causing this shift in tree density across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boreal-and-temperate-forests-have-emerged-as-the-main-carbon-sinks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperate forests</a> on a continental scale.



“Although climate change is expected to drive tree species toward colder and wetter regions of their distribution, broadscale empirical evidence is lacking,” noted the study authors. “One possibility is that past and present human activities in forests obscure or alter the effects of climate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-most-tree-species-can-acclimate">Most tree species can acclimate</h2>



The researchers analyzed data from over two million trees, representing 73 species widely distributed across Europe and the United States.&nbsp;



They explored whether changes in tree density could be attributed to specific characteristics of each species, such as tolerance to arid conditions or dispersal capacity. However, the study did not identify any single trait as decisive for these changes.



“This lack of a definitive trait suggests that most species possess a degree of acclimation capability,” said lead author Julen Astigarraga, a postdoctoral fellow at UAH.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-species-used-for-ecosystem-restoration-nbsp">Tree species used for ecosystem restoration&nbsp;</h2>



Understanding how forest species respond to climate change by increasing their density in more northerly regions is crucial for planning ecosystem <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation</a>, management, and restoration. 



“Some tree species which are currently used for ecosystem restoration in Europe may no longer be suitable in these regions in the near future,” said co-author Thomas Pugh, a climate scientist at the University of Birmingham and Lund University.&nbsp;



“In addition, massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reforestation-cannot-offset-carbon-emissions-from-harvesting-wood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reforestation</a> programs planned as a solution for capturing and storing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere might be limited in their effectiveness if they do not account for these responses.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-international-collaboration-nbsp">International collaboration&nbsp;</h2>



The study represented a significant international collaboration, involving scientists from 12 countries and data analysis from more than 125,000 forest plots across Europe and North America.&nbsp;



“This study required a significant international effort to pull together and harmonize data from many different sources. The data from these forest inventories is crucial for advancing our understanding of forest dynamics and their resilience to climate change,” explained co-author Adriane Esquivel Muelbert, an expert in forest ecology at Birmingham.



These findings underscore the importance of considering climate-driven changes in tree species distribution when developing strategies for ecosystem restoration and reforestation.



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Many tree species are moving to colder and wetter regions

Climate change is likely to push tree species toward the...

Two new species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychoactive mushrooms</a> in the genus Psilocybe have been identified in southern Africa, bringing the total to six known indigenous species.&nbsp;



Despite Psilocybe being among the most well-known and studied psychoactive mushrooms, these new species, Psilocybe ingeli and Psilocybe maluti, were only recently discovered.&nbsp;



The findings were detailed in a paper published in the journal Mycologia by researchers from <a href="https://www.sun.ac.za/english">Stellenbosch University</a> (SU) and citizen mycologists.



The researchers noted that although there are no studies on the origin of the genus Psilocybe, it is possible that the genus originates from Africa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-citizen-scientists-find-new-mushroom-species">Citizen scientists find new mushroom species</h2>



Psilocybe ingeli was discovered in 2023 in KwaZulu-Natal by Talan Moult, a self-taught citizen mycologist.&nbsp;



Psilocybe maluti was found in 2021 on a small holding in Free State by Daniella Mulder, who sent photos of the mushrooms to Andrew Killian, one of South Africa’s leading citizen mycologists based in Somerset West.&nbsp;



Both of the specimens were then sent to Breyten van der Merwe at SU for DNA sequencing and analysis in the lab of Prof. Karin Jacobs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traditional-use-of-mushrooms">Traditional use of mushrooms</h2>



The paper also highlights the traditional use of P. maluti by Basotho traditional healers in Lesotho. According to the researchers, this appears to be the only recorded first-hand report of hallucinogenic mushrooms being used traditionally in Africa.&nbsp;



Cullen Taylor Clark, a citizen mycologist and co-author, worked with Mamosebetsi Sethathi, a Mosotho traditional healer, to document the use of P. maluti (locally known as koae-ea-lekhoaba) in traditional healing practices. 



This forms part of a larger effort led by Clark to document the use of mushrooms by indigenous groups in southern Africa.



“These two species were sent to me by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-rare-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">citizen scientists</a>. It would be impossible for a single researcher to cover a fraction of an area these mushroom enthusiasts have access to. This is the only way we will be able to further studies in African <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/a-beginners-guide-to-mycology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycology</a>,” Van der Merwe said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-promoting-a-love-of-mushrooms">Promoting a love of mushrooms</h2>



“There are only a handful of mycologists in Africa documenting local biodiversity,” Jacobs added. “Considering the vast mycological diversity on the continent, it is a daunting task. Collaborating with citizen mycologists is therefore hugely beneficial.”&nbsp;



“In addition to more material, collaboration also opens avenues for conversation and exploration, which can lead to documenting mycophilia (the love of mushrooms) on the African continent.”



These collaborative efforts underscore the critical role of citizen scientists in expanding our understanding of mycological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-fungi-determine-the-gradient-of-forest-diversity-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> and traditional uses of mushrooms in Africa. 



The research not only highlights new mushroom species but also the cultural significance and potential benefits of these fungi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-history-of-psilocybin-mushrooms">History of psilocybin mushrooms</h2>



The history of psilocybin mushrooms is deeply connected to human culture, spirituality, and medicine. Archaeological evidence shows that magic mushrooms were used by indigenous peoples for thousands of years.&nbsp;



This is particularly true in Central and South America. The ancient Aztecs called these psychedelic fungi "teonanácatl," meaning "flesh of the gods." They used them in religious ceremonies to induce visions.&nbsp;



Spanish chroniclers in the 16th century documented these rituals. However, colonial authorities often suppressed the practice, considering it heretical.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-renewed-attention-nbsp">Renewed attention&nbsp;</h3>



In the 1950s, psilocybin mushrooms gained renewed attention. R. Gordon Wasson, an American ethnomycologist, participated in a traditional mushroom ceremony in Mexico. His 1957 publication in Life magazine caught the public and scientific community's interest.&nbsp;



Soon after, Albert Hofmann, the Swiss chemist known for discovering LSD, isolated psilocybin and its active metabolite, psilocin.



The 1960s saw extensive research into psilocybin's therapeutic potential. Scientists explored its efficacy in treating depression and anxiety.&nbsp;



However, the counterculture movement and its anti-establishment sentiments led to a backlash. The United States prohibited psilocybin and other psychedelics under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-interest">Scientific interest</h3>



Recently, scientific interest in psilocybin has surged again. Modern studies highlight its benefits for mental health therapies. The compound shows promise in treating treatment-resistant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/compound-in-magic-mushrooms-effectively-treats-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>, PTSD, and end-of-life anxiety.&nbsp;



This renewed focus acknowledges the historical significance of psilocybin mushrooms. It also explores their potential for future medical applications.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00275514.2024.2363137" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mycologia</a>.&nbsp;



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Mushroom magic: New species discovered in Africa

Two new species of psychoactive mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe...

Why do some fern species adapt to urban environments while others prefer to remain rural?



Tammo Reichgelt, an expert in paleobotany at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Connecticut</a>, used citizen science data to investigate. The research revealed that certain ferns can mitigate the urban heat island effect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-abundance-of-ferns-in-urban-areas">Abundance of ferns in urban areas</h2>



Reichgelt's interest in this topic began as a hobby when he noticed an unusual abundance of ferns in urban areas.&nbsp;



“I just happened to notice, ‘Wow, there's a lot of ferns here. Strange,’” he said, noting the peculiarity of finding ferns in places like Rockville, surrounded by asphalt, concrete, and brick. This observation, supported by data from the <a href="https://www.inaturalist.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iNaturalist</a> community, indicated that specific fern species thrive in human-made environments.&nbsp;



“Especially in old mill towns in Connecticut, like Rockville, Willimantic, or Norwich, that tend to have a denser and older urban core, there were rock-dwelling ferns on buildings, bridges, and other structures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rock-dwelling-fern-species">Rock-dwelling fern species</h2>



To explore this further, Reichgelt collected over 22,000 georeferenced observations of 16 rock-dwelling fern species in the Northeast. He combined this data with land-use information from the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">United States Geological Survey</a> (USGS) to differentiate between natural and developed environments.&nbsp;



The findings showed a significant difference in habitat preference among fern species. “Over 50% of blunt cliff fern (Woodsia obtusa) observations were in highly developed areas,” noted Reichgelt. “The purple stem cliff brake (Pellaea atropurpurea) is more common south of Connecticut, but abundant in developed areas.”



“A surprising species is the Tennessee bulblet fern (Cystopteris tennesseensis), which is rare in its natural range but seems to thrive in the Philadelphia suburbs.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-factors-in-fern-adaptation">Key factors in fern adaptation </h2>



The study identified average summertime temperature and highest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-summer-of-2023-was-the-hottest-in-2000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">summer temperature</a> as key climatic variables influencing fern adaptation to urban environments. Urban areas tend to be hotter due to the high heat capacity of building materials, a phenomenon known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-the-best-option-to-reduce-the-urban-heat-island-effect/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat island effect</a>.&nbsp;



“That means these plants need to be adapted to hot environments to be able to survive in an urban environment,” Reichgelt said. “That these fern species are pre-adapted to hotter environments seems to predispose them to be able to thrive in urban environments. For the 11 species that don’t grow in urban environments, it seems that they cannot tolerate the Urban Heat Island effect.”



Ferns that do not grow in urban environments, such as the rock polypody (Polypodium virginianum) and Mackay’s fragile fern (Cystopteris tenuis), seem unable to tolerate the high summer temperatures of cities.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invaluable-citizen-science-data-nbsp">Invaluable citizen science data&nbsp;</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/citizen-scientists-gain-a-stronger-connection-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Citizen science</a> data from iNaturalist, which includes observations from a wide range of locations, proved invaluable for this study.&nbsp;



“Very rarely would researchers go and make observations in urban environments. Citizen science data is an interesting new source of information that is rapidly crowding out other sources of information,” said Reichgelt.



The inclusion of urban habitats is an example of an advantage of using citizen science. Still, scientists have only just started to look into potential novel biases that are unique to citizen science.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-urban-fern-adaptations-nbsp">Investigating urban fern adaptations&nbsp;</h2>



As a paleobotanist, Reichgelt typically studies <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient climates</a> and plant adaptations. This background led him to investigate modern fern adaptation to urban environments. He plans to further explore the physiological differences between urban and rural ferns, including water regulation and photosynthesis.&nbsp;



“I would like to compare whether urban and rural ferns have different functional traits, for example whether they differ in their water regulation or how they photosynthesize. In other words, what are the adaptations that allow certain ferns to thrive in urban environments?”



Understanding these adaptations is crucial for urban planning and mitigating issues like the Urban Heat Island Effect. Ferns, which thrive without human intervention, could be a low-maintenance solution for cooling urban areas.&nbsp;



“The weird thing about these urban ferns is that they grow in places that are not tended. They're native to the area but are weedy in these urban environments. Having something that can survive in an urban area and absorb the heat cools the city down,” Reichgelt concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajb2.16364" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Journal of Botany</a>.



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Many plants, like ferns, prefer living in city environments

Why do some fern species adapt to urban environments while...

The quest to understand the enigma of photosynthesis, how water is involved, and its critical role on Earth has taken a significant leap forward.



A recent breakthrough in visual technology has resulted in the capture of high-resolution images beyond any achieved before, shedding never-before-seen light on this essential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life process</a>.



Our story begins within the walls of a renowned institution, <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Umeå University</a>, where diligent researchers embarked on a fascinating journey to understand the positions of hydrogen atoms and water molecules in photosynthesis.



Their findings, published in the reputed scientific journal, Science, are anticipated to open new avenues to comprehend how water is divided. 



This process is a fundamental aspect of life on Earth and a crucial element for enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tapping-into-the-natural-power-of-plants-for-renewable-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">renewable energy</a> systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intricate-mechanism-of-photosynthesis">Intricate mechanism of photosynthesis</h2>



Immersing ourselves into the world of flora, photosynthesis is a complex process where a protein ensemble, known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-finally-decoded-the-process-of-photosynthesis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosystem II</a>, harnesses sunlight energy to transform water into molecular oxygen.



Concurrently, it releases electrons and protons indispensable for converting carbon dioxide into organic compounds in plants. 



This intricate process plays an unquestionable role in the gaseous conversion reactions that sculpt our biosphere and atmosphere -- fostering oxygen evolution and minimizing carbon dioxide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-photosystem-ii">Mapping photosystem II</h2>



Exploring this phenomenon, the team employed a cryo-electron microscope to produce remarkably precise three-dimensional structural diagrams of Photosystem II at a resolution of 1.7 Å.



The study focused on the thermophilic cyanobacterium Thermosynechococcus vestitus, a resilient organism that thrives in harsh, high-temperature environments.



"This resolution is a new record for a membrane protein complex, regardless of method or species," explained Wolfgang Schröder, professor emeritus at the <a href="https://www.umu.se/en/department-of-plant-physiology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Plant Physiology</a>. 



"At this resolution, a large fraction of the hydrogen atoms of the protein can be detected. This is the first time this has been achieved for such a large protein complex."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-hidden-water-molecules">Unmasking hidden water molecules</h2>



This superior resolution structure also unveiled previously unobserved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecule-discovery-will-force-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water molecules</a>.



Knowledge of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-hydrogen-energy-production-just-got-a-lot-easier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrogen</a> and water positions is quintessential for discerning how water penetrates the catalytic site through extended pathways and how protons are directed out.



"These processes are crucial for efficient water oxidation with cheap and abundant metals that presently cannot be mimicked adequately in artificial systems," Schröder emphasizes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthesis-and-the-future">Photosynthesis and the future</h2>



The potential to split water using inexpensive, readily available metals, as opposed to the rare and costly ones employed by modern-day electrolysers, would boost water electrolysis scalability. 



This holds immense potential for generating hydrogen, a hotly debated future energy carrier and a cornerstone chemical for numerous industrial processes, including carbon dioxide-free ammonia production.



With the world's eyes glued on the search for sustainable fuels, splitting water to create hydrogen is a promising arena. Current cutting-edge catalysts necessitate rare and expensive metals. 



This research into the structure of Photosystem II, a crucial component of photosynthesis, shows that cheaper, plentiful metals could be used just as efficiently to split water, illuminating future paths in energy production.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn6541" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Details of photosynthesis viewed at the atomic level with cryo-microscope

The quest to understand the enigma of photosynthesis, how water...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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