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By focusing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-change-their-roots-to-survive-harsh-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">root systems</a>, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods.



For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-plants-are-absorbing-more-human-produced-co2-than-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">draw carbon dioxide</a> out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-game-changing-ai-tool-that-creates-plants">SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants</h2>



Talmo Pereira and Professor <a href="https://www.salk.edu/scientist/wolfgang-busch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wolfgang Busch</a> from Salk’s <a href="https://www.salk.edu/harnessing-plants-initiative/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Harnessing Plants Initiative</a> have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI software initially designed for tracking animal movement, to the study of plants. 



Their research introduces a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41592-022-01426-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new protocol</a> for using SLEAP to analyze plant root phenotypes, such as depth, width, and mass.



"This collaboration is truly a testament to what makes Salk science so special and impactful," says Pereira. "We're not just 'borrowing' from different disciplines -- we're really putting them on equal footing in order to create something greater than the sum of its parts."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-streamlining-plant-analysis-with-ai">Streamlining plant analysis with AI</h2>



Prior to SLEAP, analyzing plant and animal characteristics was a labor-intensive process that slowed scientific progress. 



Researchers had to manually flag parts of images frame-by-frame, part-by-part, and pixel-by-pixel before older AI models could process the data.



SLEAP's unique combination of computer vision and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-could-help-save-mangrove-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep learning</a> allows researchers to skip this intermediary step, jumping straight from image input to defined plant features. 



This approach significantly reduces analysis time and human error while emphasizing accessibility and ease of use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleap-roots-digging-deep-into-plant-biology">sleap-roots: Digging deep into plant biology</h2>



The Salk team developed sleap-roots, a downloadable toolkit for SLEAP that enables the software to process biological traits of root systems, such as depth, mass, and angle of growth. 



The toolkit, available as open-source software, was tested on various plants, including soybeans, rice, canola, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arabidopsis thaliana</a>.



"We created a robust protocol validated in multiple plant types that cuts down on analysis time and human error, while emphasizing accessibility and ease-of-use -- and it required no changes to the actual SLEAP software," says Elizabeth Berrigan, a bioinformatics analyst in Busch's lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deciphering-the-secrets-of-climate-saving-plants">Deciphering the secrets of climate-saving plants</h2>



By connecting phenotypic data, such as a plant's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep root system</a>, with genotype data obtained through genome sequencing efforts, researchers can identify the genes responsible for creating desirable traits. 



This step is crucial in Salk's mission to create plants with AI that hold on to more carbon for longer periods, as these plants will require root systems designed to be deeper and more robust.



"We have already been able to create the most extensive catalogue of plant root system phenotypes to date, which is really accelerating our research to create carbon-capturing plants that fight climate change," says Busch, the Hess Chair in <a href="https://pbio.salk.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Science at Salk</a>. 



"SLEAP has been so easy to apply and use, thanks to Talmo's professional software design, and it's going to be an indispensable tool in my lab moving forward," Busch concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-hidden-world-of-plant-root-systems">Understanding the hidden world of plant root systems</h2>



To further clarify, plant root systems are intricate networks of roots that play a crucial role in anchoring plants to the soil, absorbing water and nutrients, and storing essential compounds. 



There are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">two main types of root systems</a> exist in plants: taproot systems and fibrous root systems. 



<ul>
<li>Taproot systems feature a single, dominant root that grows vertically downward, with smaller lateral roots branching off from it. </li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Fibrous root systems, on the other hand, consist of numerous small roots that grow outward from the base of the plant, forming a dense network.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Functions of root systems</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-follow-gravity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Root systems</a> perform several critical functions for plants:



<ul>
<li>Anchoring: Roots secure plants to the soil, providing stability and preventing them from toppling over.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Absorption: Fine root hairs absorb water and dissolved nutrients from the soil, which are then transported to the rest of the plant.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Storage: Some plants, such as carrots and beets, use their roots to store carbohydrates and other essential compounds.</li>
</ul>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Factors influencing root growth</h3>



Several factors influence the growth and development of plant root systems:



<ul>
<li>Soil type: Different soil types, such as sandy, loamy, or clay soils, affect root growth and distribution.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Water availability: Plants adapt their root systems in response to water availability, with some species growing deeper roots to access water in times of drought.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Nutrient availability: The presence or absence of essential nutrients in the soil can impact root growth and architecture.</li>
</ul>



Healthy root systems are essential for overall plant health and productivity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Well-developed roots</a> enable plants to efficiently absorb water and nutrients, leading to stronger growth and increased resilience to stresses such as drought or disease. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-climate-saving-plants">AI and the future of climate-saving plants</h2>



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots have the potential to revolutionize plant research worldwide. The Salk team has already begun discussions with NASA scientists hoping to utilize the tool to guide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-air-pollution-could-greatly-boost-carbon-sequestration-by-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon-sequestering plants</a> on Earth and to study plants in space.



In summary, the Salk Institute's pioneering research in plant-based carbon capture, powered by the innovative SLEAP software and sleap-roots toolkit, paves the way for a greener future. 



As scientists continue to refine and expand these tools, they accelerate the development of climate-saving plants with optimized root systems capable of storing more carbon for longer periods. 



The accessibility and reproducibility of SLEAP and sleap-roots invite researchers worldwide to join the fight against climate change, fostering global collaboration and innovation. 



With the Harnessing Plants Initiative at the forefront, Salk scientists are rooting for change, digging deep into plant biology, and branching out to make a lasting impact on our planet's future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/plantphenomics.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Phenomics</a>.



-----



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AI is creating new plants that can help fight climate change

By focusing on root systems, researchers aim to create new plants, using an artificial intelligence (AI) tool called SLEAP, that can store more carbon for extended periods. For this intriguing new study, scientists are leveraging AI to optimize plants' natural ability to draw carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere, a crucial step in combating climate change and limiting global temperature rise. SLEAP: Game-changing AI tool that creates plants Talmo Pereira and Professor Wolfgang Busch from Salk’s Harnessing Plants Initiative have joined forces to apply SLEAP, a sophisticated AI...

"Coldspots" provide more opportunity for the rapid diversification of plants and animals than hotspots, according to a study led by <a href="https://www.lsu.edu/">Louisiana State University</a>. The researchers found that new species evolve much more slowly in biodiversity <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-hotspots-are-shrinking-in-the-andes-mountains/">hotspots</a> like the Amazon rainforest than what was previously thought. 

The experts also determined that places without a lot of species, like mountaintops and deserts, provide the right conditions for new species to develop. 

Even though coldspots may be extreme with unstable environments, they are also relatively empty, giving plants and animals the space they need for expansion. By contrast, the researchers report,  biodiversity hotspots are the result of the gradual accumulation of species over time.

Study senior author Robb Brumfield is the LSU College of Science Associate Dean of Research &amp; Administration and a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences.

"Our results reveal a model in which species are forming faster in environmental extremes but have accumulated in moderate environments to form tropical biodiversity hotspots," explained Professor Brumfield.

For their investigation, the researchers analyzed samples maintained by natural history museums. The LSU Museum of Natural Science and its frozen tissues collection, which is the oldest and largest of its kind in the world, contributed tissues for 747 of 1,287 bird species that were included in the study. 

"The remarkable sampling in this study comes from 40 years of fieldwork by curators, students, staff and others, who spent huge amounts of time and money, and risked their personal health, collecting specimens from around the world," said study co-author Professor Fred Sheldon.

Based on the DNA analysis of museum tissue samples from 24 countries, the experts mapped the genetic relationships of a predominant group of tropical birds called the suboscine passerines. These birds are so abundant that they represent about one of every three bird species in the American tropics. Suboscines have a wide variety of both characteristics and habitats, which include forests, mountains, and deserts.

"This shows that conservation efforts to save the rapidly changing tropical landscape need to focus not only on the species-rich Amazon, but also on regions that are less diverse but contribute disproportionately to the generation of new species, like the wind-swept, cold puna of the Andes Mountains," said Professor Brumfield.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants and animals evolve faster in coldspots than in biodiversity hotspots

"Coldspots" provide more opportunity for the rapid diversification of plants...

Researchers at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">UT Austin</a> have used computer algorithms to conduct the first-ever survey of creosote bushes in the Mojave Desert. Across a 135-square-mile conservation site in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/new-crustacean-identified-in-the-worlds-hottest-desert/">desert</a>, the team counted 23 million creosotes out of a total population of 66 million plants.
The study not only reveals new details about this dominant plant species, but also demonstrates how data techniques can be more effective than conventional methods for studying plant communities.

"This was first and foremost a big data project," said study lead author and grad student James Gearon. "The majority of time was data cleaning, data investigation, data prep. By the time you get to analysis, you have discovered so many things along the way you have a path forward."

The census represents an important milestone for plant science, especially considering that population data typically comes from samples of fewer than 1,000 plants or aerial surveys. The study has introduces a groundbreaking new method of accounting for each and every individual in a plant community. 

"People are amazed at the size of the dataset," said study co-author Michael Young. "But we tried to avoid being dazzled by size and focus on the interesting things the data tell us," For example, the scientists discovered that certain landscape features can influence how big and how far apart creosotes grow. 

In 2017, Young and colleagues collected data from an aerial survey conducted in the Mojave Desert by the Boulder City Conservation Easement. The initial objective was to find burrows belonging to threatened desert tortoises. However, high-resolution photos and elevation data obtained during the survey proved to be a very useful resource for additional research.

The experts counted the creosote bushes by applying computer algorithms that could distinguish the bushes from the surrounding landscape and other plants. The algorithms also produced details on each creosote's location, height, and canopy area. 

When the information on individual creosotes was combined with specific landscape features, the researchers identified some clear trends in how plant growth is affected by the landscape. They found that the direction the slope faces, also known as its aspect, has the greatest influence on creosote volume. In particular, the analysis revealed plants growing on east-facing slopes are about five times bushier than plants on west-facing slopes.

"That's five times more cover on the ground for the critters, for land use, or for understanding just how hot the ground is going to get - that has a huge impact," said Gearon.

The team determined that soil age also has an influence on creosote volume. Bushes in the younger soil were found to be about 27 percent larger than plants in the oldest soil.

According to Gearon, the connection between soil age and plant size is well documented, but the influence of hillslope aspect on plant size came as a surprise. Researchers often relate plant growth to north and south slope directions, but few studies have focused on east and west slopes.

The study indicates that growing on an eastward slope could be an important way for desert plants to stay hydrated, as the placement allows the plants to soak up the sunshine during the cooler, wetter hours of the morning. By contrast, the westward slopes receive the most sunlight during the hottest parts of the day when the plants are most susceptible to losing water.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10980">Landscape Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Computer algorithms reveal new details about creosote bushes

Researchers at UT Austin have used computer algorithms to conduct...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a>, experts report that the way plants compete with each other underground has an effect on <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/desire-for-social-interaction-activates-the-brain-like-a-food-craving/">food</a> production and climate change. Using computer simulations and a field experiment, the researchers found that plants invest in more dominant roots when they live close to other plants. 

Above the ground, plants compete for sunlight by stretching upward and outward, blocking out others in the process. The Princeton study reveals new clues about how plants battle it out with each other underground by changing the way they behave in the presence of competitors.

"This study was a lot of fun because it combined several different kinds of mind candy to reconcile seemingly contradictory results in the literature: a clever experiment, a new method for observing root systems in intact soils and simple mathematical theory," said study senior author Professor Stephen Pacala.

"While the aboveground parts of plants have been extensively studied, including how much carbon they can store, we know much less about how belowground parts - that is, roots - store carbon," said study lead author Ciro Cabal, a graduate student in Professor Pacala's lab. "As about a third of the world's vegetation biomass, hence carbon, is belowground, our model provides a valuable tool to predict root proliferation in global earth-system models."

Plants make two different types of roots including fine roots that absorb water and nutrients and coarse transportation roots that carry these resources to where they are needed. A plant makes an investment in not only the volume of its roots, but also in how those roots are distributed throughout the soil.

Plants can either concentrate all of the roots directly beneath the shoots, or spread the roots out horizontally to access the adjacent soil. By spreading the roots out, they run the risk of having to compete with neighboring plants for resources.

Plants do what they need to survive, regardless of how their actions will impact other individuals. The researchers predicted that, in line with natural selection, plants would not choose to cooperate with each other by segregating their root systems to reduce overlap. 

To investigate, the researchers grew pepper plants in a greenhouse both individually and in pairs. They dyed the roots of the plants different colors so that they could easily see which roots belonged to which plant. Then, the team calculated the total biomass of each root system and the ratio of roots to shoots, to see whether plants changed how they invested in structures when they had nearby neighbors.

The study revealed that the outcome depended on how close the pairs were planted to each other. When planted very close together, plants became more likely to heavily invest in their root systems to try to outcompete each other for water and nutrients. When they were planted further apart, they were more likely to invest less in their root systems.

The researchers discovered that the pairs of pepper plants were surprisingly cooperative: they increased investment in roots locally and reduced how far they stretched their roots horizontally to reduce overlap with neighbors. 

To develop climate change mitigation strategies, it is important for scientists to study carbon deposition changes in different scenarios to more accurately predict carbon uptake. This research could also help to maximize crop yields and optimize food production.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencemag.org/">Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants invest more in their roots when competitors live nearby

In a new study from Princeton University, experts report that...

Chemical compounds that plants use to protect themselves may also help to protect people from <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/how-much-did-pollution-levels-drop-due-to-covid-19-shutdowns/">COVID-19</a> infection, according to a new study from at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>. 

Plant compounds found in muscadine grapes, dark chocolate, and green tea can bind to and inhibit the coronavirus' main protease (Mpro), which plays a key role in viral gene expression and replication.

Study co-author and plant biologist Professor De-Yu Xie explained that proteases are important to the health and viability of cells and viruses. For example, cells cannot perform many important functions like replication if proteases are inhibited. 

"One of our lab's focuses is to find nutraceuticals in food or medicinal plants that inhibit either how a virus attaches to human cells or the propagation of a virus in human cells," said Professor Xie.

The researchers set out to investigate how Mpro in the SARS-CoV-2 virus would react when it encountered a number of different plant chemical compounds that are known for having powerful antioxidant properties. 

Using computer simulations, the experts demonstrated that chemical compounds from green tea, two varieties of muscadine grapes, cacao powder and dark chocolate were able to bind to different portions of Mpro.

"Mpro in SARS-CoV-2 is required for the virus to replicate and assemble itself. If we can inhibit or deactivate this protease, the virus will die," said Professor Xie. "Mpro has a portion that is like a 'pocket' that was 'filled' by the chemical compounds. When this pocket was filled, the protease lost its important function."

Lab experiments conducted in Professor Xie's lab by PhD student Yue Zhu confirmed the results of the computer simulations. The chemical compounds in green tea and muscadine grapes were very successful at blocking the function of Mpro. In addition, plant compounds in cacao powder and dark chocolate reduced Mpro activity by about half.

"Green tea has five tested chemical compounds that bind to different sites in the pocket on Mpro, essentially overwhelming it to inhibit its function," said Professor Xie. "Muscadine grapes contain these inhibitory chemicals in their skins and seeds. Plants use these compounds to protect themselves, so it is not surprising that plant leaves and skins contain these beneficial compounds."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.frontiersin.org/Plant_Biotechnology/">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compounds in muscadine grapes block coronavirus replication

Chemical compounds that plants use to protect themselves may also...

In a study from the <a href="https://www.washington.edu/">University of Washington</a>, scientists have successfully introduced microbes into soil to make phosphorus more available to the roots of agricultural crops. The researchers collected the microbes from wild trees growing along the Snoqualmie River.

When phosphorus is applied in a fertilizer, chemical reactions with other minerals cause it to get locked up in the soil as phosphate, which makes it inaccessible to plants. To overcome this issue, farmers often use excessive fertilizer applications, leading to a buildup of chemicals that can pollute nearby waterways in agricultural runoff.

Phosphorus is one of the primary nutrients that is essential for plant growth, and it is needed for plants to complete their normal production cycle. 

"Crop productivity is constrained by the bioavailability of water-soluble nutrients, especially phosphorus in the form of phosphate," wrote the study authors. "The efficiency of phosphorus acquisition, in which fine roots play a critical role, is important in addressing global food and bioenergy security issues that arise from increasing world population and climate change. In nutrient-limiting environments, plants are known to form associations with microorganisms capable of increasing the bioavailability of nutrients."

Endophytes, which are bacteria or fungi that live inside a plant for at least some of their lifecycle, can be thought of as "probiotics" for plants, explained study senior author Professor Sharon Doty. Previously, her team demonstrated that microbes can help plants survive and even thrive in nutrient-poor environments.

In the current study, the researchers found that endophytic microbes collected from wild trees can unlock valuable phosphorus from the environment. The microbes simply break apart the chemical complexes that form phosphate.

"We're harnessing a natural plant-microbe partnership," said Professor Doty. "This can be a tool to advance agriculture because it's providing this essential nutrient without damaging the environment."

Using lab experiments, the team found that the microbes dissolved the phosphate complexes. In collaboration with multiple U.S. Department of Energy national laboratories, the researchers confirmed that the phosphorus unlocked by the microbes was successfully taken up by plant roots.

Advanced imaging techniques used in the national laboratories also showed that phosphorus gets bound up in mineral complexes within the plant. Endophytes living inside plants can re-dissolve these complexes, potentially sustaining the plant's phosphorus supply.

The bacteria used in the experiments was obtained from wild poplar trees growing in western Washington. Despite a limited availability of nutrients like phosphorus on the rocky banks of the Snoqualmie River, poplar trees are thriving here because the microbes help them capture the nutrients they need.

The findings can be applied to agricultural crops, which are often planted in soil that has accumulated an abundance of phosphorus from years of fertilizer applications. According to the researchers, replacing fertilizers with endophytes could open the door to more sustainable food production.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/plant-science">Frontiers in Plant Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria can unlock phosphorus in the soil to help plants grow

In a study from the University of Washington, scientists have...

During the worst fire year on record in the United States, scientists are working to understand how wildfires affect interactions between plants and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/migratory-animals-develop-faster-and-die-younger-than-their-relatives/">animals</a>. 
A study based in the northern Rocky Mountains has revealed that the codependency of flowering plants and their pollinators serves as the strongest indicator of which species will be present across burned landscapes.
Study co-author Jonathan Myers is an associate professor of Biology at <a href="https://wustl.edu/">Washington University</a>.

"A large number of studies have looked at how fire affects plants, or how fire affects animals. But what is largely understudied is the question of how fire affects both, and about how linkages within those ecological networks might respond to fire disturbance," said Professor Myers.

The researchers discovered that plant-pollinator interactions are the best predictors of species diversity after a wildfire disturbance. The study showed that following a wildfire, the influence of plants on pollinator diversity increased by up to four times. In addition, the influence of pollinators on plant composition nearly doubled.

"Clearly, pollinators perform a valuable ecosystem service for humans by pollinating all our crops. In intact natural ecosystems, they perform an equally valuable service," said study first author Professor Joseph LaManna of Marquette University, first author of the study. 

"What we are seeing is that plant and pollinator linkages become even more important in disturbed or burned landscapes. These connections are important for restoring ecosystems in which natural wildfire regimes have been altered or suppressed by human activities."

"And as climate change increases the frequency and intensity of wildfires, the potential for biodiversity loss - for losses of individual plant or pollinator species - is going to be even more profound than we anticipated."

Study co-author Laura Burkle at Montana State University surveyed plants and pollinators at 152 sites in Montana, which included plots with no recent wildfire, mixed-severity wildfire, and high-severity wildfire. The data was analyzed in collaboration with The Wilderness Society.

Throughout the sites, the number of individual bees, flies, butterflies, and flowering plants were found to be higher in parts of the landscape that had burned compared to those that had not burned. The experts report that these increases were greater in areas that had experienced mixed-severity wildfire, which leaves some vegetation intact.

"Oftentimes, the public perception about fire in general is that it is bad. But it was impressive how much higher the abundances of both plants and pollinators were -- as well as the number of species -- in the burned landscapes compared with the unburned landscapes," said Professor Myers.

While the study shows how fire can benefit plant and pollinator diversity, the outcome is not the same for high-severity burns that eliminate important landscape features that pollinators require. Pollinator populations are declining in the northern Rockies and across the globe. 

"Thanks to this project, we now have very in-depth knowledge of local pollinator communities, especially the bee communities," said Burkle. "One of the benefits of these data is to be able to provide expert knowledge about declining pollinator species and species of concern, like the Western Bumble Bee (Bombus occidentalis), which is currently being considered for federal listing under the Endangered Species Act."

"When we think about patterns of biodiversity across space, we typically consider different groups of species separately. In our case, we might consider patterns of plant diversity separately from patterns of pollinator diversity. But our study provides solid evidence that - above and beyond the influence of disturbances like wildfires - the relationships that plants have with pollinators are strong contributors to these patterns of biodiversity."

"This means that biotic interactions among species are important and will need to be considered more explicitly in conservation actions, like plans for species range shifts with climate change."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652745">Journal of Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant and pollinator connections become stronger after wildfires

During the worst fire year on record in the United...

Ancient <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-plants-depend-on-the-hormone-ethylene-to-launch-an-attack/">plants</a> that grow on the slopes of China's Hengduan mountains are trying to make themselves less visible to humans. Scientists at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> have discovered that Fritillaria delavayi plants have evolved to match their surroundings in places where they are most frequently harvested. 

The bulbs of Fritillaria delavayi and other fritillary species have been used in traditional Chinese medicine for more than 2,000 years. Fritillaria is primarily used to control coughing and to treat various lung conditions, such as asthma, bronchitis, and tuberculosis.

The leaves of Fritillaria delavayi have various colors that range from grey to brown to green at a young age. After the fifth year, the plant produces a single flower annually. The demand for fritillary bulbs and roots often exceeds the supply, and the plants have been increasingly harvested in recent years.

The new study suggests that harvesting by humans has driven the plants to try and hide from sight. It appears that humans are actually driving the evolution of Fritillaria delavayi, in particular. The experts report that new colors are emerging in these plants that offer better concealment and a greater chance of survival. 

"It's remarkable to see how humans can have such a direct and dramatic impact on the coloration of wild organisms, not just on their survival but on their evolution itself," said study co-author Professor Martin Stevens.

"Many plants seem to use camouflage to hide from herbivores that may eat them - but here we see camouflage evolving in response to human collectors."

"It's possible that humans have driven evolution of defensive strategies in other plant species, but surprisingly little research has examined this."

For the investigation, the researchers measured how closely plants from different populations matched their mountainous surroundings and how easy they were to collect. The experts also spoke to local residents to estimate how much harvesting typically takes place in each location.

The study revealed that the level of camouflage in the plants was clearly linked to the extent of harvesting . A computer experiment confirmed that the plants with more camouflage were more difficult for participants to detect. 

"Like other camouflaged plants we have studied, we thought the evolution of camouflage of this fritillary had been driven by herbivores, but we didn't find such animals. Then we realized humans could be the reason," said Dr. Yang Niu. 

"Commercial harvesting is a much stronger selection pressure than many pressures in nature," added Professor Hang Sun. "The current biodiversity status on the Earth is shaped by both nature and by ourselves."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

Image Credit: Linn Yao

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chinese Fritillaria plants have found a way to hide from humans

Ancient plants that grow on the slopes of China's Hengduan...

Experts at <a href="http://www.emory.edu/home/index.html">Emory University</a> have conducted the first comprehensive review of natural plant compounds that have antibacterial properties. The research will ultimately help in the search for new <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fda-outlines-the-drugs-that-show-potential-for-treating-covid-19/">drugs</a> to fight the growing issue of antibiotic resistance.

Study senior author Professor Cassandra Quave is an associate professor in Emory's Center for the Study of Human Health.

"We hope that chemists and pharmacology researchers will use our review as a guide to dig deeper into the promising potential of many plant compounds," said Professor Quave. "If ever there was a time to cultivate our knowledge and tap into the chemical power of plants, this is it. We're seeing a rise in antimicrobial resistance across the globe. And, at the same time, we're also losing vast amounts of plant biodiversity."

According to the CDC, at least 2.8 million people get antibiotic-resistant infections each year in the United States and more than 35,000 cases are fatal.

The review from the Quave lab identifies 459 plant compounds that have the most powerful effects on antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including those found in the Brazilian peppertree, the American beautyberry, and the European chestnut. For example, triterpenoid acids from the Brazilian peppertree can block the ability of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to produce toxins.

Penicillin was discovered nearly 100 years ago as the world's first naturally occurring antibiotic drug. Since then, scientists have found other soil microbes that can kill drug-resistant pathogens. However, bacteria are now acquiring antibiotic resistance faster than new drugs can be developed.

"One obstacle to plant natural products making it into the new drug pipeline is the complexity of the discovery process," explained Professor Quave. "You have to identify a promising plant candidate, tease through the hundreds of chemicals contained within a particular plant to identify the active compound, and then isolate enough of this compound to do experiments on it. It's not nearly as easy as sequencing a soil microbe and growing up a big vat of it to conduct experiments."

Professor Quave pointed out that the knowledge of traditional plant-based medicines that have been used for centuries can provide valuable clues for where to focus research.

"In recent decades, interest has grown in investigating plants as potential drug candidates. Technologies have improved to more easily access and study bioactive molecules within plants. And more papers are being published that follow standardized procedures for evaluation of antimicrobial activities among plant compounds."

For the investigation, the team reviewed nearly 200 relevant studies published between 2012 and 2019. The 459 compounds that were identified include a diverse range of species, some of which are members of commonly known plant families such as citrus, daisies, beans, and mint. 

The researchers narrowed the results to 183 plant compounds and further examined their overall potential as antibiotics.

"These are all compounds as they appear in nature, not synthesized or derivatized by chemists," said Professor Quave. "We wanted to provide a systematic overview that brings promising drug candidates to the forefront, opening up new chemical space for discovery."

"Our review can serve as a starting point for chemists to consider whether they could possibly optimize any of these compounds to become scaffolds for antibiotics treatments."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/chreay">Chemical Reviews</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plant compounds are key to solving the problem of antibiotic resistance

Experts at Emory University have conducted the first comprehensive review...

Plant biodiversity can serve as a natural method to control herbivores and reduce the need for harmful pesticides. A team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research</a> (iDiv) has found that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/parasitic-plants-depend-on-the-hormone-ethylene-to-launch-an-attack/">plant</a> communities that are rich in species support predators while depriving pests of their main food sources. 

Biological diversity is critically important for maintaining the balance of ecosystems and preserving the valuable services provided by planted and natural grasslands. 

The world's growing population and the demand for agriculture are placing enormous pressure on planted grasslands. Meanwhile, insect herbivores are causing an estimated 18-26 percent reduction in global crop production. As a result, the use of environmentally damaging pesticides is increasing.

To investigate the potential for plant biodiversity to serve as a natural weapon against destructive herbivores, the researchers conducted two long-running grassland biodiversity experiments - the Jena Experiment in Germany and the Cedar Creek Biodiversity Experiment in the United States. The scientists collected data from the two field studies over the course of two years.

"These two long-term experiments have generated invaluable insight, for both fundamental and applied research, that has brought to light the importance of maintaining biodiversity," said study senior author Professor Nico Eisenhauer.

The analysis of the data showed that plants in more diverse communities lost significantly less energy to herbivorous insects. In grasslands with high biodiversity, the feeding rate of herbivores was 44 percent lower per gram of plant biomass. Essentially, for every gram of plant biomass produced, plants lost just under half as much energy to pests when they were growing in species-rich communities. 

"That ultimately means that where multiple species are planted together, this will yield more plant biomass per square meter, and each individual plant in diverse mixtures will receive lower damage from herbivores," said study first author Andrew Barnes.

In patches with higher plant diversity, arthropod herbivores are less likely to be able to find their preferred plant species, and more likely to just give up and move on to new areas. Previous studies have found lower levels of tissue protein in the more biodiverse grasslands, and the plants are less nutritious and less appealing to herbivores.

Furthermore, compared to monocultures, high-diversity plant communities produce more total biomass, attracting the natural enemies of herbivorous pests. 

"In other words, more diverse plant communities pose a double-edged problem for herbivores - that is, more predators and less preferred food - that could help to naturally reduce herbivore impacts," said Barnes.

"Our experiments show that conserving plant diversity provides multiple benefits for controlling herbivore pests, which could play a key role in reducing inputs of agrochemicals and enhancing plant productivity."

By contrast, pesticides can lead to detrimental rebounds of herbivores considering that they may destabilize the communities of natural enemies. 

"Ultimately, this study demonstrates that supporting biodiversity can leverage the sustainable management of ecosystems and the benefits to people," concluded Professor Eisenhauer. 

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Increasing plant biodiversity reduces the need for pesticides

Plant biodiversity can serve as a natural method to control...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> confirms that larger, older trees have an enormous carbon storage capacity. The analysis of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plants-from-ancient-rainforests-can-be-identified-in-fossil-teeth/">forests</a> in the Pacific Northwest has revealed that despite making up only three percent of the total number of trees across the study sites, large-diameter trees store 42 percent of the total above-ground carbon in these ecosystems.

In the Pacific Northwest, a 21-inch diameter rule was enacted in 1994 to protect large trees in national forests. However, legislative amendments have been proposed that could potentially allow the harvesting of trees up to 30 inches in diameter. The current study was focused specifically on trees with a diameter of at least 21 inches across national forests in Oregon and Washington.

The research is among the first of its kind to investigate how a proposed policy could affect carbon storage in forest ecosystems. If passed, the legislation would contribute to huge releases of carbon dioxide and would disrupt entire ecosystems.

"Large trees represent a small proportion of trees in the forest, but they play an exceptionally important role in the entire forest community - the many unique functions they provide would take hundreds of years to replace," said study lead author Dr. David Mildrexler.

To analyze the relationship between tree diameter and above-ground carbon storage, the researchers used species-specific mathematical equations to represent biomass in the tree stems and branches. The team examined the overall proportion of large trees and their contributions to carbon storage in order to estimate the potential consequences of losing them. 

The study revealed that large-diameter trees made up 3 percent of total stems, but accounted for 42 percent of total carbon storage. The researchers also found that the largest trees with a diameter of more than 30 inches made up only 0.6 percent of total stems, but accounted for more than 16 percent of the total above-ground carbon stored across the forests that were surveyed.

The experts determined that once the trees had reached a large size, each additional increment in diameter significantly increased the carbon storage capacity.

"If you think of adding a ring of new growth to the circumference of a large tree and its branches every year, that ring adds up to a lot more carbon than the ring of a small tree," said Dr. Mildrexler. "This is why specifically letting large trees grow larger is so important for climate change because it maintains the carbon stores in the trees and accumulates more carbon out of the atmosphere at a very low cost."

The study highlights the importance of keeping the 21-inch rule to not only protect large trees, but also to allow them to grow to their full potential. A sufficient number of smaller trees must be protected as well. Dr. Mildrexler argues that this is among the most effective short-term options that we have for slowing climate change and preserving valuable ecosystem services.

"Large trees are the cornerstones of diversity and resilience for the entire forest community. They support rich communities of plants, birds, mammals, insects, and micro-organisms, as well as act as giant water towers that tap into groundwater resources and cool our planet through evaporation," said Dr. Mildrexler.

"There is a real need for monitoring forest conditions beyond what the forest service does on their inventory plots, and so local communities can also play their part to provide citizen science data and learn about the living forests on their lands, contributing to community income and mitigating climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/forests-and-global-change">Frontiers in Forests and Global Change</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study highlights the value of old, large trees

A new study published by Frontiers confirms that larger, older...

Sapria,Poilanei,(himalayana),,Rafflesia,Kerrii,,Sapria,Himalayana,,Biggest,Flower,Grows

Parasitic plants rely on ethylene to successfully launch an attack, according to a new study from the <a href="http://www.naist.jp/en/">Nara Institute of Science and Technology</a>. The researchers found that a signal from the plant hormone ethylene initiates the invasion of the roots of a host plant. 

In order to become established, parasitic plants form a specialized structure known as a haustorium. This structure attaches to and penetrates the tissues of the host plant to absorb nutrients and water, as well as small materials including plant hormones and RNAs. The formation of the haustoria is regulated by signal molecules derived from the host plant.

"To understand the genetic programs for haustorium development, we identified mutants that displayed haustorial defects on host invasion," said study lead author Songkui Cui. "Genome sequencing showed that these mutants have defective ethylene signaling, and it turned out that ethylene signaling genes are crucial for the parasitic plant to infect its host plant."

Ethylene is a gaseous plant hormone that is involved in the ripening of fruit, aging of leaves, and the formation of root nodules. Ethylene can also provide resistance or susceptibility to viruses and invasive insects depending on the type of pathogen.

"Our results indicate that ethylene mediates host recognition in parasitic plants for host invasion," explained project leader Satoko Yoshida. "This is the first time that the mediation of host invasion by parasitic plant genes has been identified via forward genetics. Our findings offer a new understanding of how a parasitic plant uses the ethylene molecule to tweak haustorium development and host invasion."

The research was focused on a family of parasitic plants that includes destructive weeds. Prior to the study, the molecular basis for parasitism has been largely unexplored.

"Our results suggest that parasitic plants have taken over ethylene signaling for parasitism at multiple stages of their life cycle, such as germination, haustorium growth termination, and host invasion," said Cui. "This knowledge could provide new ways to use ethylene and ethylene inhibitors to control a broader range of parasitic weeds, including those that don't rely entirely on hosts to complete their life cycle, by manipulating haustorial function."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Parasitic plants depend on the hormone ethylene to launch an attack

Parasitic plants rely on ethylene to successfully launch an attack,...

While it is known that plants have the incredible ability to develop <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/flowers-spread-parasitic-bee-diseases/">flowers</a>, roots, roots, branches based on cues from their environment, not as much is understood about the underlying mechanisms that drive variations in plant shapes.

Study lead author Doris Wagner, a biologist in the School of Arts &amp; Sciences at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, has long been interested in the how plants translate environmental inputs into physical traits. Her team has been studying two key groups of proteins that influence plant shapes, as well as the timing of developmental transitions.

The two proteins - Terminal Flower 1 (TLF1) and Flowering Locus T (FT) - are nearly identical yet serve different purposes. TLF1 proteins promote branch formation, while FT proteins promote flowering in response to seasonal cues like the number of daylight hours.

"These two elements have significance galore," said Wagner. "Besides flowering, they're involved in tuberization in potatoes, bulb formation in onions, tendril formation in grapes, growth cessation in trees, lots of things."

Some experts believe that manipulating these genes could lead to the next "green revolution" by tricking plants to flower more quickly. For example, by editing TFL1, plants could be programmed to produce seeds and fruit in the winter and but just during the long days of summer. On the other hand, altering growth through FT could increase branching followed by more abundant flowering and fruit production.

The two proteins are known to oppose each other - with TFL1 suppressing flowering and FT suppressing branch formation. Using the model species Arabidopsis thaliana, the researchers found thousands of sites where TFL1 was present in the nuclei of plant cells, and these regions were consistent with its role in suppressing flowering.

Next, the team examined the relationship of both TFL1 and FT with LEAFY, a gene that is known to give rise to flowers. When they mutated the sites where TFL1 regulates LEAFY, the protein was now found in parts of the plant where TFL1 is present. "We also saw something that we didn't expect," said Wagner. "LEAFY was gone from all the regions that should make flowers."

The study ultimately revealed that both proteins could activate the FD transcription factor that is required for flowering. In other words, FT and TFL1 compete for this FD factor binding site to influence plant shapes

Wagner is very interested in learning more about this mechanism to better understand how plants can "tune" their growth to best adapt to their environment. In future work, her team will investigate how both proteins respond to cues from the environment, such as the length of day. Wagner also wants to know how FT and TFL1 can control such different processes like flower, bulb, or tendril formation.

"You can imagine locally adapting crops, maybe for a high-altitude site in the Himalayas or maybe a location in the far north where days are short," said Wagner. "These elements could even play a role in rational solutions for climate change, breeding plants that are specifically adapted for new conditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Two competing proteins determine plant shapes

While it is known that plants have the incredible ability...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes why satellite images and measurements of our planet have become "essential to our survival, offering a new outlook of our world."&nbsp;



Rising sea levels pose one of the biggest societal threats associated with climate change. According to ESA, satellite altimeter missions such as Copernicus Sentinel-6 are essential in monitoring global and regional changes in sea level.



"Unbeknown to many, the island of Crete, Greece, plays an important role in the Copernicus satellite altimetry constellation and on an international stage," reports ESA.



"Satellite altimetry data have to be continuously monitored at the ESA’s Permanent Facility for Altimetry Calibration where different techniques have pioneered the use of transponders to provide the best measurements to validate satellite altimeters in space soon after launch."



Dr. Craig Donlon explains that, by understanding planet Earth through satellite measurements, we are able to find evidence of change.&nbsp;



Video Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites have become essential to our survival

[sendtonews key="761m2QQvR1-2035772-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...