<p>Plants don’t stay put. They grow, spread, and sometimes end up far from where they started. In the tropics, that movement is causing big changes. Plants from other parts of the world - called alien species - are taking root in places they’ve never belonged. Some are harmless, but others are taking over.</p>



<p>Across the tropical and subtropical regions of the planet - an area known as the greater tropics - roughly 10,000 alien plant species are now thriving. Many of these plants were brought in on purpose. People wanted them for farming, gardening, or medicine. But once they got loose, a few of them started spreading fast.</p>



<p>Not every alien plant causes problems. In fact, most don’t. But the ones that do are known as invasive species. And their impact goes beyond plants - they’re changing entire ecosystems, pushing out native species, and even making life harder for the people who live nearby.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-plant-that-pushed-people-out">The plant that pushed people out</h2>



<p>One of the most invasive plants in the world is called <em>Lantana camara</em>. It’s originally from the tropical Americas and was brought to Europe in the late 1600s as a pretty <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-invasive-species-are-for-sale-as-garden-plants-in-the-u-s/">garden plant</a>. Later, the Portuguese carried it to their colonies, including India.</p>



<p>“In the last century, large areas in the Western Ghats of India became overrun by <em>Lantana</em>. This triggered the native forest-dependent Soliga people to abandon their traditional livelihood and migrate in search of alternatives,” said Ninad Avinash Mungi, a researcher from <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a>.</p>



<p>India isn’t alone. <em>Lantana</em> now covers 74 million acres there - an area larger than the state of Arizona. In Australia, it has taken over 9.9 million acres, and in Hawaii, about 395,000 acres. And it keeps spreading.</p>



<p>“Invasive plants like <em>Lantana</em> competitively suppress native food plants in forests and on savannas. Scarcity of food makes herbivores decline, which further affects the carnivores. We’ve seen examples of tigers preying on livestock when herbivores decline,” said Mungi.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecosystems-lose-their-balance">Ecosystems lose their balance</h2>



<p>This isn’t just a plant problem - it’s a people problem too. In poor areas where communities depend on forests and savannas for food, firewood, and medicine, invasive plants can cut off their access. </p>



<p>As ecosystems get weaker, animals get hungrier. And that means more conflict - between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-wildlife-overlap-is-rapidly-rising-across-the-globe/">wildlife</a> and people. But this didn’t start yesterday. </p>



<p>“The tropics have historically been changed by people for thousands of years," said Mungi. "But the pace changed during the colonial era."</p>



<p>"People brought species from colony to colony, spreading plants and animals all over the tropics. Global trade after World War 2 has even further accelerated the process. Today, species are being exchanged all the time.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-plants-overwhelm-weakened-lands">Invasive plants overwhelm weakened lands</h2>



<p>Forests used to keep these invaders in check. But human activity has changed that. Researchers point out that human-caused <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-deforestation-crisis-how-can-we-stop-massive-forest-losses/">deforestation</a>, wildlife extirpation, pollution, and land-use transformations are important drivers of invasive plant spread. </p>



<p>"These changes weaken the natural control over alien plants, facilitating their spread. Thus, invasive plants are initially passengers of disturbances, but eventually become drivers of disturbances,” Mungi said.</p>



<p>And with climate change speeding up, things are getting worse. In the Amazon, rising temperatures, logging, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-species-use-wildfires-and-drought-as-an-opening-to-move-in/">wildfires</a> are killing off native trees and plants. Invasive grasses make fires worse. They dry out easily and act like kindling, fueling the flames and preventing native species from regrowing.</p>



<p>“Paradoxically, increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere supports woody plants in place of grasses across savannas in the greater tropics," Mungi said. "Here, woody invasive plants are benefitting from CO2, fire suppression, and loss of large herbivores.” </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-invasive-plants-help-not-harm">Some invasive plants help, not harm</h2>



<p>There’s another side to this story. Some alien plants aren’t entirely harmful. In fact, they may help, especially when native species are already struggling.</p>



<p>“While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-plant-trade-is-spreading-invasive-species-and-pests/">invasive species</a> require focused management, more neutral alien species can sometimes play a positive ecological role, particularly when native species are stressed by a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-adapt-to-survive-a-changing-climate/">changing climate</a> or have been removed by people,” said Jens-Christian Svenning, a researcher at Aarhus University.</p>



<p>New types of ecosystems are emerging. These “novel ecosystems” may actually be more stable in a world of rising temperatures, extreme weather, and pollution. Protecting and expanding biodiversity can help keep invaders in check.</p>



<p>Alien plants are often seen only as a threat, but the reality is more complex. Most alien plants are neutral, and some can even play positive roles - especially as climate change pushes ecosystems toward collapse.</p>



<p>“Understanding both the risks and the buffering potential is key for smart management,” Svenning said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fighting-invaders-is-costly">Fighting invaders is costly</h2>



<p>Managing widespread invasive plants is costly, and complete eradication is often uncertain because the species can easily re-invade.</p>



<p>“Since invasive plants have spread across natural areas, they can’t simply be bulldozed, as that would cause several undesirable impacts on ecosystems,” said Mungi. “A sustainable alternative is urgently needed.”</p>



<p>Mungi and Svenning have proposed a solution called Nature-based Solutions for Biological Invasions. Instead of fighting nature, this approach works with it.</p>



<p>One idea? Reintroduce large animals - such as elephants and buffalo - into floodplains and savannas. They can naturally control invasive plants simply by grazing.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-to-invasive-plants">Adapting to invasive plants</h2>



<p>In some places, invasive plants are already part of the landscape and have become quite useful.</p>



<p>“In many areas across the greater tropics, locals have begun using invasive plants such as <em>Lantana</em> to build crafts and furniture, <em>Prosopis juliflora</em> for biochar production, and water hyacinth for commercial products. They have adapted to a new reality,” said Mungi.</p>



<p>Both studies emphasize the importance of working in partnership with local communities when managing invasive plants.</p>



<p>“Local communities are often more aware of their ecosystems and of creative ways to manage them,” said Mungi.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasions-reshape-our-world">Invasions reshape our world</h2>



<p>The world is not what it used to be. And it won’t stay the same. Invasive species are part of this shift. They’re changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-plants-are-taking-over-ohios-forests/">forests</a>, savannas, and coastlines. And they’re changing how people live, work, and survive.</p>



<p>The question isn’t just how to get rid of them - it’s how to live with them, manage them, and make better choices about the future of nature.</p>



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<p></p>

Invasive plants are transforming the tropics, forcing people to adapt

Plants don’t stay put. They grow, spread, and sometimes end up far from where they started. In the tropics, that movement is causing big changes. Plants from other parts of the world - called alien species - are taking root in places they’ve never belonged. Some are harmless, but others are taking over. Across the tropical and subtropical regions of the planet - an area known as the greater tropics - roughly 10,000 alien plant species are now thriving. Many of these plants were brought in on...

<p>A team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en">Leiden University</a> in the Netherlands has recently discovered that a compound called honokiol, which is found in the bark of various species of magnolia tree, inhibits the replication of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-clues-about-the-household-spread-of-covid-19/">SARS-CoV-2</a> in several types of cells, causing the production of infectious viral particles to drop to around 1,000<sup>th</sup> of their previous levels.</p>



<p>“If honokiol can be developed into a drug, possibly in combination with other compounds, stockpiling it would help us to increase our preparedness for the emergence of the next coronavirus,” said Martijn J. van Hemert, an associate professor of Medical Microbiology at Leiden. “Broad-spectrum drugs could then be used to treat early patients and prevent spread, or they could be used prophylactically among healthcare workers, and in high-risk groups, such as among nursing home residents.” &nbsp;</p>



<p>Experiments on cultured cells revealed that this natural compound also inhibited the replication of other highly pathogenic coronaviruses, such as MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-1. “This suggests that it has a broad spectrum of activity and would likely also inhibit novel coronaviruses that might emerge in the future,”&nbsp;Hemert said.</p>



<p>Honokiol inhibits a later step of the viral replication cycle, taking place after the virus has entered the cell, by triggering processes in the host cell that stop the replication of the virus. This mechanism of action was observed both in the case of the original SARS-CoV-2 strain, and in the case of more recent Omicron variants.</p>



<p>According to the experts, honokiol also has anti-inflammatory properties and could thus be helpful in cases where patients wait until a relatively late stage of the disease before seeking treatment, by which time the body’s inflammatory responses to the infection are starting to cause significant harm. While at that point, the inhibition of virus replication might no longer be helpful, this compound’s anti-inflammatory response may still alleviate the illness.</p>



<p>“Our study merely provides the basis for further research into potential therapeutic applications. It is important to mention that it is too early to claim that honokiol might be used in SARS-CoV-2 patients. This requires much more research and - if successful - properly conducted clinical trials,” Van Hemert concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.03273-22"><em>Microbiology Spectrum</em></a>.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-magnolia-trees">More about magnolia trees</h2>



<p>Magnolias are an ancient genus of flowering plants. They are named after the French botanist Pierre Magnol and are known for their large, fragrant blossoms. Here are some key facts about magnolia trees:</p>



<h3 id="h-variety">Variety</h3>



<p>There are more than 200 species of magnolias that are native to both Asia and the Americas. They come in many forms, from large trees to small shrubs, and they are evergreen or deciduous.</p>



<h3 id="h-flowers">Flowers</h3>



<p>The flowers are perhaps the most distinctive feature of the magnolia tree. They are large and fragrant, with many species producing white, pink, purple, or yellow flowers. Some magnolias, like the Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), bloom throughout the summer, while others, like the star magnolia (Magnolia stellata), flower in the early spring before their leaves appear.</p>



<h3 id="h-fossil-records">Fossil Records</h3>



<p>Magnolias are among the most ancient flowering plants. Fossil records show that magnolia plants were around 95 million years ago and may have existed even before bees. Their flowers evolved to encourage pollination by beetles, which were among the earliest pollinators.</p>



<h3 id="h-hardiness">Hardiness</h3>



<p>Different species of magnolias are hardy to different climatic zones. For instance, the Southern magnolia is a hardy tree native to the southeastern United States that can withstand heat and humidity, while the saucer magnolia (Magnolia x soulangeana) is more suited to cooler climates.</p>



<h3 id="h-uses">Uses</h3>



<p>Magnolias have various uses. The bark of some species is used in traditional Chinese medicine. They are also popular ornamental trees in parks and gardens due to their attractive and aromatic flowers. Magnolia grandiflora, in particular, is a popular street tree in temperate climates.</p>



<h3 id="h-growth-and-care">Growth and Care</h3>



<p>Magnolias prefer slightly acidic, well-drained soil and a sunny or partially shaded location. They do not like to be transplanted once established, so it's essential to plant them in a suitable location from the start.</p>



<h3 id="h-symbolism">Symbolism</h3>



<p>In many cultures, magnolias are symbols of beauty, perseverance, and nobility. In the American South, for instance, the magnolia often symbolizes Southern hospitality.</p>



<h2 id="h-using-plants-to-fight-viruses">Using plants to fight viruses</h2>



<p>Using plants to fight against viruses can be a multifaceted strategy with various approaches. Here are some of the ways plants can be instrumental in viral treatments and pandemic preparedness:</p>



<h3 id="h-phytomedicine">Phytomedicine</h3>



<p>Many plants possess antiviral properties. For instance, Echinacea is known for its immune-boosting and antiviral properties to fight off cold and flu viruses. Likewise, garlic, ginseng, and licorice have shown antiviral effects against several types of viruses. The active compounds within these plants could be isolated and used as a base for developing new antiviral drugs.</p>



<h3 id="h-plant-based-vaccines">Plant-Based Vaccines</h3>



<p>Scientists are looking at using plants as "bioreactors" to produce vaccines. A notable example is the tobacco plant. Scientists insert the gene for a viral protein into the plant, and the plant then produces that protein which can be used as a vaccine. This is a cost-effective and scalable way to produce vaccines. For instance, in the case of COVID-19, scientists developed a candidate vaccine using this method.</p>



<h3 id="h-plant-derived-antiviral-proteins">Plant-Derived Antiviral Proteins</h3>



<p>Certain plants produce proteins called antiviral resistance (AVR) proteins that help them resist viral infections. Researchers are exploring the potential of these proteins in treating human viral infections.</p>



<h3 id="h-rna-interference-rnai">RNA Interference (RNAi)</h3>



<p>This is a biological process where RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation, by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules. Plants commonly use RNAi for their defense against viruses. This knowledge is used to develop antiviral therapies in humans.</p>



<h3 id="h-traditional-medicine-and-ethnobotany">Traditional Medicine and Ethnobotany</h3>



<p>Various cultures around the world have used plants to treat viral infections for centuries. By studying these traditional practices, scientists may be able to discover new antiviral compounds.</p>



<h3 id="h-bioinformatics-and-phylogenetics">Bioinformatics and Phylogenetics</h3>



<p>These are methods used to predict potential antiviral compounds in plants. Researchers can analyze the genetic makeup of plants to predict their potential antiviral properties. These predictions can then be tested in the laboratory.</p>



<h3 id="h-antiviral-surface-coatings">Antiviral Surface Coatings</h3>



<p>Researchers are exploring plant-derived compounds to create antiviral surface coatings. These can be used on high-touch surfaces to reduce viral transmission.</p>



<p>—--</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Magnolia tree compound may be effective against the next coronavirus

A team of scientists led by Leiden University in the...

<p>In a surprising twist of events, researchers at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> have identified an ancient chili pepper fossil, which could cause a seismic shift in our understanding of the geographical origins and evolutionary timeline of the tomato plant family.</p>



<p>The University's research was backed by the U.S. National Science Foundation and is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/14698137"><em>New Phytologist</em></a>. The study reveals that the chili pepper tribe (Capsiceae), a part of the tomato, or nightshade (Solanaceae) family, is significantly older and its geographic reach much wider than previous theories suggested.</p>



<p>Previously, the prevailing belief among scientists was that chili peppers evolved in South America no more than 15 million years ago. However, this new research stretches the origin of chili peppers back by 35 million years, to an impressive 50 million years ago. It even goes so far as to suggest that North America was home to chili peppers during that era.</p>



<h2 id="h-accidental-discovery">Accidental discovery</h2>



<p>It was an ordinary day at the CU Boulder Museum of Natural History for Rocío Deanna and Abel Campos, but what they found was extraordinary. Amidst a collection of specimens from the Green River Formation - a geologically rich site stretching across northwestern Colorado and southwestern Wyoming - Deanna observed a distinctive feature of the solanaceous family etched in a fossil: tiny spikes on the end of a fruiting stem.</p>



<p>Having found two such fossils at CU Boulder, Deanna and Campos, a collaborator on the study, came across a third specimen from the chili pepper tribe housed at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science. All three fossils traced back to the Green River Formation in Colorado - the CU fossils hail from Garfield County, and the DMNS specimen from Rio Blanco County.</p>



<p>Katharina Dittmar, a program director in NSF's Division of Environmental Biology, emphasized the significance of the study. "This research nicely highlights the importance of natural history collections in calibrating the timeline of evolution, in this case, of an agriculturally important plant family."</p>



<h2 id="h-could-chili-peppers-have-existed-56-million-years-ago">Could chili peppers have existed 56 million years ago?</h2>



<p>These newly identified chili pepper fossils belong to the Eocene geological epoch (34 to 56 million years ago). Intriguingly, their timeline matches that of another nightshade fossil from the Esmeraldas Formation in Colombia. This simultaneous existence suggests that the nightshade family had a pan-American distribution as early as 50 million years ago.</p>



<p>The nightshade family is vast, encompassing around 3,000 species and nearly 100 genera, including chili peppers. Fascinatingly, the ancient chili pepper was technically a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-genes-that-help-fruit-adapt-to-droughts/">fruit</a> - and a berry at that. Despite the common association of tomatoes and peppers with vegetables, their internal seed-bearing structure categorizes them as fruits.</p>



<p>"The world has maybe 300,000 plant species," said study senior author Stacey Smith. "The only plant with that kind of calyx is this group of 80 or 90 species."</p>



<p>Previous assumptions held that chili peppers emerged in South America about 10 to 15 million years ago and gradually spread across the globe through terrestrial and aquatic means.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Although modern Colorado has scant native nightshades and no chili peppers, this groundbreaking discovery implies that a diverse array of tomato plant family members could have thrived in North America 40 to 50 million years ago, only to largely vanish in subsequent eras.</p>



<h2 id="h-theory-proposed-by-the-research-team">Theory proposed by the research team</h2>



<p>A theory has been proposed that fruit-eating birds, which have existed for at least 60 million years, might have inadvertently acted as seed carriers, transporting plant species globally via their digestive systems, plumage, or foot-borne mud.</p>



<p>These prehistoric avian travelers needed nourishment for their migrations, and what could be more suitable than juicy berries, or peppers? It appears that not only might birds have facilitated the spread of peppers from continent to continent, but peppers themselves could have been instrumental to the survival and success of these birds. This symbiotic relationship could have driven the early dispersion and evolution of the chili peppers.</p>



<p>Stacey Smith expressed her fascination with the new insights: "These chili peppers, a species that we thought arose in an evolutionary blink of an eye, have been around for a very long time." This research has effectively transformed our understanding of the evolutionary journey of chili peppers.</p>



<p>In conclusion, this unexpected discovery of ancient chili pepper fossils in Colorado has upended existing theories about the origins and dispersion of the nightshade family. It highlights the crucial role of natural history collections in shedding light on the evolution of plant species, and underlines the intriguing, interwoven relationships that exist in nature - between plants and animals, and even between continents. This knowledge will undoubtedly pave the way for further research into the fascinating history of the world's plant species.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-chili-peppers">More about chili peppers</h2>



<p>Chili peppers are a staple in many cuisines around the world today. They belong to the genus Capsicum and are a part of the nightshade family, Solanaceae.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Modern chili peppers come in a variety of shapes, sizes, colors, and, of course, heat levels, which are caused by the presence of a compound called capsaicin. The hottest part of a chili pepper is actually the white pithy part inside the pepper, not the seeds as commonly believed.</p>



<p>Chili peppers are widely known for their medicinal and health benefits. They are rich in vitamins and minerals such as vitamin C, B6, A, and potassium. They also have antioxidant properties and are known to boost the metabolism, aid digestion, relieve pain, reduce inflammation, and possibly even prevent cancer.</p>



<h3 id="h-the-scoville-scale">The Scoville scale</h3>



<p>The heat of a chili pepper is measured on the Scoville scale, named after American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville, who invented it in 1912. This scale measures the pungency or spicy heat of chili peppers in Scoville Heat Units (SHU).&nbsp;</p>



<p>This measurement originally depended on the human taste test but has since been replaced by more objective, instrumental methods, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).</p>



<p>To give you a sense of the Scoville scale, bell peppers, which contain no capsaicin, have a Scoville rating of zero, while a Jalapeno pepper ranges from 2,500 to 8,000 SHU. At the top of the scale are the world's hottest peppers, such as the Carolina Reaper, which can reach over 2 million SHU. Consuming these super-hot peppers can cause severe discomfort and should be done with caution.</p>



<p>Despite their heat, chili peppers are a beloved ingredient around the world, adding not just spice, but flavor, color, and health benefits to countless dishes. From the mild bell pepper to the fiery Carolina Reaper, the diversity and global popularity of chili peppers are a testament to their unique appeal.</p>



<p><strong>—-</strong></p>



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Fossil sheds new light on the history and evolution of chili peppers

In a surprising twist of events, researchers at the University...

<p>It's generally assumed that drought spells disaster for trees. But in a surprising revelation, recent research shows that certain trees may indeed benefit from a record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-collapse-of-mayan-civilization-was-not-caused-by-drought/">drought</a>. This curious phenomenon, which defies expectations, is the subject of a study in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486"><em>Global Change Biology</em></a>.</p>



<p>A team of scientists led by Professor Joan Dudney from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> delved into how whitebark pine, an endangered tree species, responded to droughts over the past century. This particular tree grows in harsh, chilly climates, often found at high altitudes and latitudes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Dudney's team discovered that in these hostile conditions, drought could, quite unexpectedly, provide an advantage to the trees by extending their growing season.</p>



<h2 id="h-important-insights-will-help-guide-climate-change-initiatives">Important insights will help guide climate change initiatives</h2>



<p>What does this mean for the future? This research offers crucial insight into the locations most vulnerable to the threats of extreme drought and how different species and ecosystems will likely react to climate change.</p>



<p>Trees encounter several obstacles to their growth. Cold temperatures, insufficient sunlight, and lack of water and nutrients can all hinder a tree's growth. The distinction between energy-limited and water-limited systems, where trees struggle to grow due to either freezing conditions or drought, respectively, is of particular importance.</p>



<p>Over the years, numerous tree species have adapted to these harsh conditions, showing broadly similar responses. When faced with extreme weather, trees typically scale back on growth-related activities, such as photosynthesis and nutrient uptake, essentially going into survival mode until conditions improve.</p>



<p>"Intriguingly, the shift from energy-limited to water-limited growth can result in quite unexpected outcomes," said Professor Dudney. "In severe, energy-limited climates, extreme drought can actually amplify growth and productivity, even in a place like California."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>Dudney's team conducted thorough research by collecting 800 tree core samples from whitebark pine across the Sierra Nevada. They compared the tree rings to historical climate records from 1900 to 2018, a period encompassing three extreme droughts: 1959-61, 1976-77, and 2012-15.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their meticulous record-keeping highlighted where tree growth and temperature shared a positive relationship, and where it was negative.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The findings were startling. The experts observed a distinct change in growth during periods of drought when the average maximum temperature hovered around 8.4° Celsius (47.1° Fahrenheit) from October to May. Above this temperature threshold, extreme drought stunted growth and photosynthesis. But below it, drought seemed to spur the trees to grow more.</p>



<p>"The key question is, 'how long is the growing season?'" said Dudney. Trees in colder climates with heavier snowpack usually face shorter growing seasons, thus limiting their growth. Even during intense droughts, many trees growing in these extreme environments did not exhibit severe water stress.</p>



<p>This discovery surprised the research team, several of whom had witnessed first-hand the unprecedented tree death that occurred at slightly lower elevations in the Sierra Nevada.</p>



<p>Professor Dudney wondered whether the impact of drought was confined to the main trunk or if it affected the entire tree. To answer this question, the team turned to chemistry.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-uncertain-future-for-the-whitebark-pine">Uncertain future for the whitebark pine</h2>



<p>By examining the different isotopes of carbon found in the tree's tissues, such as leaves and needles, they could estimate the level of water stress the tree experienced during droughts. This proved especially useful, as the whitebark pine retains its needles for approximately eight years, providing a wealth of data across both drought and non-drought years.</p>



<p>What they found was that the entire tree, from trunk growth and needle growth to photosynthesis and nutrient cycling, was affected by the tipping point between water-limited and energy-limited systems.</p>



<p>The future of whitebark pine is fraught with uncertainty. The species, recently categorized as threatened under the Endangered Species Act, confronts numerous challenges, including disease, pine beetle infestation, and disturbances from altered fire regimes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research underscores that drought and warming are likely to exacerbate these threats in water-limited regions. However, in energy-limited environments, warming could actually aid in their growth.</p>



<p>"This research can guide us towards more precise conservation strategies to help restore this historically widespread tree species," Dudney stated, highlighting the critical relevance of their findings. The habitat of whitebark pine spans an impressive region, from California to British Columbia, and east to Wyoming.</p>



<h2 id="h-research-has-global-implications">Research has global implications</h2>



<p>The implications of this research extend far beyond just the whitebark pine. Approximately 21% of the world's forests are energy-limited, with an even higher percentage classified as water-limited. Therefore, it's likely that transitions between these two climate regimes occur globally.</p>



<p>This transition also appears to influence nitrogen cycling. Trees in water-limited environments seemed to rely less on symbiotic fungi for nitrogen, which is indispensable for tree growth in harsh, energy-limited environments.</p>



<p>"Droughts are causing widespread tree mortality worldwide, which can accelerate global warming," said Professor Dudney.</p>



<p>Understanding the multifaceted ways trees react to drought is a critical part of forecasting which ecosystems are most vulnerable to climate change. This knowledge will also guide us in crafting more focused strategies to protect our invaluable forests. After all, understanding how some trees grow despite adversity is a lesson in survival - not just for the trees, but for our planet too.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-change-and-trees">More about climate change and trees</h2>



<p>Climate change has significant impacts on trees and forests around the world. With rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns, trees are being forced to adapt to new and challenging conditions, while forests face threats of altered habitats, biodiversity loss, and changes in carbon storage capacity.</p>



<p>Rising temperatures are one of the most direct effects of climate change. While it might seem that warmer weather would be beneficial for plant growth, it's not that simple.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Many trees are adapted to specific temperature ranges, and a sudden shift can result in stress and even death for those that can't adapt quickly enough. This is particularly true for species in high altitudes and latitudes, which are adapted to cold environments and may struggle with even a slight increase in temperature.</p>



<p>Additionally, warmer temperatures can lead to more frequent and severe heatwaves, which can cause water stress and increase susceptibility to pests and diseases.</p>



<p>Changes in precipitation patterns are another major impact of climate change on trees and forests. Some areas are experiencing increased rainfall, leading to flooding and waterlogged soils, while others are becoming drier, leading to drought.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Both situations can be detrimental to trees. Flooding can suffocate tree roots and promote disease, while drought can reduce growth and increase mortality. Drought can also make trees more susceptible to pests and wildfires.</p>



<h3 id="h-pests-and-diseases-broaden-their-range">Pests and diseases broaden their range</h3>



<p>The impact of climate change on pests and diseases is a growing concern. Warmer temperatures can allow pests to expand their range and increase their population size. It can also accelerate the lifecycle of pests and diseases, allowing them to reproduce more quickly. This, coupled with trees weakened by heat and drought stress, can lead to outbreaks that can devastate entire forests.</p>



<p>Wildfires, too, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. Warmer, drier conditions increase the risk of fire, and once a fire starts, it can spread more quickly and burn more intensely.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Forests that are adapted to occasional fires may struggle to recover from these intense burns, leading to a loss of tree cover and biodiversity.</p>



<p>Lastly, climate change can also impact the role of forests as carbon sinks. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as they grow, helping to mitigate climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<p>But as forests are stressed, damaged, and destroyed by the impacts of climate change, their capacity to store carbon is reduced. This can create a feedback loop, where the loss of forests exacerbates climate change, leading to further forest loss.</p>



<p>In conclusion, climate change poses a major threat to trees and forests worldwide. However, understanding these impacts and how different tree species and forest ecosystems respond to them is crucial for developing strategies to conserve and manage our forests in a changing climate.</p>



<p><strong>—-</strong></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Droughts can actually benefit trees in certain circumstances

It's generally assumed that drought spells disaster for trees. But...

<p>For decades, scientists have relied on the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundbreaking-technique-turns-rotting-seaweed-into-biofuels/">seaweed</a> at the ocean’s surface as an indicator for estimating the health of the coral reefs below. However, according to a new global study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC), such an approach has been misleading, and may have even hidden signs of reef stress.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings suggest that scientists should find new ways to determine whether and to what extent human activity is harming coral reefs.</p>



<p>Seaweed belongs to a group of organisms known as macroalgae that usually float on the ocean’s surface, covering coral reefs. The extent and features of macroalgae are relatively easy and quick to measure, and have long served as a proxy to assess reef health. Since the 1970s, experts have assumed that local human impacts increase macroalgae, while damaging the reefs below.</p>



<p>However, by examining data from over 1,200 sites in the Indian and Pacific Oceans during a 16- year period, the UBC researchers found that the previous assumptions may have been faulty. For instance, macroalgae covering depends heavily on the species growing in particular regions. While <em>Sargassum</em> is unlikely to grow in water contaminated by agricultural runoff, a species such as <em>Halimeda </em>will thrive.</p>



<p>Thus, using macroalgae cover as an indicator of local human impacts can actually obscure how much anthropogenic actions are damaging coral reefs, and cause scientist to misidentify the reefs that are most in need of intervention.</p>



<p>“Despite evidence that macroalgae respond to local stressors in diverse ways, there have been few efforts to evaluate relationships between specific macroalgae taxa and local human-driven disturbance. The convention to use percent cover of macroalgae as an indication of local human disturbance therefore likely obscures signatures of local anthropogenic threats to reefs," said the researchers.</p>



<p>"Our limited understanding of relationships between human disturbance, macroalgae taxa, and their responses to human disturbances impedes the ability to diagnose and respond appropriately to these threats."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16694"><em>Global Change Biology</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-human-impacts-on-coral-reefs">Human impacts on coral reefs</h2>



<p>Human activities have profound impacts on coral reefs. These activities largely exacerbate the natural threats that reefs face, causing more frequent and severe damages. Here are the key ways humans impact coral reefs:</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



<p>Human-induced climate change is one of the most significant threats to coral reefs. The burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have led to an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, causing global warming and ocean acidification. This results in coral bleaching events and impedes coral growth, respectively.</p>



<h3 id="h-pollution">Pollution</h3>



<p>Coastal development, industrial activities, and agricultural runoff can increase the amount of sediment, nutrients, and pollutants in the water, which can smother coral reefs or lead to destructive algal blooms.</p>



<h3 id="h-overfishing-and-destructive-fishing-practices">Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Practices</h3>



<p>Overfishing can disrupt the balance of reef ecosystems, removing key species that help control algal growth. Destructive fishing practices, like blast fishing or cyanide fishing, can directly destroy coral reefs.</p>



<h3 id="h-unsustainable-tourism">Unsustainable Tourism</h3>



<p>While eco-tourism can bring attention and resources to the conservation of coral reefs, irresponsible practices can harm them. Damage can be done through direct physical damage from anchors or divers and indirect impacts like increased waste and pollution.</p>



<h3 id="h-coastal-development">Coastal Development</h3>



<p>Construction along coastlines can lead to increased sediment in the water, which can smother corals. Coastal development can also result in the destruction of mangroves and sea grass beds, which serve as important buffer zones that reduce the amount of sediment and pollutants reaching coral reefs.</p>



<h3 id="h-coral-mining">Coral Mining</h3>



<p>Coral reefs are often mined for limestone, used in construction, and for coral rock, used in souvenir industry. This practice directly removes the reef.</p>



<h3 id="h-introduction-of-invasive-species">Introduction of Invasive Species</h3>



<p>Human activities can unintentionally introduce non-native species to reef environments. These invasive species can outcompete native species for resources, disrupt local ecosystems, and cause significant harm to the reefs.</p>



<h2 id="h-can-these-human-impacts-be-reduced">Can these human impacts be reduced?</h2>



<p>The impact of human activities on coral reefs can be mitigated with various strategies and efforts. Here are some key ones:</p>



<h3 id="h-policy-changes">Policy Changes</h3>



<p>Government regulation can play a critical role in coral reef conservation. Policies can regulate fishing to prevent overfishing and destructive practices, enforce pollution controls to maintain water quality, manage coastal development to reduce habitat destruction, and encourage renewable energy and other climate change mitigation strategies.</p>



<h3 id="h-education-and-public-awareness">Education and Public Awareness</h3>



<p>Education can help the general public understand the value of coral reefs and the threats they face, inspiring individuals to adopt practices that support reef health. This can include understanding safe and sustainable tourism practices, supporting sustainable seafood choices, and reducing carbon footprints.</p>



<h3 id="h-sustainable-practices">Sustainable Practices</h3>



<p>Businesses and industries can adopt sustainable practices to reduce their impact on coral reefs. This can include responsible waste management, sustainable sourcing and supply chain management, and transition to renewable energy sources.</p>



<h3 id="h-direct-action-and-restoration">Direct Action and Restoration</h3>



<p>Conservation groups and researchers are working on reef restoration initiatives. This includes projects that actively restore damaged reefs, such as coral gardening and the use of artificial reefs.</p>



<h3 id="h-scientific-research">Scientific Research</h3>



<p>Continued research is critical to understanding coral reef ecosystems, the threats they face, and the most effective methods for their conservation.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change-mitigation">Climate Change Mitigation</h3>



<p>Given the impact of climate change on coral reefs, efforts to mitigate climate change are critical. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, adopting renewable energy sources, and promoting carbon sequestration efforts.</p>



<h3 id="h-marine-protected-areas">Marine Protected Areas</h3>



<p>Establishing and enforcing marine protected areas (MPAs) can provide a refuge for coral reefs and the species that inhabit them. MPAs can help maintain biodiversity, prevent overfishing, and provide areas for reefs to recover from disturbances.</p>



<p>These strategies together can significantly reduce the human impact on coral reefs. The challenge is substantial but so too is the importance of these unique and invaluable ecosystems.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Seaweed can mislead scientists about reef health

For decades, scientists have relied on the amount of seaweed...

<p>Researchers in Ohio and the Upper Midwest have delved deep into the world of bumble bees, carrying out a study that observed almost 23,000 bumble bee-flower interactions over a span of two years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings suggest that bumble bees, far from indiscriminate pollen gatherers, display a discerning palate when it comes to the flowers they eat.</p>



<p>Bumble bees, known for their robust size, strength, and sociability, are exceptional long-distance flyers. They play a crucial role in the pollination process, especially in agriculture.</p>



<p>However, they are under threat from various factors, including habitat loss, climate change, and disease. As a result, some species' numbers are on the decline.</p>



<h2 id="h-study-s-findings-will-play-key-role-in-helping-bees-survive-and-thrive">Study’s findings will play key role in helping bees survive and thrive</h2>



<p>This new information could offer crucial insights for both professional and hobbyist conservationists. It could guide them in making informed planting decisions that support the survival and propagation of these vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-patches-of-land-can-help-support-pollinators/">pollinators</a>.</p>



<p>"Getting over 20,000 observations of individual identified bumble bees visiting particular flower species is pretty incredible for a dataset," expressed Karen Goodell, the senior author of the study and a professor of evolution, ecology and organismal biology at <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a>’s Newark campus.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"One of the keys for this project was having flower associations, as well as estimates of flower abundance, so we counted the flowers, too."</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The researchers discovered that the flowers most preferred by bumble bees in Ohio are milkweed, native thistles, morning glory, purple cone flower, bee balm, beardtongue, red clover, vetch and rosinweed, or cup plant. Additionally, two lower abundance species, Culver’s root and wild indigo, proved to be bee magnets.</p>



<p>Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4425"><em>Ecosphere</em></a>, the study provides an insight into the eating preferences of 16 historically found bumble bee species in Ohio. The research team was able to observe only 10 species, eight of which were abundant enough to be included in the analysis.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The American bumble bee (Bombus pensylvanicus), a species under consideration for the Federal Endangered Species List, was among them.</p>



<p>The common eastern bumble bee (Bombus impatiens) was the most frequently observed species with 11,555 visits in total. In comparison, only 31 observations were made of the American bumble bee.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, for the rarer species, the team did not witness enough bee-flower interactions to fully comprehend their diets, highlighting the need for this kind of comprehensive research.</p>



<p>"It’s really important to know what species we do have and what they like to eat, because any of them could become rare," said Goodell. "The more information we have about their preferences, the better we can manage their habitat.”</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>During the summer months of 2017 and 2018, the research team conducted fieldwork in 228 locations in Ohio. Their study involved observing bumble bees as they interacted with 96 different species of wildflowers over a total of 477 hours. The observation sites included a range of environments, from unmanaged fields to restored roadsides and meadows, urban patches, and hayfields.</p>



<p>The analysis showed that bumble bee visits to flowers were not random. Bees would often select specific plants more than their availability might suggest.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To measure bees’ flower preferences, researchers used a selection index that compared the frequency of bumble bee species visits to the flowers’ overall percent abundance.</p>



<p>Jessie Lanterman Novotny is the first author of the study and a key player in the project, having contributed as both an Ohio State PhD student and postdoctoral researcher in Goodell’s lab.</p>



<p>"There were flowers that were less abundant that bees actively sought out – they didn’t necessarily eat what was most abundant. There were also plants they avoided: No matter how many of certain flowers there were, they said, 'No thanks,’” said Lanterman Novotny.</p>



<h2 id="h-different-species-and-sometimes-same-species-prefer-different-plants">Different species, and sometimes same species, prefer different plants</h2>



<p>In fact, the researchers were surprised to find that certain plants, though abundant and commonly used in pollinator conservation plantings and seed mixes, were consistently ignored by the bumble bees. These included alsike clover, black-eyed Susan, and prairie cone flower.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A notable finding was that five of the eight observed bumble bee species showed a strong preference for non-native plants. This poses a significant challenge for conservation planters who are focused on preserving native plant species.</p>



<p>Interestingly, the study also revealed that the three most common species did not share the same flower preferences. The researchers found that the floral "menus" of each species overlapped by only one-third or less.</p>



<p>"We compared the flowers each bumble bee species used the most, and species only overlapped by one-third or less," explained Lanterman Novotny. "Low overlap could relieve competition, so all these species can coexist together.”</p>



<p>The findings highlight the nuanced nature of the relationship between bumble bees and their floral food sources. Bumble bees display complex preferences for certain types of flowers, and these preferences can vary greatly from species to species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By understanding these preferences, conservationists can make informed decisions to better manage the habitat and diet of these indispensable pollinators.</p>



<p>The research shines a light on the need for continued research into the habits and preferences of bumble bees, particularly as their numbers continue to dwindle due to environmental and man-made challenges.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study also underscores the crucial role every individual, from professional conservationist to amateur garden enthusiast, can play in ensuring the survival and prosperity of these essential creatures. By planting the right flowers, we can all contribute to the preservation and flourishing of our precious bumble bee populations.</p>



<h3 id="h-more-about-the-importance-of-bees-to-the-planet">More about the importance of bees to the planet</h3>



<p>Bees, including honeybees, bumble bees, and solitary bees, are some of the most important pollinators in the world. They contribute significantly to the biodiversity of ecosystems and to the production of food, including fruits, vegetables, nuts, and seeds.</p>



<p>In the agricultural context, pollination is vital for many crops. Bees are often the most efficient pollinators because they actively gather pollen as a food source for their larvae, transferring it from the male parts of a flower to the female parts as they go.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This process fertilizes the flower and allows it to produce fruit and seeds. In fact, it's estimated that around one-third of the food that we consume each day relies on pollination mainly by bees.</p>



<h3 id="h-bees-contribute-to-much-more-than-just-agriculture">Bees contribute to much more than just agriculture</h3>



<p>The impact of bees extends beyond agriculture. Many wild plants also depend on bees for pollination, which in turn provides food and habitat for other wildlife. Without bees, these ecosystems could collapse, leading to a decline in biodiversity.</p>



<p>Unfortunately, bees worldwide are facing numerous threats, including from climate change. Changes in temperature, precipitation, and seasonal cues can disrupt the timing of flower blooming and the emergence of bees from their nests.&nbsp;</p>



<p>If bees emerge after flowers have bloomed, they may have less food available, affecting their survival and reproductive rates. Conversely, if flowers bloom after bees have emerged, the flowers may not get pollinated.</p>



<h3 id="h-how-climate-change-is-impacting-bee-populations">How climate change is impacting bee populations&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Climate change can also shift the geographic ranges of some plants and bees. If the ranges of bees shift differently from the plants they typically pollinate, it could result in a mismatch. This mismatch could reduce the quality of the bees' diet and the success of plant pollination.</p>



<p>Extreme weather events such as droughts, heatwaves, and heavy rainfall, which are projected to increase with climate change, can also pose significant challenges to bees. For instance, extreme temperatures can be lethal to bees.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Drought can reduce flower availability, depriving bees of their food sources. Excessive rainfall can flood bee nests, especially those of ground-nesting species, killing larvae and forcing adults to abandon their nests.</p>



<p>Lastly, climate change may exacerbate other threats to bees. For example, it could enhance the spread of diseases and parasites or increase the toxicity of pesticides, causing additional stress to bee populations.</p>



<p>Given the critical role bees play in pollination and food production, it's crucial to mitigate these impacts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Conservation strategies include creating diverse habitats with a variety of plants that bloom at different times, providing food throughout the season, and promoting sustainable farming practices that reduce pesticide use.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Addressing climate change broadly by reducing greenhouse gas emissions is also key to preserving our invaluable bee populations.</p>



<p><strong>—-</strong></p>



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What flowers do bees like to eat most? Scientists think they have figured it out

Researchers in Ohio and the Upper Midwest have delved deep...

<p>The ever-increasing expansion of the common ragweed plant, known scientifically as Ambrosia artemisiifolia, is leaving allergy sufferers worldwide in prolonged discomfort as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-be-used-to-monitor-grass-pollen/">pollen</a> season intensifies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Notoriously invasive, common ragweed has now managed to venture as far north as Norway, demonstrating its extraordinary adaptability. However, it's currently meeting resistance due to Norway's challenging climate.</p>



<p>"Common ragweed can be found in Norway, but for now it has no stable populations,” said Vanessa Carina Bieker, a postdoctoral researcher at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology's (<a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">NTNU</a>) University Museum Department of Natural History.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bieker stumbled upon this alien species in Oslo during the fall of last year. As of now, Norway’s environmental conditions seem to be stalling the plant's progress, though an increase in temperature might facilitate its survival, given its track record of rapid global expansion.</p>



<p>Scientists attribute the unrelenting proliferation of the ragweed plant to the role of "supergenes," large blocks of genes that enable the plant to readily adapt to new conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Supergenes are inherited as a single unit by the subsequent generation, significantly impacting the plant's characteristics, such as size and flowering time. These changes, in turn, increase the plant's chances of survival and reproduction under diverse climatic conditions.</p>



<p>“These supergenes affect the plants' characteristics, such as their size or when they flower, and are in turn important for the plants to be able to survive and reproduce under new climate conditions," explained Professor Michael D. Martin.</p>



<p>The researchers collaborated with scientists from various other&nbsp; institutions, including Dr. Kathryn Hodgins of Monash University, to study these supergenes and their role in the ragweed's invasiveness. The groundbreaking research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37303-4"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>Native to North America, common ragweed made its way to Europe in the 19th century, most likely through imported seeds and horse feed. However, the plant's story of expansion isn't unique; it is part of a larger global issue of invasive species disrupting local ecosystems.</p>



<p>Invasive species pose a serious environmental threat. They disrupt existing biodiversity, often leading to destructive consequences for local wildlife.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Martin emphasizes the need for further understanding of invasive species: “We have to learn how invasive species evolve and spread before we can learn to control them. Then we can counteract the damage they do and limit their effect on species diversity, the economy, and our health.”</p>



<p>In the global battle against invasive species, studying the genetic material of plants is a crucial strategy to help understand their rapid spread and adaptability.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“When we identify the changes in DNA that enable such invasive species to spread so quickly, we gain a new weapon in our arsenal when we have to fight them,” explained Bieker.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research team sequenced the complete genetic code of over 600 plant specimens, including those of common ragweed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The genetic detective work carried out by the team led them to diverse museum collections and herbariums across North America and Europe, where they found specimens dating back as far as 190 years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By comparing the genetic material of these historical samples with living plants, the researchers could identify alterations that have transpired over the years.</p>



<p>“When you compare these old specimens with the living plants you find outside today, you can also identify the changes in the genetic material that have taken place over the years. And this helps pinpoint which genes have contributed to common ragweed spreading so quickly,” said Bieker.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The analysis revealed that there are gene variants which thrive under certain climate conditions, and genetic segments that undergo modifications over time.</p>



<p>One of the team's significant findings is the genetic divergence between ragweed populations in North America, its native continent, and Europe. This difference underpins fundamental principles of genetics and evolutionary theory.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As the environmental conditions around a plant shift, for instance, when they land on a new continent, certain genes might give individual plants advantages over others. These genetic variants boost reproduction rates, enabling the advantageous genes to be more frequently inherited by the next generation.</p>



<p>“The supergenes in the European plants enabled them to evolve rapidly during the invasion,” explained Professor Martin. These supergenes have facilitated ragweed's colonization of vast regions of Europe, modifying vital plant characteristics like size and lifecycle timing.</p>



<p>“These are properties that have had a major impact on ragweed’s success and therefore the plants’ production of highly allergenic pollen,” said Martin, emphasizing the repercussions of ragweed's spread on global health, particularly for allergy sufferers.</p>



<p>What is remarkable about this study is not only its findings, but also the techniques that were used for the analysis. The rapid advancements in genetics over recent years have enabled research methods previously thought impossible. This investigation, in particular, demonstrates how innovative genetic methodologies can breathe new life into old scientific collections, extracting fresh and enlightening insights.</p>



<p>“This research shows the power in studying old specimens in herbariums and other museum collections. They can inform us about the recent spread, and sometimes very rapid evolution, of invasive species that have been strongly influenced by human activity,” said Martin.</p>



<p>In the future, these findings might serve as the basis for effective strategies to curb the spread of common ragweed. While the prospect is a long-term one, it certainly offers a glimmer of hope to those who suffer from seasonal allergies.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-invasive-species">More about invasive species</h2>



<p>Invasive species are plants, animals, or pathogens that are non-native (or alien) to an ecosystem and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause harm. They can affect the environment, the economy, or even human health.</p>



<h3 id="h-environmental-impacts">Environmental Impacts</h3>



<p>Invasive species can disrupt biodiversity by outcompeting native species for resources such as food, water, and habitat. Some invasive species are predators or pathogens that directly kill native species. Others alter habitats in ways that native species cannot tolerate or to which they cannot adapt. In the worst cases, invasive species can cause local extinctions of native species and drastically alter ecosystem functions.</p>



<h3 id="h-economic-impacts">Economic Impacts</h3>



<p>Invasive species can cause extensive economic damage. They can harm agricultural productivity through crop damage and loss of livestock. In forests, invasive insects and diseases can kill large numbers of trees, affecting timber production. Invasive aquatic plants and animals can disrupt commercial and recreational fishing, boating, and other water-related industries. Furthermore, managing invasive species is costly.</p>



<h3 id="h-human-health-impacts">Human Health Impacts</h3>



<p>Some invasive species can harm human health. For instance, some invasive plants produce allergens. Alien insects like mosquitoes can transmit diseases. And some invasive animals, such as rodents, are carriers of various diseases.</p>



<h3 id="h-examples-of-invasive-species">Examples of invasive species</h3>



<p>The zebra mussel in the Great Lakes of North America, the brown tree snake in Guam, the cane toad in Australia, and the lionfish in the Caribbean and the Southeast U.S. waters are all examples of invasive species.</p>



<p>Managing and controlling alien species is a significant conservation challenge. It involves preventing their introduction, detecting and eradicating newly established invaders, and controlling and mitigating the impacts of established invasive species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Supergenes drove the rapid spread of common ragweed

The ever-increasing expansion of the common ragweed plant, known scientifically...

<p>In recent decades, eelgrass meadows have significantly declined in the southern Bohus county in Sweden, and in many areas have disappeared completely.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Since eelgrass serves as a habitat or nursery for a variety of aquatic organisms, such as young cod, crabs, and shrimp, they are highly important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a>, and their decline could thus have disastrous consequences for many coastal ecosystems. </p>



<p>Moreover, since eelgrass roots also bind the sediment, they prevent erosion and limit resuspension of sediment in the water.</p>



<p>For over a decade, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a> has been working on the restoration of eelgrass meadows. Their most recent assessment of this initiative is highly positive, showing that fauna returned rapidly once the eelgrass started to grow again.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In fact, already in the second summer, the biodiversity in the planted meadows was almost the same as in the old established meadows. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/rec.13887"><em>Restoration Ecology</em></a><em>.</em>&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



<p>During the summer of 2019, the scientists planted eelgrass shoots in four test plots of different sizes on the seabed, with different spacing between the shoots. </p>



<p>By autumn 2020, new populations of invertebrates that live or burrow in bottom sediments were already thriving in the young meadows.</p>



<p>“The recolonization has been very rapid. After the first three-month growing season, up to 80 percent of the invertebrates had returned to the newly planted eelgrass,” said study senior author Eduardo Infantes, a marine biologist at Gothenburg.</p>



<p>Observations have also revealed that size did not play a major role in the recovery of biodiversity in the meadows. Even if eelgrass did not have time to grow to the same density as in an established meadow, after only two growing seasons, the level of biodiversity was just as high as in old meadows.</p>



<p>“This is good news for future restorations and new plantings of eelgrass meadows. We can plant new smaller plots with fewer shoots and this saves money because it is an expensive method for restoring biodiversity on the seabed,” Infantes concluded.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-eelgrass">More about eelgrass&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Eelgrass, which belongs to the genus Zostera, is a group of species of submerged aquatic plants that live in marine environments along coastlines. Here are some key facts about it:</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>Eelgrass is found in temperate and cold waters in the Northern Hemisphere. It thrives in shallow coastal areas, lagoons, and estuaries where sunlight can reach the seafloor.</p>



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



<p>As the name suggests, eelgrass has long, ribbon-like leaves which often form dense underwater meadows. These grass-like leaves are usually bright green, and the plant can produce small flowers and fruits.</p>



<h3 id="h-role-in-the-ecosystem">Role in the ecosystem&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Eelgrass beds are very important ecologically. They provide valuable habitats and nurseries for many species of fish and invertebrates. They also help to improve water quality by absorbing nutrients, and their root systems stabilize the seafloor, preventing erosion.</p>



<h3 id="h-threats-and-conservation">Threats and conservation</h3>



<p>Eelgrass populations have declined in many places due to factors such as pollution, coastal development, dredging, and disease. </p>



<p>Climate change is also a potential threat, as changes in sea level or water temperature could negatively affect eelgrass. Various conservation efforts are underway to protect and restore eelgrass habitats.</p>



<h3 id="h-scientific-research">Scientific research&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Eelgrass is the subject of much scientific research. For example, it has been found to sequester carbon dioxide at a much higher rate than terrestrial forests, making it an important potential tool in the fight against climate change.</p>



<h2 id="h-eelgrass-and-climate-change">Eelgrass and climate change&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Eelgrass, like other types of seagrass, plays a significant role in climate change mitigation. Here's how:</p>



<h3 id="h-carbon-sequestration">Carbon sequestration</h3>



<p>Eelgrass meadows are exceptional at sequestering carbon, trapping it in the sediment below. They can absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at rates over ten times faster than forests on land. </p>



<p>This process, known as "blue carbon" sequestration, helps to mitigate the impacts of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, which is a primary driver of global climate change.</p>



<h3 id="h-coastal-protection">Coastal protection</h3>



<p>Eelgrass also acts as a buffer against coastal erosion, which can be exacerbated by climate change. Rising sea levels and increased storm surges can lead to significant erosion, and eelgrass beds help protect coastlines by stabilizing sediment and dampening wave action.</p>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-and-resilience">Biodiversity and resilience</h3>



<p>Eelgrass beds are biodiversity hotspots, providing food and shelter for a wide range of marine life. Biodiversity often equates to ecosystem resilience, and maintaining healthy, diverse ecosystems is key in the face of climate change.</p>



<p>However, eelgrass is also vulnerable to climate change. Rising sea temperatures can lead to increased prevalence of diseases that affect eelgrass. </p>



<p>Changes in salinity and nutrient levels, ocean acidification, and increased storm intensity can also negatively impact eelgrass meadows.</p>



<p>In the face of climate change, conserving and restoring eelgrass meadows are crucial actions. Despite their importance, these ecosystems are often overlooked in climate policy. Increasing awareness about the value of "blue carbon" ecosystems can help drive conservation efforts and support sustainable management of these critical habitats.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Eelgrass meadows are underestimated biodiversity hotspots

In recent decades, eelgrass meadows have significantly declined in the...

<p>Although they occupy only seven percent of our planet’s land area, tropical rainforests are the Earth’s largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a>, storing between 25 and 40 percent of global soil carbon and thus mitigating to a certain extent some of climate change’s most severe impacts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) and supported by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, climate change will significantly affect the carbon storage capacities of tropical rainforests, with persistent drying caused by reductions in rainfall leading to carbon loss from the most fertile soils.</p>



<p>“Tropical forests can be really sensitive to reductions in rainfall and they have some of the largest stores of carbon on Earth. As climate is drying, that carbon is vulnerable,” said study lead author Daniela Cusack, an associate professor of Ecosystem Science and Sustainability at CSU.</p>



<p>“All that carbon that’s stored in rainforests right now is like a bank. We’re banking all that carbon and anything that releases that carbon is going to exacerbate climate change and impact everybody.”</p>



<p>By assessing the effects of natural seasonal drying and persistent reductions in rainfall on carbon fluxes in tropical forests, the experts discovered that these phenomena suppress the release of carbon dioxide.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There was some resilience at first, which makes sense because these are seasonal forests, so they’re used to a dry season,” Cusack explained. “But it seems like after that initial resilience, we’re hitting a threshold where things are shifting more rapidly in some tropical forests.”</p>



<p>The ecosystem model that the experts used predicted that chronic drying would increase the release of carbon dioxide from wetter and more fertile tropical forests, while decreasing carbon dioxide fluxes from drier forests.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We had predicted that the wettest site would be most sensitive to drying. It’s the least adapted to drier conditions,” Cusack said.</p>



<p>The scientists expected that, as the wettest sites dry down, they would become more favorable for microbes that decompose carbon in soil and turn it into carbon dioxide. Surprisingly though, the investigation revealed that the wettest sites lost the least carbon, while the most fertile ones lost the most.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These findings suggest that different tropical forests will respond differently – and on different time frames - to climate change, and that the most fertile soils across the tropics could be the first to lose high amounts of carbon as the planet keeps warming.</p>



<p>“This research adds to our understanding of the relationship between tropical forest conditions and carbon sequestration,” said NSF’s program director Tom Evans. “Tropical rainforests are an important carbon sink, and this research documents that different types of tropical forest regimes exhibit different responses to changing climate conditions.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GB007473"><em>Global Geochemical Cycles</em></a><em>.</em>&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-tropical-rainforests">The future of tropical rainforests&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The future of tropical rainforests is a topic of concern and interest due to their critical importance for biodiversity, climate regulation, and human well-being. Here are some key aspects that are currently being discussed and addressed by scientists, environmentalists, and policymakers:</p>



<h3 id="h-deforestation">Deforestation</h3>



<p>Deforestation remains a significant threat to tropical rainforests. The expansion of agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development, driven by economic interests, poses a severe risk to these ecosystems. Efforts are being made to promote sustainable land-use practices, increase protected areas, and enforce stricter regulations to combat deforestation.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



<p>Climate change is expected to impact tropical rainforests in multiple ways. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events can affect the distribution and health of rainforest ecosystems. Mitigating climate change through global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is crucial for the long-term survival of these forests.</p>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-loss">Biodiversity Loss</h3>



<p>Tropical rainforests are home to an incredible array of plant and animal species. However, deforestation and habitat fragmentation threaten biodiversity by reducing available habitats and disrupting ecological processes. Conservation initiatives, such as the creation of protected areas, habitat restoration, and species conservation programs, are vital for preserving biodiversity in rainforest regions.</p>



<h3 id="h-indigenous-rights-and-local-communities">Indigenous Rights and Local Communities</h3>



<p>Recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities who live in or depend on rainforest ecosystems is crucial. Their traditional knowledge and sustainable practices can contribute to the conservation and sustainable management of these forests. Empowering these communities to participate in decision-making processes and supporting their livelihoods are important for the future of rainforest conservation.</p>



<h3 id="h-technology-and-innovation">Technology and Innovation</h3>



<p>Technology can play a significant role in monitoring and managing tropical rainforests. Advances in remote sensing, satellite imagery, and data analysis enable more accurate monitoring of deforestation and forest health. Additionally, sustainable practices such as agroforestry, which combines agriculture and forestry, can provide alternative livelihoods while conserving forested areas.</p>



<h3 id="h-international-collaboration">International Collaboration</h3>



<p>Addressing the challenges facing tropical rainforests requires global collaboration. Governments, organizations, and individuals need to work together to implement effective policies, share knowledge and resources, and support initiatives that prioritize rainforest conservation. International agreements like the Paris Agreement and initiatives like REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) aim to address these issues.</p>



<p>It is important to note that the future of tropical rainforests depends on the collective efforts of governments, organizations, and individuals to protect and sustainably manage these invaluable ecosystems. By promoting sustainable practices, reducing deforestation, combating climate change, and supporting local communities, we can contribute to a more positive future for tropical rainforests.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Tropical forests are losing their carbon storage capacity

Although they occupy only seven percent of our planet’s land...

<p>Around 12,000 years ago, the first humans began their journey into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agriculture-could-play-a-key-role-in-limiting-global-warming/">agriculture</a>. In the regions we now identify as Iraq and Syria, nestled between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, small collectives of people embarked on the cultivation of peas, lentils, and barley. Each group operated independently, making their own discoveries and innovations along the way.</p>



<p>In order to create room for these fledgling fields and the animals they kept, they had to cut down trees. It was the beginning of a human-initiated transformation of nature, bending and shaping it to meet our own needs.</p>



<p>Our ancestors were aware of the consequences of their actions. They knew that once the forests were cleared and the fields set up, certain species of animals and plants would cease to exist in those regions. In our current era, we understand that modern, high-intensity agriculture poses one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity.</p>



<p>Despite this knowledge, there remains a gap in our understanding. Specifically, we lack concrete information about the direct impact on the ecosystem - on its plants, insects, and animals - when a forest is cleared, and the land is tilled and sowed.</p>



<p>In response to this, Gabor Lovei from the Department of Agroecology at <a href="https://international.au.dk/">Aarhus University</a> and a group of Portuguese colleagues embarked on a research journey. They chose the island of Terceira in the Azores as their laboratory, an ideal location due to the preservation of some of its original forest.</p>



<p>Gabor Lovei, however, was taken aback by the results of the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2022.11.010">study</a>. "The changes in the ecosystem were less extensive than I’d imagined. True enough, there were fewer large and small animals in the fields, but on a number of other parameters, activity in the ecosystem had actually increased," said Lovei.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-unique-nature-in-the-azores">The unique nature in the Azores</h2>



<p>The Azores had largely remained untouched until 1427. The islands were lush and thriving in the middle of the Atlantic, hosting deep-green trees and a variety of plants. This rich biodiversity was due to the islands' unique combination of high heat, frequent precipitation, and volcanic soil.</p>



<p>That all changed in the 15th century when Portuguese sailors stumbled upon the forested mountains in the middle of the Atlantic. Smallholders, disillusioned with the royal favours directed towards manor houses in Portugal, packed up their tools and set sail for the Azores. They felled the forests and planted wheat and other crops.</p>



<p>Their efforts bore fruit. The yields were significantly higher than on the mainland, and soon, the news spread. Farmers flocked to the Azores, resulting in rapid deforestation and transformation into agricultural land. The only areas spared were those where the terrain was too mountainous or the soil too difficult to cultivate.</p>



<p>It was in these untouched parts of the original forest that Gabor Lovei carried out his research. "In Denmark – and most other places in Europe – the forest is not original. It has been felled, replanted and changed by humans for thousands of years. In the Azores, on the other hand, there is completely original forest – and it’s gold for this type of research," said Lovei.</p>



<h2 id="h-innovative-trick-used-in-this-study">Innovative trick used in this study</h2>



<p>When scientists want to study the impact of agriculture on various species, they often don their hiking boots and embark on a field journey. They systematically comb through fields, meadows, and forest edges, meticulously recording their findings at different times of the day and on multiple occasions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, these traditional methods primarily shed light on animal populations, not the whole ecosystem's response to agricultural changes.</p>



<p>Gabor Lovei, a researcher, had a different approach. He aimed to investigate the entire ecosystem's reaction to forest felling and the establishment of fields, so he had to employ innovative methods.</p>



<p>Lovei began his investigation by planting several mature lettuces in three different environments: an original forest, cultivated fields, and cow grazing fields. He left the plants undisturbed for two weeks. After this period, he assessed the area covered by the lettuce and the amount consumed, providing a measure of the plant-eating activity in each ecosystem.</p>



<p>He replicated this process with larvae to assess predation levels. The more larvae consumed, the more wildlife - birds, rodents, frogs - were likely present in the area. Lovei also scattered small boxes of seeds to observe how many would disappear. He even buried teabags ten centimeters deep into the soil to examine the microorganisms' activity levels, which break down organic matter.</p>



<p>Additionally, he planted strawberries to gain insights into pollination across the different areas. All these mini-experiments collectively painted a picture of the ecosystem-wide changes occurring when forests are felled and fields established.</p>



<h2 id="h-researchers-find-fewer-animals-in-the-fields">Researchers find fewer animals in the fields</h2>



<p>Among all parameters Lovei studied, insect predation showed the greatest difference. He found that significantly more larvae disappeared in the forest than in the cultivated field and grazing areas.</p>



<p>According to Lovei, this suggests more wildlife inhabits the forest. "Larvae are typically eaten by rodents, birds, and lizards. Our findings suggest that there were significantly more of them in the forest, because more larvae disappeared between the trees," said Lovei.</p>



<p>Seeds also vanished more rapidly in the forest, which Lovei attributes to the higher humidity levels fostering a wider range of invertebrates. "Animals like snails and beetles, which eat seeds, can live there."</p>



<p>However, he found no difference regarding pollination and the number of soil microorganisms. Interestingly, plant pollination was slightly higher on maize fields than in the forest. But Lovei cautions against seeing this as an indication of greater bee diversity. He clarified that cultivated fields usually have few plant types, meaning that "the same few bee species are responsible for pollination."</p>



<h2 id="h-what-farmers-can-do-to-help">What farmers can do to help</h2>



<p>Deforestation by local farmers inevitably leads to a loss of biodiversity, a fact clearly demonstrated through Gabor Lovei's extensive research. But does his work also reveal ways to regain some of that lost biodiversity in our agricultural fields?</p>



<p>The answer, Lovei assures us, is yes. His results offer a fresh understanding of which parts of the ecosystem are most impacted by farming practices.</p>



<p>Lovei has observed that "snails and beetles have a hard time on the fields." To rectify this, he suggests that farmers could leave small pockets of natural vegetation untouched in their fields. For instance, allowing roots from dead trees to decompose naturally could attract many types of beetles.</p>



<p>Another issue stems from the unintentional introduction of non-native species during farming, which can disrupt the natural ecosystem. In the Azores, rats became invasive and displaced a large portion of the local fauna.</p>



<p>"By making space for small pockets of non-cultivated nature in and around the fields, we know that the native species will survive more easily. They’re simply more resistant to invading species," explained Lovei.</p>



<p>Is it possible, then, to apply these findings to a place like Denmark, which has distinct natural conditions? The Azores' nature is quite different: Denmark is colder, its soil is different, and virtually no original nature remains.</p>



<p>Despite these differences, Lovei believes the results from the Azores can still apply to Danish conditions. "Such comprehensive experiments have never been conducted on the European mainland, but some of the parameters have been studied in other European countries. The pattern was roughly the same. Therefore, we can assume that Danish nature reacts more or less in the same way to deforestation and cultivation."</p>



<p>He is quick to remind us, though, that agriculture isn't the sole threat to biodiversity. Urban environments, including our own backyards, also impose limitations on animal habitats. He emphasizes, "That’s why it's important to do something in our own backyard.”</p>



<p>Planting native species can make a significant difference, Lovei suggests. Cultivating trees and flowers indigenous to Denmark, rather than exotic plants, can greatly benefit the local ecosystem. "Stop mowing the lawn. This will make a huge difference for many species."</p>



<p>This research, while highlighting the detrimental effects of farming practices on biodiversity, also points to viable strategies for mitigating these impacts. The findings serve as a call to action for both farmers and individuals, reminding us of our shared responsibility in preserving our planet's precious biodiversity.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-deforestation">More about deforestation</h2>



<p>Deforestation is the process of clearing, thinning, or eliminating forested areas, often to make way for agriculture, logging, or urban development. It has profound impacts on the Earth's ecosystems and the overall environment, affecting biodiversity, climate, and human societies.</p>



<h3 id="h-loss-of-biodiversity">Loss of Biodiversity</h3>



<p>Forests are home to a majority of the world's terrestrial biodiversity. They house millions of species of plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms, many of which are still undiscovered. When forests are cleared, these species lose their habitats, leading to population declines and extinctions. This loss of biodiversity can disrupt ecosystems and diminish their resilience, potentially leading to the collapse of entire food webs.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



<p>Forests play a crucial role in regulating the Earth's climate. They act as "carbon sinks," absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in plant tissues and soils. When forests are cut down and burned or allowed to decompose, this stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Deforestation is estimated to be responsible for about 10-15% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions.</p>



<h3 id="h-disruption-of-the-water-cycle">Disruption of the Water Cycle</h3>



<p>Trees and plants in forests contribute significantly to the water cycle. They release water vapor into the atmosphere through transpiration, promoting the formation of clouds and precipitation. When forests are removed, this process is disrupted, potentially leading to changes in rainfall patterns and an increased risk of drought.</p>



<h3 id="h-soil-erosion-and-degradation">Soil Erosion and Degradation</h3>



<p>Forests help to protect soil from erosion by reducing the impact of rain and wind. They also contribute to soil fertility through the recycling of nutrients. Without trees, soils are more vulnerable to erosion, and their fertility can decline over time, making the land less suitable for agriculture and other uses.</p>



<h3 id="h-impact-on-indigenous-communities">Impact on Indigenous Communities</h3>



<p>Many indigenous and local communities depend on forests for their livelihoods, food, water, and cultural practices. Deforestation can lead to the displacement of these communities and the loss of their traditional knowledge and ways of life.</p>



<p>In short, deforestation has far-reaching impacts on the Earth's ecosystems and the environment. Addressing this issue is vital for biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation, and sustainable development.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Jules Verne Times Two / Creative Commons</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



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Study reveals exactly what happens to nature when forests are cut down

Around 12,000 years ago, the first humans began their journey...

<p>In a new study, experts suggest that a healthy diet may be directly associated with increased physical fitness, especially among middle-aged adults. The research is published in the <em>European Journal of Preventive Cardiology</em>, a leading publication of the <a href="https://www.escardio.org/">European Society of Cardiology</a>.</p>



<p>The study sheds light on the intricate relationship between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/proper-nutrition-in-the-first-1000-days-of-life-is-crucial/">nutrition</a> and physical health, providing some of the most comprehensive and persuasive data to date.</p>



<p>Dr. Michael Mi, a pivotal member of the research team from <a href="https://www.bidmc.org/">Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center</a>, emphasized the significance of the findings. “This study provides some of the strongest and most rigorous data thus far to support the connection that better diets may lead to higher fitness.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-diet-impacts-cardio-fitness">How diet impacts cardio fitness</h2>



<p>Dr. Mi further highlighted the scale of improvement noticed in participants who followed healthier diets, stating that it was comparable to the effect of adding an extra 4,000 steps to their daily routine.</p>



<p>Cardiorespiratory fitness, a key parameter in this study, is essentially the body’s ability to sufficiently supply and utilize oxygen during physical exertion. It is an indicator of the health of numerous organ systems including the heart, lungs, blood vessels, and muscles. It has been widely recognized as a powerful predictor of health and longevity.</p>



<p>While regular exercise is known to improve cardiorespiratory fitness, the study also explored why, among individuals who exercise consistently, there are variances in fitness levels. This led them to examine whether diet, which is already known to have numerous health benefits, also plays a significant role in determining fitness levels.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



<p>The research was conducted among a cohort of community-dwelling adults, comprising of 2,380 individuals from the Framingham Heart Study. The participant group was balanced, with an average age of 54 years.</p>



<p>Physical fitness was evaluated using a maximum effort cardiopulmonary exercise test on a cycle ergometer, which measures peak VO2 - a gold-standard assessment indicating the quantity of oxygen used during maximum intensity exercise.</p>



<p>Dietary intake was assessed using the Harvard semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire, which examined consumption of 126 dietary items over the past year.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The data gathered was used to score the diet quality based on the Alternative Healthy Eating Index (AHEI) and the Mediterranean-style Diet Score (MDS), both of which are associated with heart health.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Higher scores, indicating a diet rich in vegetables, fruits, whole grains, nuts, legumes, fish, and healthy fats, and limited in red meat and alcohol, were seen as indicative of a better quality diet.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The study results were controlled for various factors such as age, sex, total daily energy intake, body mass index, smoking status, cholesterol levels, blood pressure, diabetes, and routine physical activity level.&nbsp;</p>



<p>On average, participants scored 66.7 on the AHEI and 12.4 on the MDS. Findings revealed that an increase of 13 points on the AHEI and 4.7 on the MDS corresponded to a 5.2% and 4.5% greater peak VO2, respectively.</p>



<p>Discussing the findings, Dr. Mi said: “In middle-aged adults, healthy dietary patterns were strongly and favorably associated with fitness even after taking habitual activity levels into account. The relationship was similar in women and men, and more pronounced in those under 54 years of age compared to older adults.”</p>



<p>To unravel the potential underlying mechanism that connects diet and fitness, the researchers dove deeper, examining the relationship between diet quality, fitness, and metabolites - substances produced during digestion and released into the blood during exercise.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts analyzed 201 metabolites in blood samples collected from a subset of 1,154 study participants, finding that 24 of these metabolites were associated with either poor diet and fitness, or with favorable diet and fitness. This association remained significant even after adjusting for the same factors considered in the previous analyses.</p>



<p>Dr. Mi elaborated on these results, stating: “Our metabolite data suggest that eating healthily is associated with better metabolic health, which could be one possible way that it leads to improved fitness and ability to exercise.”</p>



<h2 id="h-many-questions-left-unanswered">Many questions left unanswered</h2>



<p>Despite the promising outcomes of the research, Dr. Mi cautioned against interpreting the results as strictly causal. “This was an observational study and we cannot conclude that eating well causes better fitness, or exclude the possibility of a reverse relationship, i.e., that fit individuals choose to eat healthily.”</p>



<p>In conclusion, Dr. Mi emphasized the importance of a high-quality diet for overall health and fitness. “There are already many compelling health reasons to consume a high-quality diet, and we provide yet another one with its association with fitness. A Mediterranean-style diet with fresh, whole foods and minimal processed foods, red meat and alcohol is a great place to start.”</p>



<p>This study serves to underscore the potential benefits of a healthier diet, not just for the prevention of diseases, but also as a way to improve physical fitness and, ultimately, quality of life.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The relationship between diet and fitness, while complex, is becoming clearer through research like this, highlighting the need for greater public health initiatives focused on promoting healthier dietary habits.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-nutrition-and-physical-health">More about nutrition and physical health</h2>



<p>Nutrition plays a critical role in maintaining physical health, improving fitness levels, and preventing a variety of diseases. The food and drink we consume is our body's primary source of energy and nutrients, which are needed to perform various bodily functions, from cellular regeneration and repair to maintaining a healthy immune system.</p>



<h3 id="h-here-are-some-key-ways-nutrition-is-interconnected-with-physical-health">Here are some key ways nutrition is interconnected with physical health:</h3>



<h4 id="h-energy-levels">Energy Levels</h4>



<p>Our bodies break down the food we eat into glucose, which is used by our cells for energy. Consuming a balanced diet that includes the right amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats ensures that we have a consistent energy supply throughout the day. Conversely, a diet lacking in essential nutrients can lead to low energy levels, fatigue, and decreased physical performance.</p>



<h4 id="h-physical-growth-and-development">Physical Growth and Development</h4>



<p>Nutrients like proteins, fats, and certain vitamins and minerals are essential for physical growth and development. This is especially true in children and adolescents, but also continues into adulthood as our bodies constantly regenerate and repair cells and tissues.</p>



<h4 id="h-body-weight">Body Weight</h4>



<p>Consuming a diet that is balanced in calories - meaning you're burning roughly the same number of calories as you consume—can help maintain a healthy body weight. Overeating, especially foods high in fats and sugars, can lead to weight gain and obesity, which increase the risk of a variety of health conditions, including heart disease, diabetes, and certain cancers.</p>



<h4 id="h-bone-health">Bone Health</h4>



<p>Minerals like calcium and phosphorus, along with vitamin D, are necessary for maintaining strong, healthy bones. A deficiency in these nutrients can lead to bone-related health issues like osteoporosis.</p>



<h4 id="h-heart-health">Heart Health</h4>



<p>Eating a diet low in saturated and trans fats, cholesterol, and sodium can help maintain heart health by lowering blood pressure and cholesterol levels, reducing the risk of heart disease and stroke.</p>



<h4 id="h-digestive-health">Digestive Health</h4>



<p>Dietary fiber, found in foods like fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, helps promote a healthy digestive system by adding bulk to the diet and aiding in regular bowel movements. It also helps to maintain a healthy weight and lower the risk of diabetes, heart disease, and certain types of cancer.</p>



<h4 id="h-brain-health">Brain Health</h4>



<p>Certain nutrients, such as omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants, and B vitamins, have been linked to brain health. A diet rich in these nutrients can support cognitive function, memory, and mood.</p>



<h4 id="h-immune-system">Immune System</h4>



<p>Certain nutrients, including proteins, vitamins A, C, and E, and zinc, are needed to support the immune system and help the body fight off disease.</p>



<h4 id="h-muscle-strength-and-function">Muscle Strength and Function</h4>



<p>Protein is needed to build and repair muscle tissue, especially important after physical activity. Moreover, nutrients like potassium and magnesium are critical for muscle function, helping to avoid muscle cramps and fatigue.</p>



<p>In summary, a nutritious, balanced diet is a cornerstone of overall physical health. It provides the body with the necessary nutrients for energy production, tissue repair, immune function, and more. Combined with regular exercise, adequate sleep, and other healthy lifestyle habits, good nutrition is part of a holistic approach to maintaining health and wellness.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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New study proves that you really are what you eat

In a new study, experts suggest that a healthy diet...

<p>The mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pine-beetles-use-different-strategies-to-attack-their-hosts/">pine beetle</a> is one of the leading causes of pine tree mortality across North America. For instance, this insect has already killed thousands of acres of pine forests in British Columbia and Alberta, making these areas more vulnerable to wildfires, and turning Canada’s forests into large sources of carbon emissions – resulting from the burned or decaying wood of dead trees – rather than carbon sinks.</p>



<p>Using a groundbreaking approach inspired by fluid mechanics to study the flight performance of the mountain pine beetle, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/index.html">University of Alberta</a> has recently provided a novel method to improve estimates of the insects’ spread through the environment. Better understanding the flight behavior of pine beetles could help conservationists preserve pine forests.</p>



<p>The scientists employed a type of model initially used for idealized airfoils, and showed that it can be successfully applied to various individual animals to predict how factors such as biological sex, age, and body size can impact flight characteristics.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We found that there is a dimensionless grouping of velocity and wing beat amplitude that can predict the thrust produced by an insect, and that this grouping can dramatically improve our ability to determine factors that affect flight performance in insects,” said study lead author Zahra Hajati, a mechanical engineer at Alberta.</p>



<p>Using this model on multiple insects -&nbsp; each with a slightly different wing shape (including some with wing damage), size, and age - the scientists discovered differences by group. For instance, female beetles seemed to have greater flight endurance than males, and younger beetles flew with less thrust than insects from other age groups.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In order to make the airfoil model functional for pine beetles, the researchers had to modify it to deal with the more complex 3D wings of the insects rather than the simpler, tear-drop shape of idealized airfoils. Interestingly, the main difference between the wings and the idealized airfoils was found to be the relative influence of viscosity, with the insects being more sensitive to it than the airfoils.&nbsp;</p>



<p>One of the study’s limitations is that the scientists looked at the forces generated by insects over the course of only a few wingbeats. Since, in nature, beetles can fly for hours during dispersal flights, further work is needed to relate the wingbeat-to-wingbeat scaling of force generation and energy consumption to how far the insects can disperse over entire flights.</p>



<p>“This model opens new avenues for entomological investigation, providing a means of dramatically improving statistical confidence levels for insect dispersion studies,”&nbsp;Hajati concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0145208"><em>Physics of Fluids</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-mountain-pine-beetle">More about the mountain pine beetle&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) is a species of bark beetle native to the forests of western North America from Mexico to central British Columbia. It has a hard, black exoskeleton, and measures approximately 5 millimeters, about the size of a grain of rice.</p>



<p>These beetles play a significant role in the life cycle of a forest, attacking old or weakened trees, which can help to spur the development of a healthier ecosystem. However, they can also kill large numbers of trees when their populations reach outbreak levels, leading to significant ecological disruption and increasing the risk of forest fires.</p>



<p>The mountain pine beetle has a one-year life cycle in most of its range but can take two years in high-elevation areas where temperatures are lower. Adults emerge from infested trees in the summer, fly to a new host tree, and mate. Females then tunnel into the bark, where they lay their eggs. The larvae feed on the inner bark of the tree, eventually killing it by cutting off its nutrient supply.</p>



<p>Mountain pine beetles infest and kill host trees, usually lodgepole, ponderosa, Scotch and limber pine. In recent decades, warmer temperatures have allowed beetles to survive in areas where cold temperatures previously kept them in check. This has led to an unprecedented epidemic of beetle infestations in North American pine forests, particularly in British Columbia and the Rocky Mountain region of the United States.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The scale of these infestations and their impact on forest ecosystems, the timber industry, and the risk of forest fires are areas of ongoing research and management efforts.</p>



<h2 id="h-future-of-pine-forests">Future of pine forests</h2>



<p>The future of pine forests, especially in regions affected by the mountain pine beetle, depends on a variety of factors including climate change, forest management practices, and ongoing scientific research and innovation.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures associated with climate change have allowed pests like the mountain pine beetle to expand their range and survive in areas that were previously too cold.&nbsp;</p>



<p>If global warming continues at its current pace, these pests could continue to spread and cause further damage. On the other hand, more extreme weather events and changes in precipitation could also affect the health and distribution of pine forests.</p>



<h3 id="h-forest-management">Forest Management</h3>



<p>Forest management practices can also influence the future of pine forests. Proper management can help maintain forest health and resilience, making trees less susceptible to pests and diseases.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, practices like thinning, which reduces tree density, can help improve the overall health of the forest and make it less susceptible to large-scale infestations. Controlled burns can also be used to reduce the risk of catastrophic wildfires and create a more varied and resilient forest landscape.</p>



<h3 id="h-scientific-research-and-innovation">Scientific Research and Innovation</h3>



<p>Research and innovation can also play a crucial role. Scientists are studying the life cycle and behavior of pests like the mountain pine beetle in order to develop more effective control methods. In addition, genetic research could potentially lead to the development of pest-resistant tree varieties.</p>



<h3 id="h-natural-regeneration">Natural Regeneration</h3>



<p>Even in areas heavily affected by pests or fires, pine forests can often recover naturally over time. Some species of pine have cones that only open and release their seeds during a fire, ensuring a new generation of trees after such an event.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, this recovery can take many decades or even centuries, and the resulting forest may be different from the original one due to changes in conditions and species composition.</p>



<p>While challenges exist, there are also many strategies and potential solutions that can help protect and preserve pine forests for the future. The key will be implementing these strategies effectively and continuing to adapt them based on ongoing research and changes in conditions.</p>



<p>—</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Predicting mountain pine beetle behavior could help save forests

The mountain pine beetle is one of the leading causes...

Pando,Aspen,Clone,In,Fall,Colors

<p>In the heart of southcentral Utah, spanning an impressive 106 acres, lies a unique and awe-inspiring organism...a massive grove of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-trees-change-their-genetic-structure-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aspen trees</a>.</p>



<p>The Pando aspen grove may appear to be a forest at first glance, but in reality, it is a single organism with over 47,000 genetically identical aspen stems connected at the root. As the world's largest tree by weight and land mass, Pando is a remarkable example of natural wonder. </p>



<p>Studies indicate that this incredible organism has been regenerating for 9,000 years, making it one of the oldest living organisms on our planet.</p>



<h2 id="h-an-acoustic-portrait-of-the-world-s-oldest-tree">An acoustic portrait of the world's oldest tree</h2>



<p>At the 184th <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/asa-meetings/">Meeting of the Acoustical Society of America</a>, Jeff Rice, a sound artist from Seattle, and Lance Oditt, founder of the nonprofit group Friends of Pando, will share their work in capturing a unique acoustic portrait of this botanical marvel.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their presentation, titled "Beneath the tree: The sounds of a trembling giant," is scheduled for Wednesday, May 10, at 10:30 a.m. Eastern U.S. in the Great America 1/2 room, as part of the meeting taking place May 8-12 at the Chicago Marriott Downtown Magnificent Mile Hotel.</p>



<p>"Pando challenges our basic understanding of the world," explained Rice. "The idea that this giant forest could be a single organism defies our concept of the individual. Its vastness humbles our sense of space."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-done">How the research was done</h2>



<p>Rice initially recorded Pando's leaves for The New York Times Magazine's special issue "Listen to the World" in 2018. He returned in July 2022 as an artist-in-residence for Friends of Pando, the nonprofit group Oditt established in 2019. During his time there, Rice used various microphones to capture the sounds of Pando's leaves, birds, and weather.</p>



<p>"The sounds are beautiful and interesting, but from a practical standpoint, natural sounds can be used to document the health of an environment," Rice noted. "They are a record of the local biodiversity, and they provide a baseline that can be measured against environmental change."</p>



<p>One particularly captivating aspect of the project was the sound of vibrations passing through the tree during a windstorm. Rice wondered if they could record the sound of Pando's root system, which is believed to reach depths of up to 90 feet.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 id="h-going-deeper-to-listen-to-the-oldest-tree">Going deeper to listen to the oldest tree</h3>



<p>Oditt, the executive director of <a href="https://www.friendsofpando.org/">Friends of Pando</a>, identified several potential recording locations below the surface.</p>



<p>"Hydrophones don't just need water to work," Rice said. "They can pick up vibrations from surfaces like roots as well, and when I put on my headphones, I was instantly surprised. Something was happening. There was a faint sound."</p>



<p>Although the sound has not been conclusively linked to Pando's root system, a handful of experiments support the idea. Rice and Oditt demonstrated that vibrations can pass from tree to tree through the ground. When they tapped lightly on a branch 90 feet away, the hydrophone registered a low thump. Rice likened this to the classic tin can telephone.</p>



<p>"It's similar to two cans connected by a string," he explained. "Except there are 47,000 cans connected by a huge root system."</p>



<p>A similar phenomenon was observed during a thunderstorm. As leaves moved more intensely in the wind, the signal recorded by the hydrophone also increased.</p>



<p>"The findings are tantalizing. While it started as art, we see enormous potential for use in science. Wind, converted to vibration (sound) and traveling the root system, could also reveal the inner workings of Pando's vast hidden hydraulic system in a nondestructive manner," Oditt said.</p>



<p>"Friends of Pando plans to use the data gathered as the basis for additional studies on water movement, how branch arrays are related to one another, insect colonies, and root depth, all of which we know little about today."</p>



<h3 id="h-a-new-frontier">A new frontier</h3>



<p>The captivating sounds of Pando, captured by Rice and Oditt, open up a new frontier in understanding this ancient and mysterious organism. By exploring its unique acoustics, researchers can delve into the complex relationships and hidden mechanisms that govern the grove's growth and survival. The findings have the potential to transform our understanding of not just Pando, but other organisms as well.</p>



<p>Moreover, the project highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between art and science. The partnership between Rice, a sound artist, and Oditt, a conservationist, demonstrates how seemingly unrelated fields can come together to unlock new insights into the natural world.</p>



<p>As the work on Pando continues, the researchers' findings will not only deepen our understanding of this remarkable organism, but also serve as a testament to the power of curiosity and collaboration in the pursuit of scientific discovery.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-aspen-groves">More about aspen groves</h2>



<p>Aspen groves are unique and fascinating ecosystems primarily composed of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) trees. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pando-oldest-organisms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quaking aspens</a> are widespread across North America, particularly in cooler regions with sufficient moisture. They can be found at various elevations, from sea level in Alaska to over 12,000 feet in the Rocky Mountains.</p>



<p>Aspens are known for their white bark and trembling leaves, which flutter in the wind due to their flattened petioles. The leaves have a characteristic shimmering effect that has earned the tree its nickname, "quaking aspen." The trees typically grow to heights of 40-80 feet, with trunks measuring up to 3 feet in diameter.</p>



<p>One of the most remarkable features of aspen groves is their ability to reproduce through a process called vegetative propagation or clonal growth. While aspens can reproduce sexually through seeds, they primarily spread by sending up new shoots, called suckers, from their extensive root systems. These suckers share the same genetic material as the parent tree, creating a clonal colony where all the trees are genetically identical.</p>



<p>Over time, a single aspen tree can form a grove consisting of thousands of genetically identical trees, all connected through a shared root system. This clonal growth allows aspen groves to cover vast areas and dominate landscapes. A famous example is the Pando aspen grove in Utah, which is considered one of the largest and oldest living organisms on Earth.</p>



<p>Aspen groves provide essential habitat for a variety of wildlife, including birds, mammals, and insects. The trees' leaves, bark, and buds serve as food sources for various species, while the groves offer shelter and nesting sites. In addition, aspens play a crucial role in maintaining biodiversity and promoting the health of the ecosystems they inhabit.</p>



<p>Aspen trees are also valuable for their role in water and soil conservation. Their extensive root systems help stabilize slopes, reduce erosion, and improve soil structure. Additionally, aspen groves contribute to the water cycle by absorbing and releasing water, influencing the availability and quality of water in their surrounding environment.</p>



<p>Unfortunately, aspen groves face several threats, including climate change, fire suppression, invasive species, and human development. Efforts are underway to protect and restore aspen ecosystems through active management, such as prescribed burning, mechanical thinning, and fencing to protect young trees from browsing animals.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Listening to the largest and oldest tree on Earth – what does it have to say?

In the heart of southcentral Utah, spanning an impressive 106...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
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<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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