Rainforest,Destruction.,Gold,Mining,Place,In,Guyana,,South,America.,Amazon

Gold mining in Peru has moved into sensitive wetland areas and is releasing a lot of stored carbon. These wetlands are peatlands, waterlogged soils built from partly decayed plants that lock away carbon for centuries.



Peat loss turns a slow natural carbon vault into a fast source of emissions. That is why scientists are sounding the alarm about new mining scars in remote corners of the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peatlands-carbon-and-mining">Peatlands, carbon, and mining</h2>



<a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/global-peatlands-assessment-2022" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peatlands</a> hold an outsized share of the world’s soil carbon and help stabilize climate over long timescales. They cover a small slice of land area yet store a huge fraction of carbon underground.



Lead researcher <a href="https://www.ifgg.kit.edu/english/staff_householder.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">J Ethan Householder</a> is with the Wetland Department, Institute of Geography and Geoecology at Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany (<a href="https://www.ifgg.kit.edu/english/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IFGG</a>). 



His team’s field work and satellite analyses focus on peat swamps in southeastern Peru.



The term carbon stocks refers to the amount of carbon stored in plants and soils. In peat, most of that carbon sits below the surface in thick, oxygen poor layers that decompose very slowly.



These peat swamps also support biodiversity, the variety of living species in an ecosystem. When mining drains or digs up peat, both the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">carbon</a> bank and the living communities take a hit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-satellites-saw">What the satellites saw</h2>



The study analyzed more than three decades of images from <a href="https://landsat.gsfc.nasa.gov/satellites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Landsat</a>, a U.S. satellite program that produces consistent pictures of Earth’s surface each year. 



That time series lets researchers pinpoint when forests were cleared and when bare mine pits appeared.



They mapped mining scars along rivers in <a href="https://7wonders.org/south-america/peru/madre-de-dios/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Madre de Dios</a>, a region in Peru that has seen a rapid spread of small operations. The scars are easy to spot because forest gives way to sand and water filled pits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-massive-carbon-release-from-mining">Massive carbon release from mining</h2>



In a new paper, the team reports that mining has removed more than 550 hectares of peatland, with over half of that loss happening in just the last two years. 



They estimate that 0.2 to 0.7 million tons of carbon have already been released, and they identify 63 of 219 peatlands showing evidence of mining at their edges.



They also find that mining inside peat now accounts for 9 percent of all mining in the area and could reach 25 percent by 2027 if current trends hold. 



The analysis flags more than 10,000 hectares of peat at immediate risk, with a potential release of 3.5 to 14.5 million tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-ocean-holds-carbon-hidden-mechanisms-revealed/">carbon</a> if those areas are disturbed.



“The rapid proliferation of gold mining inside peatlands appears to be of such scope as to be an existential threat to the entire peatland complex,” wrote Householder. The numbers and the geographic pattern point in the same direction.



The team also tracked where mining is advancing. An outward front has been pushing into the alluvial plain at about 330 feet per year, and that front is reaching the peat rich margins where swamps are most common.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mining-is-pushing-into-peatlands">Why mining is pushing into peatlands</h2>



Rivers are the main highways in this part of the Amazon, so early mines hugged the banks. 



As miners followed gold bearing sediments inland, access paths, machinery, and makeshift camps increased, lowering the barrier to work in wetter ground.



Peatlands sit on the outer edges of the river plain where water pools for most of the year. 



Once miners arrive with pumps and hoses, it gets easier for others to follow, especially where law enforcement relies on boats and cannot easily reach new clearings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-driven-destruction">Human-driven destruction</h2>



A long term remote sensing <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/10/12/1903" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> record shows that mining has been a major driver of deforestation in southeastern Peru. 



Many operations are small and informal, and the work is a source of income for thousands of families.



Processing often uses mercury, a toxic metal that binds to fine gold particles. 



One river focused <a href="https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2015/em/c4em00567h" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> documented elevated mercury in sediments and fish downstream of mining hubs and found that a large share of carnivorous fish exceeded health guidelines for mercury in tissue.



Communities that rely on river fish face real exposure risks. This adds a public health layer to the climate and ecosystem costs of tearing up peat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mining-made-this-carbon-bomb">How mining made this carbon bomb</h2>



The researchers combined annual vegetation change with a classifier that separates mining from other forest losses. That approach reduced false alarms from seasonal flooding or quick regrowth after storms.



They then overlaid those mine maps with peat maps to see where pits and ponds overlap organic soils. That allowed them to calculate both the area lost and the likely carbon released.



Peat stores carbon more densely than nearby upland forests. When miners dig pits, drain water, or burn cleared vegetation, oxygen speeds up decay and carbon escapes into the air.



Even small patches can have outsized impacts because a few feet of peat can hold as much <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-atoms-in-your-body-took-a-400000-light-year-journey-through-space/">carbon</a> as a much larger area of non peat forest. That is why a few hundred hectares of loss matter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next</h2>



The results point to three priorities that do not require new technology. 



Map the edges of active peatlands at high resolution, monitor hot spots in near real time, and keep heavy equipment out of places where peat depth is greatest.



Local voices and science can work together to steer enforcement and restoration budgets to the areas of highest risk. 



Peat that stays wet and shaded keeps its carbon, and that is the simplest way to avoid adding more heat trapping gases to the air.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/adb868" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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Ticking 'carbon time bomb' has been unleashed in the Amazon rainforest by gold miners

Gold mining in Peru has moved into sensitive wetland areas and is releasing a lot of stored carbon. These wetlands are peatlands, waterlogged soils built from partly decayed plants that lock away carbon for centuries. Peat loss turns a slow natural carbon vault into a fast source of emissions. That is why scientists are sounding the alarm about new mining scars in remote corners of the Amazon. Peatlands, carbon, and mining Peatlands hold an outsized share of the world’s soil carbon and help stabilize climate over long...

Researchers have discovered that mangrove forests - a shield against destructive storms across many coastlines - are now suffocating underwater in the Maldives.



The data shows that the combination of an escalating sea level and a shift in Indian Ocean conditions has caused some Maldivian islands to lose more than half of their mangrove <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cover</a> since 2020.



The researchers, led by Lucy Carruthers and Dr. Vasile Ersek of Northumbria University, noted that this isn't a singular incident affecting only the Maldives. 



The experts said that extreme climate events represent an emerging threat to mangroves and coastal ecosystems worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slowly-deteriorating-mangroves">Slowly deteriorating mangroves</h2>



In 2020, the mangroves on more than a quarter of the Maldives islands started showing signs of slow deterioration, sliding into a state known as dieback, before bidding the world adieu. 



The intensity of this mangrove loss phenomenon was captured by satellite imagery. The experts found that some islands had lost more than half of their mangrove cover.



For their investigation of mangrove dieback, the researchers combined evidence from sea level, climate data, and remote sensing. Field observations of sediment geochemistry and dendrology were also taken into consideration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-salinity-stress-in-mangroves">Signs of salinity stress in mangroves </h2>



According to the results, the dead trees exhibited increased signs of salinity stress when compared to their living counterparts.



This stress gives us a clue that the tree roots were having a tough time dealing with the heightened salt levels, which played a key role in their demise.



The scientists concluded that sea levels around the Maldives had risen at an escalated rate of over 30mm per year from 2017 to 2020. 



Adding fuel to the fire, there was a particularly intense shift in the Indian Ocean Dipole during this period. This brought along warmer sea surface temperatures and a sea-level increase in the Western Indian Ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-tidal-movement">Limited tidal movement </h2>



While mangroves do have a way to cope with slow and steady rising seas by building up sediment, they found the pace of sea level rise over the past few years too fast to keep up with. 



Due to limited tidal movements in the basin areas where many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mangroves-and-saltmarshes-are-much-better-at-storing-carbon-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mangrove forests</a> grow, the rising sea levels essentially drowned them. 



The lack of tidal movement and the consequent flooding obstructed the mangroves from building the sediment they needed to stay above water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-magnitude-of-forest-dieback">Extreme magnitude of forest dieback</h2>



Dr. Vasile Ersek is an associate professor in Northumbria University’s <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/about-us/academic-departments/geography-and-environmental-sciences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Department of Geography and Environmental Sciences</a>.



"Dieback was first observed in the center of low-lying basin areas before gradually spreading outwards," said Dr. Ersek.



"As these basin areas have something we call limited tidal flushing we saw evidence of the rising sea level inundating the forests with seawater. This prolonged exposure created higher concentrations of salt."



“As the mangroves’ build-up of sediment slowed down due to the pace of the rising sea level, the soil salinity increased beyond what even these salt-tolerant trees could handle. Essentially, the mangroves were drowning."



Dr. Ersek noted that the extreme magnitude of dieback seen in the Maldives is a vivid illustration of how climate change may push natural systems past their limits, with cascading consequences for both nature and people.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-mangroves-in-a-warning-climate">Future of mangroves in a warning climate</h2>



Lucy Carruthers, the study's lead author, is now a postdoctoral scholar in <a href="https://coastal.ecu.edu/faculty/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Carolina University’s Department of Coastal Studies</a>.



“Sea level in the region reached its highest point on tide gauge records when the dieback occurred in 2020. This coincided with an intense positive phase in the Indian Ocean Dipole which can induce climate extremes for countries within the Indian Ocean," said Carruthers. 



“As our planet continues to warm, we can expect to see the Indian Ocean Dipole occurring more frequently and at higher magnitude, meaning events like this mangrove die-off may become more common."



“These remarkable forests have thrived at the interface of land and sea for many centuries. Whether they can survive the rapid changes of the coming decades will depend largely on our actions in managing the climate crisis today.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-73776-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Drowning mangroves: Climate change is pushing nature past its limits

Researchers have discovered that mangrove forests - a shield against...

Incredibly, trees have their own savvy ways of handling destructive winds during storms and cyclones. But, how do they do it? 



This was the driving question behind a recent study conducted by an international team of researchers from Japan, Germany, and France. The experts explored the fascinating swaying behaviors of Cryptomeria japonica, also known as the Japanese Cedar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-and-wind-stress">Forests and wind stress</h2>



Let's face it - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-relocating-in-a-race-against-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather conditions</a>, which include tropical and extratropical cyclones and tornadoes, are no less than calamities. 



They damage our forests, leading to environmental and financial losses. Fallen trees can disrupt entire ecosystems, and cleaning up the mess is not exactly cheap.



In addition, with climate change on the rise, we can expect increasingly severe storms in the future. With this in mind, it is important that we understand how forests respond to wind stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-trees-react-to-wind">How trees react to wind</h2>



This is not the first time scientists have examined the resilience of trees. However, previous studies have not given us a clear understanding of how trees react to wind across different forest configurations and weather conditions.



Recognizing this knowledge gap, the team embarked on a mission to unravel the mysteries of tree movements and wind resistance.



The research team was led by Professor Kana Kamimura, an expert in the School of Science and Technology at <a href="https://www.shinshu-u.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shinshu University</a>, Japan.



Other team members included Kazuki Nanko, Asako Matsumoto, and Saneyoshi Ueno from the <a href="https://www.ffpri.affrc.go.jp/ffpri/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute</a> in Japan, and Barry Gardiner from the <a href="https://uni-freiburg.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Freiburg</a> in Germany and the Institut Européen de la Forêt Cultivée- <a href="https://www.plantedforests.org/fr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IEFC</a>, France.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-in-various-wind-conditions">Trees in various wind conditions</h2>



"Several techniques have been developed to predict wind damage. However, they largely depend on empirical data and parameters, and overlook how wind damage occurs," noted Professor Kamimura.



"Our research aims to shed light on how winds directly impact trees and how trees reduce the stress from winds to survive."



For the investigation, the researchers monitored the behavior of trees during various wind conditions.



Their laboratory was the great outdoors, where they set up two Cryptomeria japonica plots in November 2017 in Kasumigaura City, Japan. 



The experts paid special attention to how these trees managed to dodge strong winds, gathering data over two years, including during multiple typhoons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-secret-defense-strategy">Trees' secret defense strategy</h2>



The results of the study were remarkable. The researchers found that cedar trees have two distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival modes</a>, depending on wind speed.



With lighter winds, the trees swayed at around 2-2.3 cycles per second, with their branches absorbing much of the wind energy. But when the winds got rough, the resilient trees switched to a slower swaying pattern, moving together as one unit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-speed-vs-tree-density">Wind speed vs. tree density</h2>



The transition between the two swaying modes was found to depend on the wind speed and also on the forest density. 



The densely populated P-100 plot made the shift at wind speeds between 1.79 and 7.44 meters per second. On the other hand, the transition happened at slightly lower wind speeds in the less dense P-50 plot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-case-of-typhoon-trami">Case of typhoon Trami</h2>



Typhoon Trami, in 2018, offered the team a real-world scenario to test their theories. They found that the thinned P-50 plot, despite its 48% resistance, suffered significant damage. 



“The 52% difference between actual and expected resistance values was likely due to the roots weakening because of strong winds, even before the winds became more severe," noted Professor Kamimura.



"This root fatigue occurred because the trees moved more due to less support from nearby trees and more wind penetrating the plot." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-forest-management">Implications for forest management</h2>



The insights drawn from this study are indeed valuable. They have revealed the crucial balance between thinning practices and wind resistance in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-one-third-of-the-worlds-trees-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest management</a>. 



Thinning, although helpful in promoting tree growth, can make forests more vulnerable to storms, especially soon after the thinning process.



"With more frequent storms in a changing climate, forest management practices must adapt to maintain resilience," concluded Professor Kamimura.



So, as we face a future with more storms, let's stand together, just like our trees, ready to sway but not break in the face of adversity. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112724005358?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Trees cleverly adapt to withstand storms and high winds

Incredibly, trees have their own savvy ways of handling destructive...

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in Earth's history between 1.8 billion and 800 million years ago, when life's complexity didn't extend much beyond single-celled organisms.



Apart from the occasional multicellular life form, most of the living species during that time period were simple, unicellular organisms that had minimal requirements for life. 



But don't mistake "boring" for insignificant. This epoch of evolution laid the foundation for the drama of complex multicellularity that would eventually lead to us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-fuel-for-evolution">Energy: Fuel for evolution</h2>



The boring billion period appears to mark a time when the evolution of complex life was delayed and conditions were so stable as to border on stagnant. 



Scientists state that oxygen levels at this time were drastically decreased and conditions were fairly harsh for most forms of life.



A new study by Michael Lynch of <a href="https://www.asu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a> has revealed that the transition from unicellular to multicellular life forms would have come at a cost.



Using the water flea, Daphnia, as a model organism, the study shows that multicellular organisms require more than a tenfold increase in energy compared with the simpler, unicellular organisms characteristic of the boring billion period.



"No one doubts that multicellularity can bring substantial advantages to the table, but the privilege of attaining such benefits comes at a steep investment cost," said Lynch, who directs the <a href="https://biodesign.asu.edu/mechanisms-of-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biodesign Center for Mechanisms of Evolution</a> at ASU.



The study emphasizes the importance of respiration and other metabolic processes in navigating the transition to more complex life forms. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cost-of-complexity">Cost of complexity </h2>



Every organism, from the smallest bacterium to a human, is driven by energy. Having an entire body made of only one cell reduces the need for energy and nutrients to grow and reproduce. 



But multicellular organisms, like plants, animals, and fungi, have to maintain a multitude of cells in complex tissues, organs and structures. And this places a far higher energy demand on the organism.



As the cell count increases in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-life-and-environment-co-evolved-over-500-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular organism</a>, so does the demand on ATP synthase, the molecular machinery in cells that manufactures ATP, the universal energy currency. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/multicelled-organisms_metazoan-daphnia_credit-Marek-Mis_1s.webp" alt="A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś" class="wp-image-1950209"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A new study shows that multicelled organisms like the metazoan daphnia (pictured) require a tenfold increase in energy compared with protists for their growth, maintenance and survival. The high cost of multicellular existence is offset by the many evolutionary advantages afforded to advanced organisms, from simpler forms like daphnia all the way up to vertebrate species, including humans. Credit: Marek Miś</figcaption></figure>



Each new cell in a multicellular body is another mouth to feed in terms of energy, and the cost increases with the number of cells.



The findings of the Daphnia study show that metazoans - the group that includes multicellular creatures - need a lot more ATP synthase complexes in each cell than their simpler, unicellular counterparts.



In fact, for every increment in body mass, these organisms require 30 to 50 times more oxygen than simpler, unicellular creatures. This additional oxygen supports the complex needs for metabolism, cellular communication, and tissue maintenance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-size-comes-at-a-price">Size comes at a price</h2>



Growth isn't cheap, particularly for multicellular organisms. 



While larger, unicellular organisms, like some amoebas, become more efficient as they grow, multicellular organisms face unique challenges that require extra energy to sustain their larger sizes and more complex structures.



Given this steep energy price, why did multicellularity evolve at all? 



The answer seems to be that multicellular life offers evolutionary advantages, such as being able to consume unicellular organisms en masse, evade predators, and live in various environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overcoming-energy-barriers">Overcoming energy barriers</h2>



To surmount the energetic challenges presented by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/past-snowball-earth-conditions-drove-evolution-complex-multicellular-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellularity</a>, organisms have developed remarkable adaptations to utilize their resources efficiently. 



One key adaptation is the division of labor between specialized cells, tissues, and organs; this specialization allows for optimized energy usage where cells perform distinct functions more efficiently than they would if they had to carry out all the different life activities.



For example, mitochondria within eukaryotic cells have evolved highly efficient pathways to generate ATP, thus maximizing the energy harvested from different substrates.



Furthermore, the development of vascular systems in plants and circulatory systems in animals allows for the effective distribution of energy resources, and ensures that all cells have access to the oxygen and nutrients necessary to produce energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-the-boring-billion">Implications of the "boring billion"</h2>



Understanding the evolutionary narrative of the "boring billion" holds powerful implications for modern scientific research. 



This era not only reflects the energy-centric challenges of the past but also informs the fields of synthetic biology, evolutionary biology, and bioengineering.



By studying the metabolic pathways and energy efficiencies developed during this period, researchers can potentially design bio-inspired systems and organisms with enhanced functionalities and sustainability.



Furthermore, insights gained from this epoch's evolutionary innovations could pioneer future advancements in medical therapies, agriculture, and ecosystem management. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



This study primarily focuses on aerobic, animal-like organisms. But there's a vast and varied spectrum of life out there, including plants and fungi, and the researchers plan to extend their investigations to these life forms. 



Future insights could shed light on why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biggest-known-space-cloud-of-life-building-complex-chemicals-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">multicellular life forms</a> took a considerable time to appear and diversify on our planet.



Multicellular life has high energy demands and this study suggests that the constraints of bioenergy could be a universal phenomenon that is applicable to any carbon-based, oxygen-breathing life, no matter where it exists in the universe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2414742121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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'Boring billion' wasn’t a dull period, it fueled a shift to complex life

It's known as the "boring billion," a murky period in...

Plants captivate us as they grow not only upward but also in width, expanding their girth. Imagine a pencil-thin tree growing taller without becoming sturdy - hardly stable, right?



Our perception of plants reveals a simple truth: they must grow outwards as well as upwards. Yet, most research focuses on the tips of shoots, where a plant's height increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-grow-stronger">How plants grow stronger</h2>



"Plants can’t grow endlessly in height. They also need to grow in thickness, or they would simply fall over," noted biologist Kirsten Ten Tusscher from <a href="https://www.uu.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Utrecht University</a>.



So, while examining the increase in a tree’s height makes sense, understanding how they get "broader" is just as crucial.



We've all marveled at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/older-trees-help-the-endangered-wolf-lichen-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older trees</a> growing visibly thicker and more robust over time. This outward growth, especially in trees, is necessary for structural strength.



What's the key to this increase in width over time? It's all in the cambium layer's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plant-stem-cells-could-support-human-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stem cells</a>.



These crucial cells are the ones calling the shots, producing wood to support the tree's structure as it grows. However, until now, the genetic mechanisms behind the activation of these stem cells has remained a mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-processes-in-plants">Growing processes in plants</h2>



In collaboration with colleagues from the University of Helsinki, Durham University, and the University of California, Ten Tusscher and her team set out to solve this mystery. The researchers designed and developed a computer model that played a central role in the study.



The model provided invaluable insights and made significant predictions while supporting the laboratory results of the team members.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-replicating-the-magic">Replicating the magic</h2>



Where the scientific community had studied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-trees-change-their-genetic-structure-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> for growth in height before, increase in width was uncharted territory. Until now, it was unclear which genes enable these cambium&nbsp;<a href="https://phys.org/tags/stem+cells/">stem cells</a>&nbsp;to become active and how this is controlled.



Ten Tusscher's model tackled the genes controlling thickness growth and shed light on the activation processes. The model's results were astonishing.



The output from the model indicated that growth in thickness is controlled by specific chemical signals within the cambium layer. Gradients in these chemical signals intersect to form a precise zone where stem cells are "switched on."



This subsequently guides the cells to produce woody tissue, thereby ensuring the continuous formation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetically-engineered-wood-poplar-cottonwood-trees-store-more-carbon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wood</a> throughout the plant’s life. The steady process guarantees the strength and stability a plant needs in order to support its upwards growth.



The model centered on the small plant, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-adjust-roots-to-reach-their-preferred-form-of-nitrogen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis</a>, a popular choice with biologists worldwide who study plant growth.



It demonstrated how cambium stem cells are activated and sustained, facilitating continuous thickness growth throughout a plant's life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-scientific-triumphs">Beyond scientific triumphs</h2>



Unraveling the mystery of growth in thickness isn't just a scientific triumph; it has practical implications in forestry and climate action.



"If you fully understand plant growth, and develop a tree that grows twice as fast in thickness, it's a great benefit for more sustainable timber industry," noted Ten Tusscher.



"It's also advantageous for climate efforts, as faster-growing trees can store more CO₂. Perhaps, it could even help researchers tune thickness growth in crops for better agricultural yield." 



This study, therefore, not only quenches a scientific curiosity but could also lead to a greener, healthier planet. Furthermore, it has profound implications for our environment and economy. 



Plants' hidden growth secret, it turns out, is a secret no more!



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



With climate change at the forefront of global challenges, the knowledge gained from this study could transform approaches to reforestation and sustainable timber production in future.



Enhanced growth in tree thickness means greater carbon storage capacity, which plays a critical role in carbon sequestration efforts.



Moreover, unlocking the secrets of cambium-driven growth can guide innovations in crop breeding to optimize plants that produce higher yields and withstand environmental stresses.



By harnessing this newfound understanding, scientists can develop plants that not only meet timber and agricultural demands but also contribute to climate resilience.



The findings of the study pave the way for practical applications that could lead to a greener, more sustainable future, where plants not only reach sky-high but also play an even larger role in supporting life on Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adj8752" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Scientists uncover how plants grow wider, not just taller

Plants captivate us as they grow not only upward but...

Dementia research is entering a new era as more focus and resources are directed toward finding the right treatments to combat this complex condition.



While much of this search revolves around cutting-edge drugs, it is fascinating to see that potential solutions might be hidden within traditional medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-not-just-a-test-of-time">Dementia: Not just a test of time</h2>



Dementia, a debilitating condition that impacts both cognitive and motor functions, is primarily associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-older-americans-have-dementia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">older adults</a> and is often viewed as an inevitable consequence of aging. 



However, it's not merely the passing of time that triggers its onset, but rather a multitude of complex factors such as genetics, environmental influences, and lifestyle.



There is an urgent need for a therapeutic breakthrough to prevent or at least <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/having-a-pet-leads-to-a-much-slower-rate-of-cognitive-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">slow down dementia’s progression</a>, especially as populations worldwide continue to age rapidly.



On the brighter side, a dedicated group of researchers in the Graduate School of Medicine at <a href="https://www.omu.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka Metropolitan University</a> is making promising strides in the search for new solutions.



The research dives into the realms of traditional Chinese medicine, an area rich with ancient knowledge and healing practices. 



Their findings are quite encouraging, to say the least, and may hold the key to a revolutionary approach to dementia prevention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-herbal-medicine-and-dementia-treatment">Herbal medicine and dementia treatment </h2>



The researchers focused on the dried seeds of Ziziphus jujuba Miller var. spinosa, a type of jujube that is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine.



The team administered hot water extracts of the dried seeds to mice with various diseases -- including Alzheimer's, frontotemporal dementia, Parkinson’s disease, and dementia with Lewy bodies.



Remarkably, the researchers discovered that the treatments resulted in significant restoration of cognitive and motor functions.



Even more intriguing was when these seeds were crushed into a powder form and given to the model mice. The cognitive function of these mice improved to a level exceeding that of the control group. 



The effects didn't stop there. The powders also seemed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consistent-sleep-slows-down-aging-at-a-cellular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suppress cellular aging</a> in older mice and boosted their cognitive functions to match those of their younger counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-ziziphus-jujuba-miller-var-spinosa">What is Ziziphus jujuba Miller var. spinosa?</h2>



Often called sour jujube or spindle jujube, Ziziphus jujuba Miller var. spinosa is a tree that originally hails from East Asia, especially China. 



What makes it stand out are its thorny branches and the small, oval fruits that shift from green to a rich reddish-brown as they ripen. 



This tree does really well in dry and semi-dry areas and can handle different types of soil and climates, making it super resilient even in tough conditions. Its ability to survive droughts is a big reason why it's grown in so many different places around the world.



People have been loving Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa for centuries because it's so versatile in both cooking and medicine. 



The fruits are pretty sour on their own, but when dried, they're fantastic in teas, desserts, and traditional dishes, adding a unique kick to all sorts of recipes. 



Plus, the fruits and other parts of the tree are a staple in traditional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-often-contain-hidden-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese medicine</a>. They’re believed to help improve sleep, boost the immune system, and provide antioxidants, making them a go-to ingredient for herbal remedies that promote overall health and well-being.



Growing Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa comes with a bunch of perks, both economically and environmentally. 



Farmers love that it doesn’t require a lot of maintenance and can still produce fruit even when conditions aren’t perfect, ensuring a reliable harvest. 



On top of that, the tree helps prevent soil erosion and improves soil quality thanks to its extensive root system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-world-of-traditional-medicine">The world of traditional medicine </h2>



This was not the research team's first successful venture into the world of traditional medicine. 



They had previously noted memory and motor function improvements in dementia mice models when using the Hawaiian herb mamaki and the Chinese herb Acorus gramineus.



"The results of our research will hopefully make it possible to develop dementia prevention products that middle-aged and elderly people can take at their own discretion," said Professor Takami Tomiyama of Osaka Metropolitan University’s Graduate School of Medicine.



Published for review in the journal eLife, the findings mark a substantial leap toward developing vital dementia drugs, drawing from the vast knowledge of traditional herbal medicine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-practices-and-modern-science">Ancient practices and modern science</h2>



As researchers investigate traditional Chinese medicine, a promising new frontier is emerging at the intersection of age-old wisdom and cutting-edge science. 



Unlike synthetic drugs, which often target specific molecular pathways, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/herbal-supplements-often-contain-hidden-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbal</a> remedies typically involve a complex mixture of active compounds that can influence multiple systems within the body. 



This complexity poses a challenge for scientific analysis but also offers an opportunity to explore treatments that work in harmony with natural biological processes.



In the case of Ziziphus jujuba seeds, for example, the potential to improve cognitive function without significant side effects has sparked interest beyond academia. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dementia-prevention-with-herbal-medicine">Dementia prevention with herbal medicine</h2>



Researchers are increasingly interested in whether these herbal treatments could evolve into widely accessible, over-the-counter supplements for dementia prevention.



If successful, these innovations could provide more affordable, preventive care options to populations at risk of dementia. This could transform the landscape of brain health and aging.



This study from Osaka Metropolitan University represents a pivotal step in that direction, encouraging more scientists to investigate ancient practices that may hold solutions for modern health challenges.



By validating the efficacy of traditional herbs through rigorous testing, researchers are paving the way for a new wave of dementia therapies that bridge the best of both worlds: the depth of traditional knowledge and the precision of modern science.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/100737v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



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Herbal medicine shows great potential in treating and preventing dementia

Dementia research is entering a new era as more focus...

Experts at the University of Sydney have identified a cannabis compound called cannabinol (CBN) that appears to significantly enhance sleep quality, marking an important breakthrough in the search for natural sleep aids.&nbsp;



Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41386-024-02018-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuropsychopharmacology</a>, the study provides objective evidence that CBN improves sleep by altering sleep architecture, the structure of sleep phases over the night. 



Conducted by scientists at the University of Sydney's<a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/lambert/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> Lambert Initiative for Cannabinoid Therapeutics</a>, the research shows CBN’s potential to offer a non-intoxicating sleep aid, similar to yet distinct from conventional sleep medications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-enhancing-effects-of-cannabinol">Sleep-enhancing effects of cannabinol</h2>



“For decades, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-users-seem-to-sleep-better-than-most-other-people/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cannabis</a> folklore has suggested that aged cannabis makes consumers sleepy via the buildup of CBN, but there was no convincing evidence for this,” explained lead author Jonathon Arnold, the Director of Preclinical Research at the Lambert Initiative. 



“Our study provides the first objective evidence that CBN increases <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/getting-high-quality-sleep-helps-prevent-depression-and-anxiety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>, at least in rats, by modifying the architecture of sleep in a beneficial way.”



Cannabinol forms as the primary intoxicating compound in cannabis, delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), breaks down over time.&nbsp;



As cannabis ages, THC gradually converts to CBN, which means older cannabis typically contains higher levels of this compound. Some cannabis users have noted that older cannabis seems to produce a sleepier “high,” which has led to CBN products being marketed as sleep aids.&nbsp;



In the U.S., highly purified cannabinol products are increasingly available as natural sleep aids, though scientific research on their effectiveness has been limited until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cannabinol-compared-to-traditional-sleep-aids">Cannabinol compared to traditional sleep aids</h2>



The study compared CBN’s effects on sleep with those of zolpidem, a widely used sleep drug, by measuring sleep patterns in rats.&nbsp;



Using high-tech monitoring, the researchers observed significant improvements in sleep architecture with CBN, including increases in both non-rapid eye movement (NREM) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep.&nbsp;



NREM sleep is known to promote physical recovery and memory consolidation, while REM sleep is associated with processing emotions and dreaming.



The findings show that CBN improved total sleep time in a way comparable to zolpidem, suggesting that CBN may have similar efficacy to traditional sleep aids.&nbsp;



“CBN was found to increase both NREM and REM sleep, leading to increased total sleep time, with a comparable effect to the known sleep drug zolpidem,” Arnold said.&nbsp;



These results may point to CBN as a viable natural alternative for those seeking sleep enhancement without the side effects that can accompany standard sleep medications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-for-a-broader-range-of-users">Potential for a broader range of users</h2>



CBN also appears to offer sleep benefits without the intoxicating effects commonly associated with THC. While THC binds strongly to CB1 receptors in the brain, leading to its psychoactive effects, CBN does so only weakly, which likely accounts for its minimal intoxicating impact.&nbsp;



To the researchers' surprise, they found that a metabolite of CBN, called 11-OH CBN, had more substantial effects on CB1 receptors and seemed to impact sleep architecture. This insight suggests that CBN’s breakdown products might play an important role in its overall sleep-enhancing properties.



“This provides the first evidence that CBN indeed increases sleep using objective sleep measures,” Arnold said.&nbsp;



“It was a surprise that CBN metabolism in the body can yield a much greater effect on cannabinoid CB1 receptors than the parent molecule CBN, which has much more limited activity.”&nbsp;



He notes that while these findings are promising, further studies in humans are necessary to confirm whether the benefits observed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-have-a-very-complex-social-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a> will translate to human sleep patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-human-trials-show-promise">Early human trials show promise</h2>



Building on these findings, a parallel human trial was conducted by Iain McGregor, Director of Clinical Research at the Lambert Initiative, with insomnia patients.&nbsp;



Led by PhD student Isobel Lavender and renowned sleep researcher Camilla Hoyos from the <a href="https://www.woolcock.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Woolcock Institute of Medical Research</a>, the human study was structured as a placebo-controlled randomized trial, revealing promising preliminary results that were presented at recent scientific conferences.



“Our research encourages further basic and clinical research on CBN as a new treatment strategy for sleep disorders, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-link-between-insomnia-and-hypertension-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insomnia</a>,” McGregor said. 



“Our clinical study only administered CBN on a single occasion. A trial on a larger scale, with repeated dosing, is the logical next step.”&nbsp;



Larger studies over extended periods may reveal even more about CBN’s effects, helping researchers understand its role as a possible long-term solution for sleep issues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-cannabinol-research">Next steps in cannabinol research</h2>



Professor Arnold and his team are now exploring ways to amplify CBN’s sleep-promoting effects, including combining it with other compounds found in cannabis or with conventional sleep aids such as melatonin.&nbsp;



“The team has now commenced a preclinical drug discovery program around CBN, as well as observing whether the pro-sleep effects of CBN can be further amplified by other molecules found in cannabis, or by conventional sleep aids, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melatonin-receptor-is-a-new-target-for-treating-sleep-disorders/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melatonin</a>,” Arnold said.



Given the study's promising findings, future research could open up a new realm of sleep therapeutics that leverage non-intoxicating cannabinoids for improved sleep quality.&nbsp;



With sleep disorders impacting millions worldwide, a natural, non-addictive option like CBN could offer an alternative to those seeking help for sleep disturbances without the potential drawbacks of traditional medications.



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Nature's sleep aid: Cannabinol shows promise as a safe sedative

Experts at the University of Sydney have identified a cannabis...

The corpse flower is infamous for its rare blooms and its signature odor, which mimics the stench of rotting flesh, drawing crowds to greenhouses worldwide. The plant’s blooms are infrequent and short-lived, making it difficult for scientists to study.&nbsp;



Alongside its unusual scent, the corpse flower, or titan arum, possesses a rare ability among plants: it heats itself up just before blooming, a process called thermogenesis.&nbsp;



Now, a study led by <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dartmouth College</a> delves into the molecular workings behind the corpse flower’s odor and heat production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-source-of-the-corpse-flower-s-odor">Source of the corpse flower’s odor</h2>



The study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/pnasnexus/pgae492" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>, was led by G. Eric Schaller, a Dartmouth professor specializing in plant biology, who, with his team, used blooms from Morphy, a 21-year-old corpse flower at Dartmouth’s Life Sciences Greenhouse, to analyze the plant’s unique biological processes.&nbsp;



This study not only revealed how the plant warms itself but also uncovered a new component of its distinctive odor: putrescine, a compound often found in decaying animal tissue.



“The blooms are rare and also short-lived, so we only get a small window to study these phenomena,” Schaller said, explaining the challenges of studying such an elusive plant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-structure-and-blooming-cycle-nbsp">Structure and blooming cycle&nbsp;</h2>



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-corpse-flower-smelliest-flower-on-earth-is-at-grave-risk-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">titan arum</a> bloom structure isn’t a single flower but a cluster of small flowers hidden within a massive spadix - the central spike-like structure that can grow up to 12 feet tall. 



The spathe, a frilly petal-like layer at the base of the spadix, unfurls to reveal a deep red interior. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-blooming-92-days-earlier-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">blooming</a> begins, the spadix heats up significantly, sometimes reaching up to 20 degrees Fahrenheit above the surrounding temperature, while releasing its pungent scent.&nbsp;



This unique “carrion cologne” attracts pollinators like flies and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-impact-the-beetles-that-protect-our-crops/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a>, which are drawn to the sulfur-based compounds emitted by the spadix.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-pathways-of-the-corpse-flower-nbsp">Genetic pathways of the corpse flower&nbsp;</h2>



To investigate how the titan arum generates both heat and odor, the research team collected tissue samples from Morphy during a 2016 bloom, focusing on various areas of the spathe and spadix over three nights.&nbsp;



By extracting high-quality RNA from the tissues, exchange scholar Alveena Zulfiqar enabled the team to analyze RNA sequences and determine which genes were active during the plant’s heating phase.



“This helps us see what genes are being expressed and to see which ones are specifically active when the appendix heats up and sends out odor,” Schaller explained.&nbsp;



The RNA analysis revealed that genes linked to sulfur transport, metabolism, and a plant protein known as alternative oxidase - essential to heat production - were especially active in the appendix area during flowering.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-amino-acids">The role of amino acids</h2>



The team turned to mass spectrometry to measure different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-building-blocks-of-life-form/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amino acids</a> within the plant’s tissues, working with collaborators from the <a href="https://missouri.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Missouri</a>.&nbsp;



The analysis confirmed high levels of methionine, a sulfur-based amino acid, in tissues collected as flowering began.&nbsp;



Methionine, known for vaporizing when heated, contributes to the corpse flower’s sulfurous smell. Levels of methionine dropped quickly in tissues collected just hours later, supporting its role in the plant’s initial odor production.



Unexpectedly, the researchers also detected elevated levels of another amino acid in the spathe tissues: a precursor for putrescine, a compound common in decaying animals.&nbsp;



What came as a surprise, Schaller noted, was finding putrescine - which adds an authentic element to the corpse flower’s cadaver-like scent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thermogenesis-in-plants">Thermogenesis in plants</h2>



Thermogenesis, or heat production, is common in animals but rare among plants. In animals, this process involves uncoupling proteins that release energy as heat instead of storing it.&nbsp;



In the titan arum, the plant counterparts of these proteins - alternative oxidases - play a similar role in heating. By examining the unique ways these proteins function in the corpse flower, the researchers shed light on the mechanisms plants can use to generate heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unanswered-questions-about-the-corpse-flower-nbsp">Unanswered questions about the corpse flower&nbsp;</h2>



While the team’s findings reveal much about the corpse flower’s odor and heat production, Schaller and his colleagues are still investigating other mysteries.&nbsp;



One area of interest is understanding the triggers that prompt flowering and exploring whether multiple corpse flowers could synchronize their blooms.&nbsp;



Schaller suggests that synchronized blooming could amplify the plant’s scent, potentially increasing the attraction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>.



With this study, scientists have taken a significant step in understanding the molecular processes behind the corpse flower’s unique traits.&nbsp;



Future research may further reveal how these mechanisms contribute to the plant’s survival and its interactions with the environment, providing valuable insights into the unusual adaptations of this giant, mysterious bloom.



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Why does the corpse flower smell like rotting flesh?

The corpse flower is infamous for its rare blooms and...

Plants, just like us, want to grow big and strong. But they're constantly under attack by pathogens - tiny organisms that have the power to weaken or even kill plants. This is where the plants' secret agents - "defense genes" - enter the picture.



These genes arm plants with defenses against harmful pathogens. However, this defense network comes at a cost - it saps away the resources the plant could otherwise use for growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defense-genes-of-plants">Defense genes of plants</h2>



A recent study on defense genes was led by postdoctoral researcher Michael Giolai and Professor Anna-Liisa Laine from the <a href="https://www.helsinki.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Helsinki</a>.



The team analyzed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> defense genes and growth traits across 184 plant species - a feat made possible by the power of open databases.



The researchers found a direct correlation between a plant's investment in defense genes and its ability to grow.



They discovered a broad range of plant defense strategies, from asparagus with just 72 resistance genes to a chili variety with 1,095 of them. 



However, the more of a plant's genome that is devoted to defense, the less it grows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defense-in-cultivated-plants">Defense in cultivated plants</h2>



Think of the trade-off business like this - every plant has a limited pool of resources (like energy and nutrients) to carry out activities.



The more it dips into this pool to fuel its defense system, the less it has left to spur its growth. But why don't plants just expand their resource pool and do both? Well, that's the revelation - they can't.



However, the researchers found a catch. Cultivated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-shaped-plant-biodiversity-for-thousands-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants that we humans have bred</a> for specific traits in agriculture did not show this correlation between defense and growth.



The experts suspect this might be due to the breeding process, which has reduced natural variation in the genomes of these crop plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-picture">The bigger picture</h2>



But it's not just about a single plant or its struggles. The findings shed light on how allocation costs - the costs associated with this balancing act - play a crucial role in shaping and maintaining biodiversity.



Essentially, these findings help us understand why plants are the way they are and how they have adapted to their environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complexity-of-plant-defenses">Complexity of plant defenses</h2>



In exploring these phenomena further, Giolai and Laine highlight the intricate dance between genetic inheritance and environmental demands. 



They found that some <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vaccinating-plants-could-boost-global-food-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> exhibit sophisticated strategies to balance their defense and growth, flaunting their evolutionary prowess. 



For instance, plants native to harsh or unpredictable environments tend to boast a diverse genetic toolkit, allowing them to switch on specific defense genes only when under threat. This inducible defense strategy ensures they can conserve resources when conditions favor growth. 



This adaptive flexibility highlights the evolutionary trade-offs that have fine-tuned plant species to their specific niches, reinforcing the role of natural selection in shaping plant biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-agriculture">Implications for agriculture</h2>



The insights gained from this study offer vital implications for agriculture, particularly in breeding new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-boost-plant-evolution-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant varieties</a>. By understanding the dynamic between defense investment and growth potential, scientists can aim to optimize crop yields while maintaining sufficient resistance to pathogens.



Looking ahead, Giolai and Laine advocate for more studies utilizing large-scale, open-access databases to deepen our understanding of genetic trade-offs in plants further. 



They emphasize the need for an interdisciplinary approach, combining insights from genomics, ecology, and evolutionary biology to gain a holistic view of plant adaptations. 



Such efforts could pave the way for sustainable agricultural practices and contribute to global food security in an ever-changing climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-open-science">Power of open science</h2>



This research on plants defense genes wouldn't have been possible without open science. Sequencing hundreds of plant genomes and collecting extensive growth data just isn't feasible for a single team.



Open access to such data is enabling scientists to dig deeper into interspecies variations, opening up entirely new levels of inquiry.



"If we want to understand the mechanisms that maintain interspecies trait variation, a multi-species approach like this is essential," noted Professor Laine. 



"The increasing availability of open data enables entirely new levels of investigation into these questions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn2779" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Plants have sophisticated strategies to balance defense and growth

Plants, just like us, want to grow big and strong....

Closeup,Woman's,Hands,Cutting,Philodendron,White,Wizard,Plant,Stem,For

Have you ever talked or sang to a plant or a tree? Or maybe walked through a garden and wondered if the flowers were trying to tell you something? Fascinating new research suggests that plants seem to be emitting sounds and engaging in unheard conversations, especially when they're stressed.



Lilach Hadany, an evolutionary biologist and theoretician, led a team that uncovered this surprising phenomenon. 



They found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-acylsugars-parallel-universe-plant-kingdom-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants like tomatoes</a> and tobacco emit sounds when they're stressed, such as when they're dehydrated or their stems are cut.



"Even in a quiet field, there are actually sounds that we don't hear, and those sounds carry information," says Hadany. 



"There are animals that can hear these sounds, so there is the possibility that a lot of acoustic interaction is occurring."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-emit-sounds-when-they-re-stressed">Plants emit sounds when they're stressed</h2>



Using sensitive microphones, the researchers at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> recorded these plants in both soundproof chambers and noisier greenhouses. 



They discovered that stressed plants emit sounds resembling pops or clicks -- imagine the sound of bubble wrap being popped. 



In fact, a single <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-respond-to-specific-stress-situations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stressed plant</a> can produce about 30 to 50 of these clicks every hour.



"When tomatoes are not stressed at all, they are very quiet," Hadany notes. What's fascinating is that these sounds are at frequencies too high for human ears to detect. 



However, they are comparable in volume to normal human conversation and could potentially be heard by insects, mammals, and perhaps <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">even other plants</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-hear-sounds-from-plants">How to hear sounds from plants</h2>



To delve deeper, the team trained a machine-learning algorithm to differentiate between the sounds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sensors-that-detect-plant-stress-could-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">unstressed plants</a>, thirsty plants, and those that had been cut. 



They found that not only do <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-a-secret-weapon-for-surviving-stress/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stressed plants</a> emit more sounds, but the types of sounds also vary depending on the kind of stress.



Water-deprived plants began making noises even before showing visible signs of dehydration. 



The frequency of their sounds peaked after five days without water and then decreased as the plants <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-use-their-roots-to-ration-water-during-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dried up completely</a>.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="sBuOk5UI4R-4000606-12187" type="single"]</div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-there-a-universal-plant-language">Is there a universal plant language?</h2>



While the study focused on tomatoes and tobacco due to their ease of cultivation, the team didn't stop there.



"We found that many plants -- corn, wheat, grape, and cactus plants, for example -- emit sounds when they are stressed," says Hadany.



This raises the possibility that emitting sounds under stress might be a common trait among plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-does-this-happen">How does this happen?</h2>



The exact reason plants produce these noises is still a mystery. One theory is that the sounds result from cavitation -- the formation and bursting of air bubbles in the plant's vascular system.



But are plants <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-emit-faint-glow-sif-when-flash-droughts-imminent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intentionally communicating</a> with these sounds?



"It's possible that other organisms could have evolved to hear and respond to these sounds," Hadany suggests. 



"For example, a moth that intends to lay eggs on a plant or an animal that intends to eat a plant could use the sounds to help <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-plants-make-life-and-death-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">guide their decision</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-the-natural-world">Implications for the natural world</h2>



If insects or other animals can detect these sounds, it could have significant ecological implications. Other plants might also be listening in.



"If other plants have information about stress before it actually occurs, they could prepare," says Hadany.



Previous studies have shown that plants can respond to sounds and vibrations. For instance, some plants increase the sugar concentration in their nectar when they "hear" the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stressed-out-bees-get-depressed-and-make-bad-decisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">buzz of pollinators</a>.



Yossi Yovel, a neuro-ecologist at Tel Aviv University and co-senior author of the study, is excited about the potential applications of this discovery.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/plants-make-sounds_stress_screams_credit-Tel-Aviv-Uni_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/11/plants-make-sounds_stress_screams_credit-Tel-Aviv-Uni_1s.webp" alt="Plants heard making &quot;screaming&quot; sounds, likely from stress, for the first time ever. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1950033"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Plants heard making "screaming" sounds, likely from stress, for the first time ever. This photo shows the recording equipment used in the experiment. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



"We know that there's a lot of ultrasound out there -- every time you use a microphone, you find that a lot of stuff produces sounds that we humans cannot hear -- but the fact that plants are making these sounds opens a whole new avenue of opportunities for communication, eavesdropping, and exploitation of these sounds," Yovel explains.



Understanding these plant sounds could revolutionize how we approach agriculture. Farmers might one day use sound recordings to monitor crop hydration and stress levels, leading to more efficient water use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-plant-sound-research">Next steps in plant sound research</h2>



"So now that we know that plants do emit sounds, the next question is -- 'who might be listening?'" says Hadany. 



"We are currently investigating the responses of other organisms, both animals and plants, to these sounds, and we're also exploring our ability to identify and interpret the sounds in completely natural environments," Hadany concluded.



To sum it all up, by discovering that stressed plants emit sounds, researchers like Lilach Hadany and Yossi Yovel have unveiled a hidden layer of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-rhythms-inspire-a-new-approach-to-energy-efficiency/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">communication in nature</a>. 



These ultrasonic clicks and pops, though inaudible to us, could be influencing how insects, animals, and even other plants interact with their environment.



This finding change our understanding of plant behavior while opening practical applications in agriculture. 



By listening to these silent signals, farmers could monitor crop stress levels and optimize watering, leading to more efficient farming practices. 



As we continue to explore this unseen world of plant acoustics, we're reminded of how much there is still to learn about the silent conversations happening all around us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0092867423002623" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



Video Credit: Tel-Aviv University



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Plants heard making 'screaming' sounds for the first time ever

Have you ever talked or sang to a plant or...

When you think of a brainy creature, a bumblebee probably isn't the first thing that pops into your mind. But did you know that these small wonders are actually quite adept learners? Surprisingly, bees have incredible cognitive abilities.



Felicity Muth, an assistant professor in the Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior at UC Davis, has dedicated her research to understanding the cognitive capacities of these tiny powerhouses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-performing-cognitive-tasks">Bees performing cognitive tasks</h2>



Bumblebees, despite having brains smaller than a sesame seed, can outperform many vertebrates when it comes to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-build-symmetrical-nests-not-for-beauty-but-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cognitive tasks</a>, as Professor Muth's research has shown.



She initially explored the behavior of birds, but her curiosity led her to investigate the thought processes of bumblebees. Muth's research looks into how bumblebees learn, choose flowers to visit, and what motivates them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-caffeine-and-mind-games">Bees, caffeine, and mind games</h2>



Professor Muth's studies go beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a> and examine the fascinating dynamics that unfold between bumblebees and the plants they frequent.



It's a known fact that plants reward bees with nectar rich in sugar to encourage them to visit more flowers of the same type, helping in pollination. But plants also use some cunning tricks to garner the attention of these buzzing visitors.



Many plants infuse their nectars with caffeine and other chemicals like octopamine and tyramin, which function as hormones and neurotransmitters in brains of bees. 



Muth meticulously studies these interactions in the lab by filling artificial flowers with nectar concoctions. "The plants are actually manipulating the insects," noted Professor Muth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-consuming-caffeine">Bees consuming caffeine</h2>



The research sheds light on the intriguing effects these chemical-imbued nectars have on bees.



When bees consume nectar laced with caffeine, they behave as if it is sweeter than it actually is, thus making them more inclined to remember and revisit those flowers. 



The caffeine also amps up their flower-visiting rate. However, when the nectar contains octopamine and tyramine, it nullifies the effect of caffeine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenge-of-being-a-bumblebee">Challenge of being a bumblebee</h2>



Professor Muth and her students spend much of the summer outdoors, particularly in California's Sierra Nevada.



The team catches wild-foraging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2024-bee-engaged-with-youth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a> in nets and test their learning and memory capacities. They employ colored tabs soaked in sugar water or plain water to examine the bees' ability to associate specific colors with food.



In a 2021 study by Professor Muth and her former postdoc mentor, Anne Leonard of the <a href="https://www.unr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Nevada</a>, it was found that both female worker bees and male drones learned equally well, albeit the males were slower to make decisions.



The real revelation came from the queen bumblebees they tested, which turned out to be significantly faster learners than the other bees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-abilities-of-queen-bees">Learning abilities of queen bees </h2>



"Queens are much more elusive than workers. They are much less studied, and that's what drew me to them," said Professor Muth.



The fact that they have only a limited period to forage adds more pressure on them to be quick and efficient.



The need to forage, find mates, and choose nesting sites likely leads to cognitive specialization in queen bees. Research suggests that caffeine in nectar may further enhance these bees' learning and memory, aiding them in these crucial tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neural-mechanisms-of-learning">Neural mechanisms of learning</h2>



Going deeper into the intellectual wonders of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-do-not-learn-to-be-cooperative-it-is-in-their-genes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bumblebees</a>, Muth's research progresses into the neural pathways that govern learning and memory in these insects. 



Utilizing advanced imaging techniques, her team maps the neural circuitries involved in processing sensory inputs and forming associative memories. 



Through controlled experiments, they seek to uncover the neural basis for the bees' ability to learn from their environment, adapt to new situations, and make choices benefiting their survival. 



Understanding these processes not only enriches our knowledge of caffeine's effects on bee cognition but also provides insights into the complex neural architectures shared across animal species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-biodiversity">Implications for biodiversity</h2>



The explorations into bumblebee cognition have far-reaching implications for biodiversity and conservation efforts. Given their pivotal role in pollination, understanding the subtleties of their behavior and learning can aid in crafting effective conservation strategies.



Professor Muth advocates for preserving natural habitats and reducing pesticide use, strategies that are essential for fostering healthy bee populations.



By drawing correlations between cognitive science and environmental impact, her research serves as a foundation for interdisciplinary approaches to safeguarding the myriad of ecological roles bumblebees fulfill.



The interplay between research and conservation efforts highlights the urgency of protecting these "brainy" bees to maintain ecosystem balance and agricultural productivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-bees-and-caffeine">Birds, bees, and caffeine</h2>



The ultimate goal of Muth's research is to understand how the challenges faced by different animals shape their specific cognitive traits.



This understanding could illuminate how intelligence evolved in animals, even extending to birds, mammals, and humans. If we can comprehend this, Muth added, we could understand ourselves better.



As our journey into the microscopic world of bumblebees comes to a close, we are left with a rekindled fascination for these small creatures. 



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Flowers use caffeine to 'trick' bees into coming back to them

When you think of a brainy creature, a bumblebee probably...

Hot days, cool salads, and refreshing tomato slices - sounds like summer, doesn't it? But have you ever wondered - how do tomatoes survive intense heat?



Under the scorching sun, as the mercury rises, some tomato varieties keep on thriving. A team of biologists based at <a href="https://www.brown.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a> decided to investigate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomatoes-surviving-the-heat">Tomatoes surviving the heat</h2>



The experts wanted to identify the specific growth cycle phase when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-tomatoes-are-ready-for-an-unprecedented-mission/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomatoes</a> buckle under heat, as well as the molecular mechanisms that shield them.



The findings could be a crucial key to protecting our food supply in the age of climate change. Indeed, agricultural productivity is already dancing on thin ice.



Our rising temperatures could slash crop yields by up to 16% with every additional degree Celsius of seasonal warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-evolution">Lessons from evolution</h2>



Study co-author Sorel V. Yimga Ouonkap is a research associate in molecular biology, cell biology, and biochemistry at Brown.



Ouonkap noted that the scientists took some lessons from evolution to experiment with how best to speed up the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-acylsugars-parallel-universe-plant-kingdom-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adaptation process</a> for varieties of tomato plants.



According to the researchers, it would take a long time to wait for evolution to weed out the vulnerable tomato varieties like Heinz in favor of those that can handle extreme heat - a process that might also jeopardize the qualities that make vulnerable crops commercially desirable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-making-tomatoes-more-tolerant-of-heat">Making tomatoes more tolerant of heat</h2>



“We’re trying to figure out thermoregulation at a molecular and cellular level, and identify what and where we need to improve so that we can target those in commercial plant cultivars and conserve everything about them except for this one aspect that makes them vulnerable to extreme heat,” explained Ouonkap.



“Over time, you can start accumulating different resistance mechanisms as the growing conditions continue to change.”



Thermotolerance, or the ability of a plant to withstand extreme temperatures, could be a promising way to confront climate change, noted study author Mark Johnson, a professor of biology at Brown.



"Imagine if you could just make a Heinz <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-talk-to-one-another-to-signal-danger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomato</a> more resilient to temperature stress without affecting the flavor profile or the way people experience the tomato," Johnson said. "That would be a great advantage."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-stress-and-plant-reproduction">Heat stress and plant reproduction</h2>



Johnson's lab has studied plant reproduction for years. Yet, a gap remained: no studies examined what happens after pollen lands on the stigma during this crucial phase - a key to understanding how tomatoes survive extreme conditions.



Undeterred, Ouonkap dived into this unexplored area for his thesis project. He focused on the pollen tube growth phase of the plant reproductive cycle, studying different tomato varieties known for thriving in extra-hot growing seasons. 



Collaborating with scientists from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a>, the experts learned that heat stress during just this phase limits fruit and seed production more in heat-sensitive than heat-tolerant tomato varieties.



It’s not all bad news. Ouonkap discovered that the heat-tolerant Tamaulipas tomato variety showed exceptional growth under high temperatures. His molecular analysis helped the team uncover the mechanisms that let this tomato survive intense heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-tomatoes-to-beat-the-heat">Creating tomatoes to beat the heat </h2>



The researchers focused on tomatoes because different varieties can adapt to a range of extreme climates - providing clues to how species respond differently to environmental conditions.



Tomatoes are a valuable commercial crop all over the world, including some regions that are among the most vulnerable to extreme heat conditions.&nbsp;



Having identified the beneficial molecular mechanisms, the next step is to determine specific techniques to enable tomatoes to grow in diverse climates. 



One possible avenue? Creating a molecule that could prepare the pollen in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> to withstand a heat wave, as Johnson explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-more-tomatoes-survive">Can more tomatoes survive?</h2>



"When the weather forecast showed two weeks of high temperatures during the pollen tube growth phase, the farmer would apply a product to plants that would change the gene expression so that the pollen would be resilient to heat," said Johnson.



While this level of manipulation is still a vision and not yet a reality, the experts said this area of research is ripe for exploration.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01379-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Tomatoes have a molecular trick to survive in extreme heat

Hot days, cool salads, and refreshing tomato slices - sounds...

Tree planting has often been seen as an affordable, effective way to combat global warming due to trees' ability to capture large amounts of carbon from the atmosphere. 



Yet, a new study warns that large-scale tree planting at high latitudes may actually worsen global warming rather than mitigate it.&nbsp;



 As climate change enables the planting of trees further north, initiatives to establish forests in Arctic regions have gained support. 



But according to a team of international scientists, led by assistant professor Jeppe Kristensen from <a href="https://international.au.dk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a>, this approach could have unintended climate consequences in sensitive northern ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-in-arctic-soils">Carbon storage in Arctic soils </h2>



The Arctic and sub-Arctic regions are unique in their ecological characteristics, and Kristensen emphasizes that these areas are unsuited to afforestation as a climate mitigation strategy.&nbsp;



“Soils in the Arctic store more carbon than all vegetation on Earth,” said Kristensen. “These soils are vulnerable to disturbances, such as cultivation for forestry or agriculture, but also the penetration of tree roots."&nbsp;



"The semi-continuous daylight during the spring and early summer, when snow is still on the ground, also makes the energy balance in this region extremely sensitive to surface darkening, since green and brown trees will soak up more heat from the sun than white snow.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-natural-disturbances-are-intensifying-nbsp">Natural disturbances are intensifying&nbsp;</h2>



Regions around the North Pole, including parts of North America, Asia, and Scandinavia, are already prone to natural disturbances, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fast-wildfires-are-gaining-even-more-speed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> and droughts, which can kill vegetation. Climate change has only intensified these threats. 



Kristensen warns that northern forests are at particular risk: “This is a risky place to be a tree, particularly as part of a homogeneous plantation that is more vulnerable to such disturbances.”&nbsp;



If these trees burn, the stored carbon is likely to be released into the atmosphere within decades, reversing any intended climate benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-solar-reflection-and-carbon-storage">Balancing solar reflection and carbon storage</h2>



While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon storage</a> is a common focus in climate solutions, the researchers argue that at high latitudes, managing solar reflection (albedo) is even more crucial. 



“Climate change results from the balance between solar energy entering the atmosphere and how much leaves again,” Kristensen said.&nbsp;



The albedo effect is essential in polar and subpolar regions because light-colored snow and ice naturally reflect solar energy. Dark tree canopies, however, absorb it, converting sunlight into heat, which impacts the energy balance more than carbon storage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-holistic-approach-to-climate-solutions">A holistic approach to climate solutions</h2>



Rather than solely emphasizing carbon storage, the study calls for a more comprehensive understanding of ecosystem dynamics.&nbsp;



“A holistic approach is imperative if we’re going to make a difference in the real world,” said co-author Marc Macias-Fauria, a researcher at the University of Cambridge’s Scott Polar Research Institute.&nbsp;



Macias-Fauria adds that while <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree planting</a> may be valuable for timber production or self-sufficiency, it should not be marketed as a climate mitigation strategy without accounting for its environmental impact.



“Forestry in the far North should be viewed like any other production system and compensate for its negative impact on climate and biodiversity,” he said. “By selling northern afforestation as a climate solution, we’re only fooling ourselves.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-populations-of-large-herbivores">Sustainable populations of large herbivores</h2>



If tree planting is not ideal for high latitudes like the Arctic, what nature-based strategies could help mitigate climate change in these areas? 



The researchers suggest an alternative: supporting sustainable populations of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">large herbivores</a>, like caribou, which could offer a more viable climate solution. 



“There is ample evidence that large herbivores affect plant communities and snow conditions in ways that result in net cooling,” Macias-Fauria said.&nbsp;



Large herbivores keep tundra landscapes open and prevent excess snow buildup, which insulates the soil and accelerates permafrost thaw.&nbsp;



Their activity, including winter grazing, helps lower soil temperatures and preserve the permafrost layer, which plays a crucial role in regulating global temperatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prioritizing-biodiversity-and-local-communities">Prioritizing biodiversity and local communities</h2>



Finally, the study underscores the importance of considering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-tracking-is-crucial-for-preserving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and the needs of local communities when developing climate solutions. 



Large herbivores not only aid in reducing climate-driven biodiversity loss in Arctic ecosystems but are also a key food source for Indigenous and local communities.&nbsp;



“Biodiversity and local communities are not an added benefit to nature-based solutions: they are fundamental,” said Macias-Fauria, emphasizing that these efforts must be community-led, particularly by those directly affected by climate change.



In sum, while tree planting remains valuable in many contexts, implementing it in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions could inadvertently increase warming.&nbsp;



Instead, focusing on nature-based solutions that respect and work with local ecosystems and communities offers a more balanced and effective path to mitigating climate impacts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-024-01573-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Why planting trees in the Arctic is not a good climate solution

Tree planting has often been seen as an affordable, effective...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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