Galaxy clusters pack thousands of galaxies into a volume only a few million light-years wide. They also fill the space between them with a thin plasma hotter than the Sun’s surface.



When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-galaxy-j23453268-0449256-black-hole-fury-defies-current-knowledge-base/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiral galaxy</a> plunges through this intracluster medium, the hot plasma acts like a supersonic headwind, pushing on the galaxy’s cooler gas. NGC 4858 is currently enduring some of the strongest ram-pressure stripping ever observed.



“This galaxy, NGC 4858, is traveling very quickly through the Coma Cluster,” said Harrison Souchereau, an astronomer at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> and lead author of a new study exploring this galaxy.



“It is effectively in a wind tunnel, and its gas is in the process of being stripped away by the wind,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-survey-of-jellyfish-galaxies">A survey of jellyfish galaxies </h2>



NGC 4858 is classified as a "jellyfish galaxy." This type of galaxy has long, trailing streams of gas and young stars extending from one side - making it resemble a jellyfish with flowing tentacles.



Earlier optical pictures showed distinct blue tentacles of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-a-young-stars-jet-colliding-with-space-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">young stars</a> trailing behind NGC 4858. These features confirmed that ram-pressure winds removed the galaxy’s interstellar gas and compressed it into new star-forming knots.



But optical light cannot reveal the cold molecular clouds that provide the raw material for future stars.



To map that component, Souchereau and Yale professor Jeffrey Kenney used <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA Observatory</a>’s high resolution and sensitivity at radio wavelengths. 



Their observations - part of a broader survey of jellyfish galaxies - resolved structures just a few hundred light-years across. These were small enough to compare directly with computer simulations of ram-pressure stripping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bunny-ears-and-inner-tails"><a></a>Bunny ears and inner tails</h2>



The ALMA images show that the galaxy’s leading edge, which faces into the wind, appears sharply compressed. On the trailing side, a short, hook-shaped plume of CO-bright gas curves back toward the disk.



Above the disk plane, two arched spiral arms stretch outward and backward, giving the galaxy a cartoonish set of “bunny ears.”



“This is likely due to a combination of the environmental wind pushing on the gas and the rotation of the galaxy,” Souchereau explained.



Models show headwinds drag unevenly on spinning galaxies, bending arms and piling gas onto one side of the disk. Stars can still form where the gas density peaks, even as other parts of the disk go without.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-fountain-effect"><a></a>The galactic fountain effect</h2>



The study highlights one of its most striking findings: clear evidence for “fallback,” a long-theorized but rarely documented process.



When ram pressure pushes gas out of the disk, the material does not always escape into intergalactic space. If it fails to reach the cluster’s escape velocity, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> eventually reverses its course.



“Most people think of ram pressure stripping as removing the gas from galaxies, which is the main effect and a big deal, since gas is the raw material for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>,” Kenney said.



“But sometimes gas can get pushed out but not stripped, since it never reaches the escape speed. So it falls back, creating a kind of galactic fountain. When this happens, the gas falling back often concentrates in distorted spiral arms on one side of the inner tail.”



In NGC 4858, the returning gas streams converge inside the bunny-ear arms and along the inner tail, triggering bursts of star formation in regions that would otherwise be quiescent.



The galaxy shows both destruction and renewal, as some forces gut certain regions while others briefly revive with recycled gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recycling-may-change-a-galaxy-s-fate">Recycling may change a galaxy’s fate</h2>



Astronomers consider ram-pressure stripping one of the fastest ways to convert blue, star-forming spirals into red, gas-poor ellipticals inside clusters.



The new ALMA data indicate that the transformation can be messier and more gradual than simple one-way stripping models predict.



Gas recycling may prolong a galaxy’s star-forming life, albeit in distorted patches rather than orderly spiral arms. The uneven fallback suggests that angular momentum and magnetic fields steer stripped gas - key factors for next-generation simulations to model.



Upcoming optical and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-galaxies-revealed-in-a-single-webb-image/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb telescope</a> observations will analyze the chemical makeup of gas flowing into and out of the galaxy. These studies will test whether recycled material can eventually build a fresh, stable disk or simply fuel brief starbursts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-galaxy-survival-limits">Testing galaxy survival limits</h2>



Astronomers study NGC 4858 as a compelling case of extreme environmental effects on galaxies because it lies nearby and sits in one of the densest known clusters.



By comparing it to other jellyfish in the Coma sample - some at different angles of motion and stages of stripping - astronomers hope to build a timeline of how ram-pressure interactions unfold.



For now, the galaxy’s whimsical bunny-ear silhouette offers three key lessons. Ram-pressure winds compress and bend spiral arms; gas can cycle out and back in a galactic fountain; and even under relentless external assault, galaxies can briefly reignite pockets of star formation.



Observing these processes in real time provides a critical benchmark for theories of galaxy evolution in the universe’s most crowded neighborhoods.



A preprint of the study can be found on <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2506.07262" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



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Jellyfish galaxy grew ‘bunny ears’ while battling galactic wind

Galaxy clusters pack thousands of galaxies into a volume only a few million light-years wide. They also fill the space between them with a thin plasma hotter than the Sun’s surface. When a spiral galaxy plunges through this intracluster medium, the hot plasma acts like a supersonic headwind, pushing on the galaxy’s cooler gas. NGC 4858 is currently enduring some of the strongest ram-pressure stripping ever observed. “This galaxy, NGC 4858, is traveling very quickly through the Coma Cluster,” said Harrison Souchereau, an astronomer at Yale University...

<a href="http://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-changing-where-migratory-birds-breed/">Birds</a> alter the way they communicate in new habitats in order to exploit the acoustic properties of their surroundings. Thicker vegetation, the size of tree branches, or even the wind can influence the vocalizations of birds.

In a recent study published by <a href="https://global.oup.com/">Oxford University Press</a>, experts have found that wildfires also alter the way birds communicate. The researchers discovered that fires cause birds in nearby forests to sing new songs.

Hermit warblers have a collection of complex songs they use to defend their territory, but they have a fixed song to attract mates. The birds usually rely on a single dominant song across the same geographic area.

In the United States, the summer range of the hermit warblers is limited to the Pacific Coast states of California, Oregon, and Washington.

Hermit warblers are particularly sensitive to fire and other disturbances. But while the birds are negatively impacted after wildfires in the short-term, they show positive changes in response to larger shifts in the forest structure over the long-term.

The researchers recorded the dominant songs of 1,588 males across 101 study sites between 2009 and 2014. The songs were analyzed and classified into 35 dialects. 

To investigate the factors that influence bird song diversity, the team modeled the effects of recent fire history at the local scale, the amount of breeding habitat on a regional scale, and the distance between territories.

The study revealed that local bird song diversity increased in correspondence with the extent of local fires and the amount of regional habitat. 

The analysis of data from ten study areas revisited in 2019 confirmed the influence of wildfires on bird songs. The researchers noted that song structure had changed since the initial visits five to ten years earlier. They also found that song diversity had substantially increased at locations that had endured wildfires between the two visits. 

"Our surveys suggest that song dialects arose in sub-populations specialized to different forest types," said study lead author Brett Furnas. 

"Over the longer term, fire caused some birds to flee and created a vacuum for other birds to fill. The net result is that some areas now have birds singing more than one dialect resulting in a complex diversity of songs throughout California."

The research is published in <a href="https://academic.oup.com/auk">The Auk: Ornithological Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Birds sing different songs after wildfires

Birds alter the way they communicate in new habitats in...

A new study has revealed that increasing <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/mangrove-trees-will-vanish-by-2050-without-reduced-emissions/">tree</a> canopy in urban areas could prevent between 271 and 400 premature deaths per year. A team of experts led by Michelle Kondo of the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/">USDA Forest Service</a> investigated the city-wide health impacts of tree cover in Philadelphia.

The study shows that increased tree canopy or green space can reduce premature deaths among urban populations. According to the researchers, the effects will be the most profound in areas with lower socioeconomic status, where existing tree cover tends to be the lowest.

"In recent weeks, as residents of many cities experienced quarantine conditions, we experienced a heightened need for public green space," said Kondo. 

"While the COVID-19 pandemic has meant that we need to pay attention to our proximity to other people and take precautions to limit our contact, time outside in parks and forests has been critical to maintaining our mental and physical health."

The study was focused on Greenworks Philadelphia, an initiative designed to increase tree canopy to 30 percent across the city by 2025. The experts wanted to know how this project would potentially impact human mortality.

The analysis is one of the first to use a tool developed by public health researchers in Spain and Switzerland, the Greenspace-Health Impact Assessment, to evaluate the health benefits of exposure to greenspaces.

The team estimated the annual number of preventable deaths associated with projected changes in tree cover in Philadelphia between 2014 and 2025.

The researchers calculated that increasing urban tree canopy to 30 percent in all Philadelphia neighborhoods could prevent 400 deaths annually. 

The researchers also found that a lesser extent of tree canopy expansion would still produce enormous health benefits. Increasing tree cover by just five percent was linked to an annual reduction of 302 premature deaths, and a 10-percent increase was linked to a reduction of 376 deaths

Kondo said the findings support the idea that urban greening efforts are worthwhile, even at modest levels.

"Bringing all of Philadelphia, and particularly its poorer neighborhoods, up to the 30% goal of tree canopy cover is not without challenge," wrote the study authors. "Nevertheless, policies are warranted that value urban greening efforts as health-promoting and cost-saving measures."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/planetary-health">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Urban tree canopy can prevent hundreds of premature deaths

A new study has revealed that increasing tree canopy in...

Plastic <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-is-increasingly-invading-antarctica/">pollution</a> is a global crisis that has been well-documented, and one of the biggest concerns is how long plastics persist in the environment. However, a new study suggests that we do not know nearly enough about the lifetime of plastics to sufficiently address the issue. 

Collin Ward is a marine chemist at the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) and a member of the Microplastics Catalyst Program, a long-term research program on plastics in the ocean. He explained that getting a true read on how long it takes for plastic to break down in the environment is tricky business.

"Plastics are everywhere, but one of the most pressing questions is how long plastics last in the environment," said Ward. "The environmental and human health risks associated with something that lasts one year in the environment, versus the same thing that lasts 500 years, are completely different."

It is critical to understand more about the lifetime of plastics to support better consumer choices, to help experts assess associated health risks, and to inform legislators and new policies.

Ward collaborated with WHOI marine chemist Chris Reddy to analyze nearly 60 relevant documents from a variety of sources, including governmental agencies, non-profits, textbooks, and social media sites. The experts found that there was little consistency in the lifetime estimates of the most common plastic products, like plastic bags.

"The estimates being reported to the general public and legislators vary widely," said Ward. "In some cases, they vary from one year to hundreds of years to forever."

There were also some lifetime estimates that seemed to be too similar. Of particular interest, Ward noted, were the estimates for how long fishing line lasts in the ocean. He said that 37 different documents reported that fishing line has a lifetime of 600 years.

"Every single one said 600 years, it was incredible. I'm being a little tongue-in-cheek here, but we're all more likely to win the lottery than 37 independent science studies arriving at the same answer of 600 years for fishing line to degrade in the environment."

Furthermore, Ward could not find evidence that a single estimate was backed by a scientific study. Instead, the research was either funded or conducted by the agencies that published the documents. 

"The reality is that what the public and legislators know about the environmental persistence of plastic goods is often not based on solid science, despite the need for reliable information to form the foundation for a great many decisions, large and small," wrote the study authors.

Last year, Ward and his team conducted a study which showed that polystyrene, which is widely used in a variety of products, may degrade in decades when exposed to sunlight. Prior to the study, it was believed that polystyrene persisted for thousands of years. 

The researchers used mass spectometry to investigate how environmental factors such as sunlight affect the chemical breakdown of the polystyrene, which is the first type of plastic found in the coastal ocean by WHOI scientists nearly fifty years ago.

According to Reddy, one of the biggest misconceptions surrounding the fate of plastics in the environment is that they simply break down into smaller bits that hang around forever.

"This is the narrative we see all the time in the press and social media, and it's not a complete picture," said Reddy. "But through our own research and collaborating with others, we've determined that in addition to plastics breaking down into smaller fragments, they also degrade partially into different chemicals, and they break down completely into CO2." 

The chemical form of plastic would be overlooked in ocean surveys searching for missing plastics.

Chelsea Rochman, a biologist at the University of Toronto, noted that understanding the various forms of plastic degradation will be key to solving one of the enduring mysteries of plastic pollution: more than 99 percent of the plastic that should be detected in the ocean is missing.

"Researchers are beginning to talk about the global plastic cycle. A key part of this will be understanding the persistence of plastics in nature. We know they break down into smaller and smaller pieces, but truly understanding mechanisms and transformation products are key parts of the puzzle," said says Rochman.

The WHOI analysis highlights the need for public information to be supported by scientific evidence.

"The question of environmental persistence of plastics is not going to be easy to answer," said Ward. "But by bringing transparency to this environmental issue, we will help improve the quality of information available to all stakeholders - consumers, scientists, and legislators - to make informed, sustainable decisions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

The lifetime of plastic is misrepresented and not well understood

Plastic pollution is a global crisis that has been well-documented,...

A flushing toilet releases clouds of virus-containing particles, according to a new study published by the <a href="https://www.aip.org/">American Institute of Physics</a>. The researchers used a computer model to show that toilet flushing creates large clouds of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/volcanic-aerosols-cool-climate/">aerosol</a> droplets that linger in the air long enough to be inhaled.

This presents a new potential pathway for COVID-19 transmission in public restrooms, as recent studies have detected traces of SARS-CoV-2 in the feces and urine of patients.

Toilet flushing creates a great deal of turbulence, and there is evidence to suggest that the force is strong enough to release bacteria and viruses. The public remains largely unaware of this infection pathway because it has not been thoroughly investigated.

In the new study, precise computer models were used to simulate water and air flows in a flushing toilet. 

The researchers used a standard set of fluid dynamic formulas, known as the Navier-Stokes equations, to examine flushing in two types of toilets - one with a single inlet for flushing water, and another with two inlets to create a rotating flow.

The team also used a discrete phase model to replicate the movement of tiny droplets as they are ejected from the toilet bowl into the air. According to the researchers, the results of the simulations were striking.

When a toilet is flushed, water pours into the toilet bowl from one side and strikes the opposite side, creating a vortex. The study revealed that these vortices whirl up above the toilet bowl as high as three feet, suspending virus-containing droplets in the air. The droplets are so tiny that they can float for more than a minute, which is how long they could be inhaled, before settling onto surrounding surfaces. 

"One can foresee that the velocity will be even higher when a toilet is used frequently, such as in the case of a family toilet during a busy time or a public toilet serving a densely populated area," said study co-author Ji-Xiang Wang of Yangzhou University.

A simple solution to help prevent the spread of viruses in restrooms is to close the lid before flushing. However, in many countries such as the United States, toilets often do not have lids in public restrooms. The researchers recommend a new toilet design that would include a lid that closes automatically before flushing.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://aip.scitation.org/journal/phf">Physics of Fluids</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Flushing toilets eject virus-containing droplets

A flushing toilet releases clouds of virus-containing particles, according to...

Arctic permafrost contains one billion metric tons of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/rivers-transport-burned-carbon-to-the-ocean-for-storage/">carbon</a>, some of which is emitted into the atmosphere as a result of microbial activity. By the end of this century, experts estimate that between 5 and 15 percent of the organic carbon stored in permafrost will be released as carbon dioxide, elevating global warming by an additional 0.3 to 0.4 degrees Celsius.

However, a new study indicates that this estimate is too low because it fails to account for another natural process that releases CO2. 

Researchers at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> have shown that after thawing permafrost enters lakes and rivers, organic carbon can be oxidized by sunlight in a process known as photomineralization.

The team demonstrated that organic carbon from thawing permafrost is highly susceptible to photomineralization by ultraviolet and visible light, and has the potential to convert 14 percent of the organic carbon stored in permafrost into carbon dioxide. 

Study lead author Rose Cory is an aquatic geochemist and a professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences.

"Only recently have global climate models included greenhouse gases from thawing permafrost soils. But none of them contain this feedback pathway," said Professor Cory.

"To get a number on how much carbon could be released from permafrost soils through oxidation, we have to understand what are the processes and what is the timescale: maybe this carbon is just so resistant to oxidation that, even if thawed out, it would just flow into the Arctic ocean and be buried in another freezer."

It is challenging to measure the potential effects of photomineralization because the process is influenced by specific wavelengths of light. In order to measure each wavelength's effect on soil organic carbon, study co-author Collin Ward built a new instrument that uses LED lights to mimic different wavelengths of the sun.

"This new LED-based method makes it far easier and cheaper to figure out how light-driven reactions vary for different wavelengths of the sun," said Ward. "After I built the instrument I immediately called Rose and told her that I wanted to first use it on permafrost samples."

The researchers used soil samples collected from six Arctic locations and subjected the organic carbon to LED light. After the light exposure, the team used a mass spectrometer to measure the age and amount of carbon dioxide obtained from the soil carbon.

The analysis revealed that the amount of carbon dioxide released was not only affected by the wavelength of sunlight, but also by the amount of iron in the sample. Iron acted as a catalyst, increasing the reactivity of the soil.

"What we have long suspected is that iron catalyzes this sunlight-driven process, and that's exactly what our results show," said Professor Cory. "As the total amount of iron increases, the amount of carbon dioxide increases."

The team set out to show that the oxidation of organic carbon was not just taking place in permafrost that thaws annually, which would release much smaller amounts of CO2, but was also occurring in ancient permafrost. Carbon dating revealed that the soil samples were between 4,000 and 6,300 years old, confirming that old  permafrost carbon can be converted to CO2.

"Not only do we have the first wavelength specific measurement of this sunlight-driven reaction but we have verification that it's old carbon that is oxidized to carbon dioxide," said Professor Cory. 

"We can put to rest any doubt that sunlight will oxidize old carbon and we show what is controlling this process - it's the iron that catalyzes the sunlight oxidation of ancient (or old) carbon."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/19448007">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Co2 emissions from permafrost have been underestimated

Arctic permafrost contains one billion metric tons of carbon, some...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> have confirmed a strong correlation between prolonged loneliness and smoking. According to the study, <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/loneliness-genes-feelings-isolation/">loneliness</a> causes some people to start smoking and makes it harder for smokers to quit. 

Deborah Arnott is the chief executive of Action of Smoking &amp; Health (ASH). She said the research highlights the need for smokers suffering from loneliness to be given support - not only to improve their health and well-being, but also to help reduce their loneliness.

"If lonely people are more likely to start smoking and find it harder to quit, they are more likely to suffer the harm caused by smoking," said Arnott.

"Smoking is the leading cause of preventable premature death, with thirty times as many people who die suffering serious smoking-related illnesses such as cancer, heart and respiratory disease." 

While previous research has established a link between smoking and loneliness, it has remained unclear whether smoking is the cause or the effect of loneliness. 

For the current study, the experts tried a new approach. They used a research method known as Mendelian randomization, involving genetic and survey data from hundreds of thousands of people. The study revealed that loneliness leads to the increased likelihood of smoking behavior.

"This method has never been applied to this question before and so the results are novel, but also tentative," said study co-author Dr. Robyn Wootton. "We found evidence to suggest that loneliness leads to increased smoking, with people more likely to start smoking, to smoke more cigarettes, and to be less likely to quit."

The study produced evidence that prolonged feelings of loneliness increase the chances of starting smoking and the number of cigarettes smoked. At the same time, feeling lonely decreases the likelihood of successfully quitting. 

The findings reflect the same trends that were recently identified through surveys by YouGov's COVID-19 tracker. The polls revealed that 2.2 million people across the UK are smoking more now compared to before lockdown. 

In addition, the results of both studies suggest that starting smoking increases an individual's feelings of loneliness.

"Our finding that smoking may also lead to more loneliness is tentative, but it is in line with other recent studies that identified smoking as a risk factor for poor mental health," said study senior author Dr. Jorien Treur.

"A potential mechanism for this relationship is that nicotine from cigarette smoke interferes with neurotransmitters such as dopamine in the brain."

The team also investigated a potential connection between loneliness and alcohol use, and found no significant link.

"While the method that we used in this study has important advantages, it is also early days for this type of study. We therefore suggest further research is conducted when more is known about the genetics of alcohol dependence and loneliness," said Dr. Treur

The Office of National Statistics (ONS) reports that during the first month of lockdown, 7.4 million people said their well-being was affected by feelings of loneliness. Individuals who felt lonely were more likely to struggle to find things to help them cope, and were less likely to feel they had a support group.

"Suddenly, the whole of the UK has become more socially isolated than ever before, and for many people this will likely increase their loneliness," said Dr. Wootton. "We were really interested to find that loneliness decreases the likelihood of stopping smoking and we think this is a really important consideration for those trying to stop smoking during the pandemic."

"We are still yet to see the full effects of the coronavirus pandemic on alcohol and cigarette use in the UK. Whilst our study does not look at the effects of loneliness and social isolation as the result of the pandemic, it can shed some light on the consequences of loneliness in general."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.addictionjournal.org/">Addiction</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Loneliness makes it easier to start smoking and harder to quit

Researchers at the University of Bristol have confirmed a strong...

Experts at the <a href="https://ist.ac.at/">Institute of Science and Technology Austria</a> have identified the mechanisms that regulate <a href="https://www.earth.com/plants">plant</a> regeneration. The study revealed that the hormone Auxin, along with pressure changes that take place upon injury, precisely coordinate the roles of plant cells in healing wounds. 

Animals and humans have cells that are specialized to seek out and heal wounds. However, the targeted migration of cells is not possible in plants because plant cells are immobile.

In plant regeneration, the cells that are adjacent to a wound will either divide or grow to fill the gaps caused by injury. This process is extremely precise, as each individual cell must decide whether it will stretch or multiply to contribute to filling the wound.

Despite the fact that plant regeneration has been studied since the mid-1800s, the reasoning behind each cell's decision on how to best tend to a wound has remained a mystery. 

A team of scientists led by Professor Jiří Friml has discovered that the role of individual plant cells during regeneration is regulated by the hormone Auxin. The cells are also guided by changes in pressure that take place within the plant after injury.  

"It is incredibly fascinating how robust and flexible plant regeneration is, considering how static those organisms are," said study co-author Lukas Hoermayer. 

To investigate plant regeneration, the researchers used a laser to injure the root of a thale cress. Next, they used a microscope to monitor the cells as the wound was healed. 

The scientists found that Auxin, which is essential in plant growth and development, plays a critical role in wound healing. The hormone accumulates in the cells directly adjacent to the wound and facilitates the plant's response to injury.

When the researchers disrupted the amount of Auxin present, either too many or no cells responded to the wound. This uncoordinated response sometimes led to tumorous swelling of the root.

"Only the precise coordination of many cells throughout the whole tissue yields a defined and localized wound response," explained Hoermayer.

The team also noticed a pressure change within the plant that was caused by the collapsing cells of the wound. When the scientists reduced the cellular pressure before injuring a plant, the pressure difference vanished and the regeneration ability of the plant was weakened.

The finding that Auxin concentration and pressure changes govern regeneration provides brand new insight into how plant roots manage to heal wounds, survive in sandy soil, or persist in the presence of root-attacking herbivores.

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Scientists identify a hormone that coordinates plant regeneration

Experts at the Institute of Science and Technology Austria have...

Deep-sea Leptoseris <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/corals-put-up-a-colorful-shield-after-bleaching/">corals</a> are growing at unexpectedly high rates despite extremely low light conditions, according to new research. The findings contradict the assumption that deep corals grow very slowly with less light available for photosynthesis.

Leptoseris is a type of coral species that lives in the deep waters of the Indo-Pacific where sunlight is scarce. The corals depend on microalgae called zooxanthellae for oxygen, energy,  and waste removal. 

A team of experts led by Samuel Kahng of the <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu/">University of Hawaii at Mānoa</a> used  submersible vehicles to collect Leptoseris colonies at depths between 225 and 360 feet in the Au'au Channel. 

The researchers used advanced dating methods to establish the age of each coral skeleton at multiple points along its radial growth axis.

At the deepest end of their range, the Leptoseris species were found to have less than 0.2 percent of the sunlight found at surface levels. 

Less sunlight usually means slower growth for photosynthetic species, and previous studies found evidence that one particular Leptoseris species grows only 0.04 inch per year. In the new study, however, the team discovered that Leptoseris corals are actually growing much faster. 

"Considering the low light environment, the previous assumption was that large corals at these extreme depths should be very old due to extremely slow growth rates," said Professor Kahng. 

"Surprisingly, the corals were found to be relatively young with growth rates comparable to that of many non-branching shallow water corals. Growth rates were measured to be between nearly 1 inch per year at 225 feet depth and 0.3 inches per year at 360 feet depth."

The researchers discovered that these deep-sea corals have developed a strategy to dominate their habitats. The size and shape of their skeletons maximize the surface area for light absorption, while minimizing the resources needed to form the skeleton. The thin corals only grow outward, not upward, and do not thicken over time like massive corals.

"Additionally, the optical geometry of their thin, flat, white skeletons form fine parallel ridges that grow outward from a central origin," said Professor Kahng. 

"In some cases, these ridges form convex spaces between them which effectively trap light in reflective chambers and cause light to pass repeatedly through the coral tissue until it is absorbed by the photosynthetic machinery."

The enhanced growth of Leptoseris in low light conditions has important implications for its ability to compete for space and dominate organisms that grow more slowly. 

"It also illustrates the flexibility of reef building corals and suggests that these communities may be able to develop and recover from mortality events much faster than previously thought," said Professor Kahng.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/338">Coral Reefs</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Deep-sea corals grow faster and are more resilient than expected

Deep-sea Leptoseris corals are growing at unexpectedly high rates despite...

Researchers have identified healthy eating patterns that reduce the risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD). The findings align with the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, which focus on healthy <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/eating-late-at-night-contributes-to-obesity-and-diabetes/">eating</a> patterns rather than specific nutrients to better account for diverse cultural food traditions and preferences.

Study first author Zhilei Shan is a research associate in the Department of Nutrition in the <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a>. 

"Although each healthy eating pattern represents a different combination of dietary constituents, our study indicates that greater adherence to any of the four healthy eating patterns we looked at is associated with lower risk of cardiovascular disease and the health benefits persist across racial and ethnic groups," said Shan.

Few studies have investigated the relationship between healthy dietary patterns and the long term risk of cardiovascular disease. 

In the current study, the researchers examined four dietary patterns: Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015); Alternate Mediterranean Diet Score (AMED); Healthful Plant-Based Diet Index (HPDI); and Alternate Healthy Eating Index (AHEI).

Each of these patterns has its own unique scoring metrics, yet they all emphasize higher consumption of whole grains, fruits, vegetables, legumes, and nuts along with lower consumption of red and processed meats and sugar-sweetened beverages.

To analyze the cardiovascular disease risk associated with each eating pattern, the experts focused on data from more than 200,000 men and women from three large cohort studies, including the Nurses' Health Study. The participants reported on their dietary habits every two to four years over several decades.

The researchers calculated four dietary scores for each participant, and the higher scores represented greater commitment to a healthy diet. The study revealed that adherence to any of the four healthy eating patterns was consistently associated with lower risk of cardiovascular disease. 

The participants who adhered most to the established dietary patterns were found to have a 14 to 21 percent lower risk of cardiovascular disease when compared with those who did not stick with their healthy diets. 

The four healthy dietary patterns lowered CVD risk regardless of race or ethnicity, and the patterns were statistically associated with lower risk of both coronary heart disease and stroke.

"These data provide further evidence to support current dietary guidelines that following healthy eating patterns confers long-term health benefits on cardiovascular disease prevention," said study co-author Frank Hu.

"There is no one-size-fits-all diet that is best for everyone. One can combine foods in a variety of flexible ways to achieve healthy eating patterns according to individuals' health needs, food preferences, and cultural traditions."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine">JAMA Internal Medicine</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Healthy eating patterns lower heart disease risk

Researchers have identified healthy eating patterns that reduce the risk...

In recent studies, scientists on the search for extraterrestrial life have found evidence to suggest that we will discover life beyond <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-discovery-of-young-earth-like-planets-is-a-real-possibility/">Earth</a> in the next ten to 20 years. As more advanced missions are launched to study planets and stars, the chances of finding signs of extraterrestrial civilizations are better now than ever before. 

It is challenging to calculate the number of potential extraterrestrial civilizations, but a new study led by the <a href="https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/">University of Nottingham</a> has taken a unique approach to obtain this estimate. According to the researchers, there could be more than 30 communicating civilizations within our own galaxy.

"There should be at least a few dozen active civilizations in our galaxy under the assumption that it takes 5 billion years for intelligent life to form on other planets, as on Earth," said study lead author Professor Christopher Conselice. "The idea is looking at evolution, but on a cosmic scale. We call this calculation the Astrobiological Copernican Limit."

The two Astrobiological Copernican limits are that intelligent life forms in just under or just over 5 billion years. On Earth, a communicating civilization formed after 4.5 billion years. 

"The classic method for estimating the number of intelligent civilizations relies on making guesses of values relating to life, whereby opinions about such matters vary quite substantially," said first author Tom Westby. "Our new study simplifies these assumptions using new data, giving us a solid estimate of the number of civilizations in our galaxy."

"In the strong criteria, whereby a metal content equal to that of the Sun is needed (the Sun is relatively speaking quite metal rich), we calculate that there should be around 36 active civilizations in our galaxy."

The researchers explained that if other technological civilizations last as long as ours, which is currently 100 years old, then there should be about 36 active high-tech civilizations throughout our galaxy.

The average distance to one of these potential civilizations is 17,000 light-years, which means it would be very difficult to detect any active signals such as radio or satellite transmissions. Furthermore, if extraterrestrial civilizations do not survive as long as ours has, we may be the only intelligent life in our galaxy. 

"Our new research suggests that searches for extraterrestrial intelligent civilizations not only reveals the existence of how life forms, but also gives us clues for how long our own civilization will last," said Professor Conselice. 

"If we find that intelligent life is common then this would reveal that our civilization could exist for much longer than a few hundred years, alternatively if we find that there are no active civilizations in our galaxy it is a bad sign for our own long-term existence."

"By searching for extraterrestrial intelligent life - even if we find nothing - we are discovering our own future and fate."

The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0004-637X">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

More than 30 extraterrestrial civilizations may exist in our galaxy

In recent studies, scientists on the search for extraterrestrial life...

According to a new study, moderate levels of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/coffee-alcohol-live-past-90/">alcohol</a> consumption should not be considered safe. The researchers are reporting that low-risk drinking can lead to serious health complications and that moderate drinkers are not shielded from harm.

A research team led by Dr. Adam Sherk of the <a href="https://www.uvic.ca/research/centres/cisur/index.php">Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research</a> investigated hospitalizations and deaths associated with alcohol use in British Columbia. 

The investigation was focused on data from the International Model of Alcohol Harms and Policies (InterMAHP). 

The analysis showed that a surprisingly large share of alcohol-related deaths and disabilities occurred among people who were low-risk drinkers who consumed alcohol within Canadian guidelines.

In Canada, low-risk drinking guidelines state that women should consume no more than 10 drinks per week and men should consume no more than 15 drinks. These limits exceed those in most other high-income countries, and are slightly higher than recommended limits in the United States. 

The researchers found that more than 50 percent of patients who died from alcohol-related cancers were moderate drinkers. In addition, 38 percent of all alcohol-attributable deaths were linked to low-risk drinkers or former drinkers. 

On the other hand, alcohol consumption within the guidelines offered some protection from fatal heart attack, stroke, and diabetes among women. "This protective effect did not appear to hold for men, who experienced harm at all drinking levels," wrote the study authors.

The experts said the findings suggest that some national drinking guidelines, which are designed to help drinkers make informed health decisions, are too high. 

Dr. Sherk recommends that guideline limits should be lowered to match those in the Netherlands: "Don't drink or, if you do, drink no more than one drink per day."

The research is published in the <a href="https://www.jsad.com/">Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Low-risk drinking tied to a large share of alcohol-related deaths

According to a new study, moderate levels of alcohol consumption...

Experts at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a> have confirmed that water <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/water-vapor-and-soil-moisture-can-predict-afternoon-rainfall/">vapor</a> has the potential to serve as a renewable energy source. The research is based on the discovery that interactions between water molecules and metal surfaces produce electricity. 

"We sought to capitalize on a naturally occurring phenomenon: electricity from water," explained Professor Colin Price. "Electricity in thunderstorms is generated only by water in its different phases - water vapor, water droplets, and ice. Twenty minutes of cloud development is how we get from water droplets to huge electric discharges - lightning - some half a mile in length."

In the nineteenth century, English physicist Michael Faraday discovered that water droplets could charge metal surfaces as a result of friction. More recently, researchers demonstrated that certain metals become electrically charged when exposed to humidity.

For the current study, the Tel Aviv team set out to develop a tiny low-voltage battery that requires only humidity from the air to charge. The scientists designed a lab experiment to determine the voltage between two different metals exposed to high relative humidity, while one is grounded. 

"We found that there was no voltage between them when the air was dry," said Professor Price. "But once the relative humidity rose above 60%, a voltage began to develop between the two isolated metal surfaces." 

"When we lowered the humidity level to below 60%, the voltage disappeared. When we carried out the experiment outside in natural conditions, we saw the same results."

"Water is a very special molecule. During molecular collisions, it can transfer an electrical charge from one molecule to the other. Through friction, it can build up a kind of static electricity."

"We tried to reproduce electricity in the lab and found that different isolated metal surfaces will build up different amounts of charge from water vapor in the atmosphere, but only if the air relative humidity is above 60%. This occurs nearly every day in the summer in Israel and every day in most tropical countries."

Professor Price noted that the study challenges established ideas about humidity and its potential as an energy source. 

"People know that dry air results in static electricity and you sometimes get 'shocks' when you touch a metal door handle. Water is normally thought of as a good conductor of electricity, not something that can build up charge on a surface. However, it seems that things are different once the relative humidity exceeds a certain threshold."

The researchers showed that humid air may be a source of charging surfaces to voltages of around one volt. 

"If a AA battery is 1.5V, there may be a practical application in the future: to develop batteries that can be charged from water vapor in the air," said Professor Price.

"The results may be particularly important as a renewable source of energy in developing countries, where many communities still do not have access to electricity, but the humidity is constantly about 60%."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Water vapor has potential as a renewable energy source

Experts at Tel Aviv University have confirmed that water vapor...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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