Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. 



When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat.



That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time changes, altering the way it measures all of the moments that make up our lives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-vs-fresh-experiences">First vs. fresh experiences</h2>



Children cram their days with firsts: a first dive into the pool, a first try at long division, a first sleepover away from home.



These fresh experiences swarm the brain with new images to file away, stretching the subjective length of a single afternoon.



Adults, by contrast, tend to replay <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-impacts-our-daily-routines-and-transportation/">familiar routines</a>. With fewer novel snapshots to store, the days collapse into something closer to a highlight reel than a feature film.



According to psychologist Marc Wittmann at the Institute for Frontier Areas of Psychology and Mental Health <a href="https://igpp.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(IGPP</a>), the feeling that time accelerates is tightly linked to how much new material our brains record each day.



He points out that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/memory-clutter-speeds-up-aging-in-the-brain/">memory</a> and time perception sit on the same neural bench; when one slows, the other shrinks. "Newness" holds the key to this phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-and-time-perception">Human brain and time perception</h2>



Whenever a brain encounters something it has never processed before, a quick surge of attention flags the event as worth keeping. The more flags raised, the thicker the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-use-storage-trick-to-keep-your-memories-in-sequential-order/">memory log</a> becomes, and the longer that span later feels.



Kids, still green to nearly everything, throw flags left and right. A lunchroom joke, a new word in science class, or a game of tag - each registers as its own small chapter.



Adults often glide through copy-and-paste days that differ only by the date on the calendar. With fewer chapters recorded, the book of any given week reads as a short story.



Research using immersive virtual reality in 2024 showed that older volunteers underestimated simple time intervals by roughly 15 percent, highlighting how novelty <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S096800042300302X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharpens the inner clock</a>.



Routine doesn’t just compress the past; it also drains the present.



Studies tracking holiday seasons in several countries found that people who stuck to predictable daily rhythms felt that Christmas or Ramadan arrived sooner every year, while those who sprinkled in new activities reported a slower march toward the festivities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-processing-speed-linked-with-time">Brain processing speed linked with time</h2>



Every sensation has to travel from eye or ear to cortex. In youngsters, those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/speech-pattern-wfd-that-is-a-clear-indication-a-person-is-in-cognitive-decline/">neural highways</a> are short and well-paved. As bodies grow, the routes lengthen, and the conduction speed though still quick can’t match its earlier zip.



Add natural age-related slowing of signal processing and the brain starts sampling the world less often each second.



Fewer samples mean fewer “ticks” on the subjective stopwatch, so a morning meeting seems to vanish faster for a forty-year-old than for a fourth grader.



This sampling <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-pupil-dilation-to-brains-working-memory-levels/">shows up in the eyes</a>. Our eyes jerk from point to point in rapid saccades, pausing in brief fixations while the brain grabs a visual frame.



Young, rested eyes squeeze in more fixations per minute. Older or fatigued eyes lag, offering the brain fewer still frames to stitch together. With a thinner film strip, the projection of the day speeds along.



Scientists studying eye movements liken perception to a flipbook. Each fixation is a page; flip them fast enough and you see smooth action.



When fixations slow, the flipbook loses pages. Motion still appears, but the storyline gets choppy, and, in recall, it shortens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-and-alertness">Sleep and alertness</h2>



A single night of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-can-boost-memory-in-a-surprising-way/">good sleep</a> can pull the brake on runaway days. When neurons are well-rested, they fire faster, notice more, and form clearer memories.



Athletes know the flip side: stepping onto the field after too little shut-eye makes the whole match blur. The plays happen, but the mind records only a highlight or two before the final whistle.



Students grinding through an all-nighter meet the same fate - an exam that seems to finish moments after it starts.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-best-treatment-for-excessive-daytime-sleepiness/">Chronic fatigue</a> magnifies the effect. Continually short-changing rest lowers baseline alertness, trimming snapshots day after day.



Over months, life can feel like it’s slipping through the cracks, not because the clock sped up but because the recorder slowed down.



<a href="https://www.health.harvard.edu/mind-and-mood/dopamine-the-pathway-to-pleasure" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dopamine</a>, a neurotransmitter tied to motivation and time estimation, also dips with sleep debt, further warping the <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1364166/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of duration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-media-and-lost-time-perception">Social media and lost time perception</h2>



Endless feeds promise variety, yet most algorithms serve look-alike posts. Swipe through video after video of the same dance trend, and the brain barely registers a change.



Hours evaporate while the memory log remains nearly blank. Compound that with the blue-light-induced bedtime delay, and you have a double punch: fewer snapshots captured and fewer hours slept.



Cutting back on passive scrolling or swapping it for an activity with genuine novelty - trying a new recipe, learning a chord on guitar - feeds the brain more distinct moments. Those moments stretch subjective time, turning a blur of an evening into something that feels full.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-with-age-comes-responsibility">With age comes responsibility</h2>



Beyond slower processing, adults juggle long lists of responsibilities. Focus narrows to tasks at hand - emails, errands, budgets - scanning less of the environment for new input. Novelty drops, and subjective days shorten.



<a href="https://www.tiaa.org/public/institute/publication/2023/young-adults-their-attitudes-and-outlook-toward-retirement-and-the-future" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">A 2023 survey</a> comparing young adults with retirees found that the older group reported the year as “rushing by” nearly twice as often, linking the feeling to the predictability of daily routines rather than to health issues.



Even so, not every senior feels the rush. Researchers tracking so-called “<a href="https://www.nm.org/healthbeat/healthy-tips/4-habits-super-agers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">super-agers</a>” note that those who keep learning new skills and staying socially engaged maintain sharper senses of time, along with stronger memory performance. Variety keeps the brain’s camera clicking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-use-your-brain-to-slow-time-perception">Use your brain to slow time perception</h2>



Here's the good news - the tools to lengthen your days fit into ordinary life. Go to bed on a schedule that honors the seven-to-nine-hour rule.



Plan at least one activity each week that forces you out of autopilot: a different jogging route, a museum you’ve never visited, a new language app.



While doing it, pay close attention to sights, sounds, and textures. Engagement packs extra snapshots into the mental album.



Stay curious daily. Swap a lunchtime scroll for a short walk and notice five things you’ve never clocked before - a mural, a bird call, the scent of a bakery vent.



Those micro-discoveries add pages to the flipbook, expanding the subjective afternoon. Over time, the habit can "thicken" the memory book that tells the story of a year, making December feel like it belongs twelve full months away, right where the calendar says it should be.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/why-the-days-seem-shorter-as-we-get-older/2CB8EC9B0B30537230C7442B826E42F1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Review</a>.



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Scientists explain why time seems to move faster and 'fly by' as we age

Most of us have heard a parent or grandparent say, “Time goes by faster every year,” while shaking their head at how quickly July 4 seems to roll around. When you’re twelve, however, the brain has a different perception of time - the wait for summer vacation feels endless, and a single school day can feel as slow as a traffic jam in August heat. That gap between the child’s long afternoon and the adult’s lightning-fast month isn’t just storytelling, it’s how our brain's perception of time...

The Paleocene period, which followed the extinction of the dinosaurs, left behind many fossil traces across North America. Among these remnants, a remarkable discovery has emerged from what is now Big Bend National Park in Texas. 



Paleontologists from the University of Kansas (<a href="https://www.ku.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KU</a>) have identified and named a previously unknown species of ancient near-marsupial, calling it Swaindelphys solastella.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marsupial-relative-in-texas">Marsupial relative in Texas</h2>



This small but significant creature lived millions of years ago during a time when the region was far different from today - lush, tropical, and covered with flowing rivers. 



Despite the richness of the fossil record from that era, Swaindelphys solastella stood out due to its unusual size and unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-confirm-species-identity-of-the-dragon-man-fossil-skull-denisovan/">features</a>.



While most Swaindelphys were small, this one was the size of a modern hedgehog - giant for its kind. The research team, led by doctoral student Kristen Miller, analyzed old fossil collections to reach this conclusion. 



The fossils were gathered decades ago by Judith Schiebout from Louisiana State University (<a href="https://www.lsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSU</a>) but had never been fully examined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-marsupial-mystery">Solving a marsupial mystery</h2>



Miller focused on molars that caught her attention, comparing them to those of many metatherian species - extinct relatives of marsupials. 



The researchers initially thought the fossils were either leftovers from Cretaceous-era survivors or early members of a later Eocene group. Miller’s deep analysis proved both theories wrong.



“Not only are they the largest metatherians from this time period, but they’re also the youngest and located at the most southern latitude,” Miller said.



Her adviser Chris Beard, a senior curator at KU, highlighted the importance of this find. He said that while Big Bend’s Paleocene mammals have been known for decades, this discovery sheds light on the larger ones often overlooked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-primate-evolution">Insights into primate evolution</h2>



Beard also connected this marsupial’s story to early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">primates</a>. The Leakey Foundation, which supported the research, saw the relevance. 



“These marsupials are probably ecological analogues of early primates,” Beard said. That connection might help scientists better understand how early primates behaved and spread.



<a href="https://leakeyfoundation.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Leakey Foundation</a> usually funds research in Africa but found this project compelling. 



“When the Leakey Foundation found out we wanted to do this kind of research, they said, ‘This sounds interesting,’” Beard explained. That led to a deeper look into fossils held by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a> and LSU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-from-a-warmer-texas">Fossils from a warmer Texas</h2>



Miller noted the climate differences. “It would have been warmer than it is now - probably more on the tropical side,” she said. 



Unlike today’s desert terrain, Paleocene Texas had vegetation, streams, and rivers. The fossils were found in fluvial deposits, left behind by ancient river systems.



The team compared fossils from other places like Wyoming and Alberta, Canada. Some species found in Texas didn’t quite fit the timeline. Miller called them “anachronistic.” 



That made them question the accuracy of fossil dating in southern regions, compared to places like the Bighorn Basin in Wyoming, where the fossil record is much clearer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-animals-could-live">Where animals could live</h2>



To explain this, the KU researchers studied the region’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/">ancient</a> topography. With help from the Department of Geology, they proposed that a high point in southern Wyoming might have divided marsupial species.



“North of that ancient divide, we see the classic Bighorn Basin taxa in their expected time periods,” Miller said. “But south of that, in river drainages that originate in the central Rockies and areas farther to the south, things start to go a little wacky.”



This divide might explain why some species stayed north while others lived only in the south. Physical features like rivers or mountains may have acted as barriers to migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-texas-marsupial-and-mammal-evolution">Texas marsupial and mammal evolution</h2>



Miller plans to continue testing this idea. She’s looking to confirm whether species differences on either side of the divide are statistically significant. 



“That’s our working hypothesis, and it’s something I’ll be looking into later in my dissertation,” she said.



Through careful fossil analysis, unexpected connections, and geological insights, the story of&nbsp;Swaindelphys solastella offers a fresh glimpse into mammal evolution. 



And true to Texas style, this ancient creature proved that even marsupials could go big.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2025.2500501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



Image Credit: Kristen Tietjen



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Surprising marsupial relative lived in ancient Texas

The Paleocene period, which followed the extinction of the dinosaurs,...

Every fleeting glance you take of your surroundings sets off a chain reaction inside your skull, shuttling retinal signals to a tiny midbrain hub. New findings show that this relay does more than position your eyes; it also helps you decide what those eyes are seeing.



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a> have now traced high‑level judgment back to the same circuit that pilots a reflexive gaze. 



<a href="https://neurobiology.uchicago.edu/faculty/david-freedman-phd" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Freedman</a>, professor of neurobiology at the university, says the discovery redraws some of the most familiar maps of the mind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collicular-midbrain-hub-is-ancient">Collicular midbrain hub is ancient</h2>



The <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10115501/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">superior colliculus</a> sits just above the brainstem and appears in fish, birds, and mammals alike, hinting at an ancestry stretching half a billion years. 



Its layered tissue forms a two‑dimensional grid that rapidly transforms flashes of light into head and eye movements.



For decades, textbooks described the structure as a simple switchboard for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10991/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">saccades</a>, the rapid jumps that refresh a scene several times a second. The cortex, by contrast, was said to handle every higher act, from object recognition to chess.



Growing evidence counters that neat divide. A 2017 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5752317/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> chronicled how collicular neurons encode attention and decision signals once thought exclusive to the cerebral mantle.



Those hints set the stage for a closer look at the midbrain in real time. Freedman’s group answered with electrodes and a clever behavioral trick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gazing-and-judging">Gazing and judging</h2>



They trained two <a href="https://neprimateconservancy.org/rhesus-macaque/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Macaca mulatta monkeys</a> to hold their eyes on a central point while labeling drifting dot patterns as belonging to one of two learned categories. Fruit‑juice rewards encouraged fast, accurate button presses rather than eye shifts.



During the task, arrays of fine wires captured spikes in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/posterior-parietal-cortex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">posterior parietal cortex</a>, a well‑known decision center, and simultaneously inside the colliculus. 



Timing analysis revealed that category information emerged in both places at almost the same moment.



More surprising, the midbrain signal was stronger and more consistent than the cortical one, indexing the upcoming choice with remarkable fidelity. That meant the ancient hub was not just echoing the cortex but <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01744-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leading</a> the conversation.



“This is a really surprising place to find these kinds of cognitive signals because this area of the brain is traditionally associated with simpler <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-and-female-brains-are-wired-completely-differently/">spatial orienting behaviors</a> and even reflexive functions,” said Freedman. He notes that the finding challenges a long‑held hierarchy that placed the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/neocortex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neocortex</a> firmly on top.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-switching-off-the-collicular-midbrain">Switching off the collicular midbrain</h2>



Correlation, however, does not guarantee causation. To probe necessity, the team injected minute doses of muscimol to silence collicular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rebooting-the-brain-experts-can-transform-cells-into-neurons/">neurons</a> for about 30 minutes.



The monkeys still stared at the fixation point and pushed buttons with normal speed, showing that motor paths remained largely intact. Even so, their category judgments slipped toward chance until normal firing returned.



A 2021 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8338902/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> by Michele Basso and colleagues had already shown that damping the same region biases simpler motion decisions in primates. The new work extends that causal role to abstract rules untied to any spatial cue.



“Our results show us that this area is really important for the task,” Freedman added. Without its input, the cortex alone could not salvage performance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collicular-neurons-and-spatial-maps">Collicular neurons and spatial maps</h2>



The collicular sheet represents space in a neat polar grid, each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cell-division-discovery-challenges-a-century-of-textbook-biology/">cell</a> preferring a particular direction and eccentricity. Such organization may offer high‑speed scaffolding for loftier computations.



Freedman suspects that the brain projects non‑spatial information onto that grid to exploit wiring already optimized for rapid competition among options. 



Spatial coding could act as a common currency, letting disparate sensory and memory traces jostle under a single rulebook.



Separate teams have found midbrain <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0896627324004124" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurons</a> that single out faces mere milliseconds after stimulus onset, bypassing the slower ventral stream. 



Others report <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37352857/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collicular bursts</a> that end deliberations once evidence reaches a threshold, acting like an internal referee.



“Some of this data might be telling us that the spatial parts of the brain are getting recruited into helping us perform these non-spatial cognitive functions,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=em1qF1AAAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Barbara Peysakhovich</a>, first author of the study. Her remark underscores how evolution can co‑opt one circuit for many jobs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-midbrain-collicular-circuits-and-perception">Midbrain collicular circuits and perception</h2>



Functional MRI supports the idea in humans. Activity flares in the colliculus when volunteers search <a href="https://bmcneurosci.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2202-8-66" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cluttered scenes</a> or shift attention without moving their eyes.



A <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4949391/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> that probed eye‑driven Go/No‑Go decisions in progressive supranuclear palsy linked slow saccades to impaired evidence accumulation, implicating the same midbrain route. 



Such overlap suggests that eye‑movement disorders and cognitive decline may share a single lesion site.



Computational neuroscientists are now modeling collicular circuits to design cameras that spot hazards before full scene analysis is complete. The Chicago data offer a fresh template for those algorithms.



Ultimately, the study blurs a tidy border between perception and reflection. It invites a broader search for additional double‑duty nodes throughout the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/big-changes-in-the-brain-between-the-ages-of-11-25-and-how-it-influence-our-decisions/">brain</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-and-implications">Next steps and implications</h2>



Freedman plans to test whether similar signals appear in people using magnetoencephalography combined with deep‑brain electrical recordings during surgery. Such work could clarify how much of the primate finding generalizes to everyday human reasoning.



Another priority is mapping the pathways that carry the category code into and out of the midbrain. Anatomical <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10115501/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> already show dense links from frontal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-find-inside-the-eye-of-a-tiny-wasp-megaphragma-viggianii/">eye</a> field to colliculus as well as ascending fibers that reach the cortex via the thalamus.



Untangling those loops may reveal how a single decision circulates between brainstem and cortex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/action-observation-network-human-brain-perception-see-what-we-expect-to-see-mind-eye/">before reaching awareness</a>. The results could also help clinicians fine‑tune deep‑brain stimulators aimed at restoring gaze and cognition in movement disorders.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01744-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Neuroscience</a>.



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Humans use the same ancient midbrain circuits for both seeing and thinking, says a new study

Every fleeting glance you take of your surroundings sets off...

Some imported seafoods on American dinner plates are carrying an invisible threat: bacteria equipped with genes that can disarm a high-priority, critically important antibiotic called colistin.



Colistin is reserved for life-threatening infections that have outwitted every other drug. When it fails, clinicians have nowhere left to turn.



In research presented at <a href="https://asm.org/events/asm-microbe/home">ASM Microbe 2025</a>, scientists at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> found colistin-resistance genes - known as mcr - in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/">shrimp</a> and scallops purchased from eight Atlanta-area grocery stores.



It is the first evidence that U.S. seafood shoppers are unknowingly buying products harboring bacteria capable of shrugging off one of medicine’s last lines of defense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seafood-s-global-supply-chain">Seafood's global supply chain</h2>



Lead investigator Issmat Kassem has spent two decades tracing the global spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genes-for-antibiotic-resistance-lurk-in-our-wastewater-and-streams/">antimicrobial resistance</a>.



Sampling from local supermarkets, his team ran genetic screens on bacteria living in the imported seafood including shellfish and uncovered multiple plasmids - circular snippets of DNA - that carry mcr.



These plasmids make resistance “mobile,” because the genes can hop from one bacterium to another.



When Kassem talks about the popular appeal of shellfish, he puts it simply: “We love our seafood.”



And most Americans do: about 90 percent of the shrimp consumed in the United States are raised overseas. Many exporting nations still rely on antibiotics, including colistin, to treat or fatten farmed animals.



That practice creates selective pressure for resistant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/">bacteria</a>, which can end up in packing plants, shipping containers, and ultimately U.S. kitchens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-last-resort-antibiotic">The last-resort antibiotic</h2>



Colistin debuted in the 1950s, then largely disappeared from U.S. hospitals because it can scar kidneys and nerves. Its toxic profile forced doctors to shelve it in favor of safer drugs.



That calculus reversed when so-called “superbugs” evolved resistance to nearly every other antibiotic. Colistin returned as a last resort, but its revival was overshadowed by news in 2016 of the first plasmid-borne mcr gene.



Until then, many scientists assumed colistin resistance evolved only through slow, vertical inheritance. The plasmid discovery rewrote that script, proving resistance could not jump between different bacteria - an assumption Kassem now calls dangerously outdated.



Today, at least ten mcr variants have been catalogued worldwide, and Kassem’s new findings reveal a pathway for them to enter U.S. ecosystems.



In earlier work, his lab found the same plasmids and bacterial hosts in Georgia wastewater. The match confirms that agricultural practices abroad can shape microbial landscapes at home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-supply-chain-problem"><a></a>A supply chain problem</h2>



Although federal inspectors test imported seafood for chemical residues and visible pathogens, they do not routinely test for resistance genes.



“The bacteria that were carrying colistin resistance genes are not normally screened,” Kassem warned. Standard checks, designed decades ago, fail to catch this genomic stowaway.



“Our food is sourced from different places,” he said. “If you go out to lunch today, your plate might have ingredients from six, seven, eight countries.” These complex supply chains enable a hidden circulation of microbes.



“Some countries do not have strict regulations for using antibiotics in food animal production, so imported food can be a vehicle for transmission of resistance.”



Domestic aquaculture operations appear free of mcr for now, suggesting U.S. oversight can be effective when consistently applied.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-borders-for-seafood-superbugs">No borders for seafood "superbugs"</h2>



Resistance that travels by plasmid does not respect borders. “We live in a very connected world,” Kassem emphasized.



“We move a lot, we travel a lot, our food travels, and we are going to spread whatever emerges, even across national borders.” In other words, the United States cannot isolate itself from a problem embedded in international trade.



That reality underscores the need for better surveillance. “It’s important to invest in monitoring systems and expand them and collaborate, especially on the global level, on the issue of antimicrobial resistance,” Kassem said.



Enhanced screening at ports of entry could catch resistant bacteria before they enter the consumer market. Equally critical is global cooperation to reduce unnecessary antibiotic use in aquaculture and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-livestock-are-major-drivers-of-antibiotic-resistance/">livestock</a> production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-risks-in-the-kitchen">Hidden risks in the kitchen</h2>



Cooking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-waste-can-be-used-for-fresher-safer-produce/">shellfish</a> thoroughly destroys live bacteria, but plasmid DNA may survive and flow into wastewater systems.



Consumers should handle raw imported seafood with the same caution they would raw poultry. This includes washing hands, sanitizing cutting boards, and avoiding cross-contamination with ready-to-eat foods. Yet individual diligence cannot solve a systemic problem.



The study shows that antimicrobial resistance is no longer confined to hospitals or far-off farms - it can ride quietly into suburban kitchens on ice. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-health-warning">A global health warning</h2>



If policymakers act swiftly, the United States can reinforce its defenses by updating import regulations and requiring genetic testing for high-risk resistance genes. It can also partner with exporting nations to curb antibiotic misuse.



For now, Kassem’s message is a wake-up call. Colistin remains a critical, if imperfect, guardian against multidrug-resistant infections.



Allowing its defenses to erode - even incrementally - brings the world closer to a post-antibiotic era where routine surgeries and minor wounds become life-threatening. 



The microbes in our seafood are sending a warning. Whether we heed it will shape the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/">global health</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/journal/msphere">mSphere</a>.



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Imported seafood is spreading antibiotic resistance genes

Some imported seafoods on American dinner plates are carrying an...

Scientists recently discovered that certain changes in the roots of teeth can reveal whether someone is a current or former smoker. 



This breakthrough came from a team at <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a>, working alongside scientists from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>. Their findings could offer powerful tools for both forensic science and archaeology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-teeth-can-tell-us">What teeth can tell us</h2>



Your teeth aren’t just for chewing. They carry a hidden timeline of your life. Teeth are made up of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-holds-a-record-of-human-health/">enamel</a>, dentine, and cementum. 



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/cementum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cementum</a> is the hard tissue that coats the tooth’s root, and it grows in layers - similar to the way trees deposit annual growth rings. Every year, a new layer forms.



The research team originally set out to use these cementum rings to estimate a person’s age. That kind of analysis can help identify victims of disasters when DNA samples aren’t available.



“By looking at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-reveal-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-a-forest/">growth rings</a> in the teeth, we can also estimate a person’s age when the tooth was removed, or when they died,” said Dr. Ed Schwalbe, coauthor and professor in the Faculty of Health and Life Sciences at Northumbria University.



“Together, this information could help identify unknown individuals - such as disaster victims or those buried in mass graves - and offer new tools for forensic and historical investigations,” he confirmed.



But they also found something unexpected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-marks-teeth-as-well">Smoking marks teeth as well</h2>



They examined 88 teeth from both living dental patients and archaeological remains. In many cases, the cementum rings weren’t smooth and regular. Some had disruptions - changes in thickness or shape that didn’t line up with the typical growth pattern.



They looked more closely. These disruptions weren’t random. They were consistently found in the teeth of people who smoked or used to smoke.



“Our research shows that it’s possible to tell if someone was a smoker just by examining their teeth,” said Dr. Schwalbe. 



“We found that the regular annual deposition of rings was disrupted for some individuals and realised that these disruptions were associated with current or ex-smokers, but were very rare in non-smokers.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-s-undeniable-signature-in-teeth">Smoking's undeniable signature in teeth</h2>



In teeth from former <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smokers-have-weaker-hearts-that-pump-less-blood/">smokers</a>, the team saw thick layers of cementum built up over disrupted rings. They believe that when someone quits <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-at-any-age-brings-big-and-immediate-health-benefits/">smoking</a>, the cementum begins to return to a normal growth pattern, forming denser layers on top of the older, damaged ones. 



That may explain why ex-smokers’ teeth showed thicker cementum than was found in the teeth of current smokers.



The numbers were striking. Disrupted cementum appeared in 70% of ex-smokers and 33% of current smokers - but in only 3% of people who had never smoked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/smoking_teeth-stains-damage_cementum-rings_credit-NorthumbriaU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/smoking_teeth-stains-damage_cementum-rings_credit-NorthumbriaU_1s.webp" alt="Example of smoking damage in an archaeological tooth. The magnified image shows variations in the tooth's cementum rings from smoking. Credit: Northumbria University" class="wp-image-1975125"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Example of smoking damage in an archaeological tooth. The magnified image shows variations in the tooth's cementum rings from smoking. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Northumbria University</figcaption></figure>



“We compared the cemental deposition of smokers, ex-smokers and non-smokers visually and statistically to identify irregularities that were potentially connected to smoking activity,” said Dr. Valentina Perrone, lead author on the study. 



“We found that individuals with a history of smoking - whether as a current or former smoker – were significantly more likely to have disruption to their cementum than those who did not."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quitting-doesn-t-remove-smoking-markers">Quitting doesn't remove smoking markers</h2>



The study included 46 living participants who needed teeth extracted as part of routine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brushing-your-teeth-regularly-can-prevent-deadly-liver-disease/">dental care</a>. In one standout case, a participant’s tooth showed damage estimated to have occurred between the ages of 22 and 41.



When the researchers reviewed the patient’s history, they found that the individual, who was aged 58 at the time, had smoked between the ages of 28 and 38.



That matched the evidence exactly.



“Smoking is known to have a systemic impact on the body and numerous studies have highlighted the correlation between smoking, <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/periodontitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20354473" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">periodontitis</a> and tooth loss,” Dr Perrone added. 



“This study shows, for the first time, the biological record of smoking-related oral health damage within the dental structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-from-past-centuries">Echoes from past centuries</h2>



To test whether these markers of smoking could be found in much older remains, the team worked with Dr. Sarah Inskip, UKRI Fellow at the University of Leicester’s School of Archaeology and Ancient History. They examined 18 archaeological teeth dating from between 1776 and 1890.



Some of these teeth came from individuals known to have smoked. Signs included discoloration and even physical notches worn into the teeth by clay pipes.



Even after centuries underground, the cementum in those teeth still bore the same disruption patterns as found in the teeth of modern smokers.



“This could help us learn more about people’s lifestyles in the past, especially in archaeological studies where patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/">tobacco</a> use can reveal important cultural insights,” said Dr. Schwalbe.



“The identification of 'smoking damage' in archaeological teeth opens up further avenues to understand how the long-term consumption of tobacco in populations has affected our health through time,” Dr. Inskip added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-teeth-don-t-lie">Your teeth don’t lie</h2>



These findings show that even if someone quits smoking, their teeth may carry the evidence for life. 



That insight has major implications - not just for understanding personal health histories, but for reconstructing the lives of people long gone.



The next time you smile, remember that your teeth are holding a history of some of your lifestyle choices.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0323812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Smoking leaves permanent traces in teeth deep below the surface - a new forensic

Scientists recently discovered that certain changes in the roots of...

A potential single-dose vaccine might be closer than we think. Scientists say it could one day protect against viruses like HIV or COVID-19 without the need for repeat shots. 



The secret? Pairing two immune-boosting ingredients - called adjuvants - in the same formula.



In a recent study with mice, researchers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (<a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIT</a>) and the <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scripps Research Institute</a> showed how this dual-adjuvant strategy triggered a much broader immune response than standard vaccines. 



The mix helped the body produce a wider variety of antibodies, offering stronger, longer-lasting protection from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mild-obesity-linked-to-greater-risk-of-severe-covid-19-infection/">infection</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adjuvants-matter-in-single-dose-vaccines">Adjuvants matter in single-dose vaccines</h2>



Adjuvants are added to many vaccines to help fire up the immune system. They don’t act on the virus directly, but they do help your body learn to recognize and fight it. 



One common adjuvant is alum (aluminum hydroxide), and it is used in vaccines for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-cases-of-hepatitis-detected-in-the-us-and-europe/">hepatitis</a> A and B. It boosts the immune system by activating the body’s first line of defense.



Years ago, scientists at Scripps created another adjuvant using saponin, a compound from the bark of the Chilean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soap-bark-tree-discovery-could-revolutionize-vaccine-production/">soapbark tree</a>. 



This adjuvant, when packaged into tiny particles, along with another immune stimulator (MPLA), showed even better results.



That combo, known as SMNP, is already being tested in an HIV vaccine in human trials.



The team decided to test what would happen if they combined alum and SMNP in a single-dose vaccine. The result? An even more powerful immune response against both HIV and SARS-CoV-2.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-single-dose-vaccine-sticks-around">Single-dose vaccine sticks around</h2>



For the new study, researchers focused on how these two adjuvants work together. They used a protein from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/">HIV</a> called MD39 as their target and stuck dozens of these proteins to alum particles, along with SMNP.



When injected into mice, this enhanced vaccine headed straight for the lymph nodes. These small structures are where immune cells, like B cells, train to recognize invaders. 



Inside the lymph nodes, B cells mutate rapidly to make stronger, more precise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-antibodies-are-adapting-to-fight-emerging-covid-variants/">antibodies</a>. This training happens in special clusters called germinal centers.



The scientists found that their vaccine was able to slip through the protective shell around the lymph nodes and stay intact. It remained inside for almost a month - a long time in immune system terms. That allowed B cells to keep working and improving their antibody response.



“As a result, the B cells that are cycling in the lymph nodes are constantly being exposed to the antigen over that time period, and they get the chance to refine their solution to the antigen,” said J. Christopher Love,&nbsp;the Raymond A. and Helen E. St. Laurent Professor of Chemical Engineering at MIT. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wider-arsenal-of-antibodies">Wider arsenal of antibodies</h2>



To understand the impact, the team used single-cell RNA sequencing to analyze the B cells from the vaccinated mice. 



The group that received both adjuvants in a single-dose vaccine showed a much more diverse set of B cells and antibodies.



They had two to three times more unique B cells than mice that got just one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-covid-vaccine-is-safe-and-effective/">adjuvant</a>.



That matters. The more diverse the antibodies, the better the chances of being effective against different strains of a virus, like HIV, that mutates constantly.



“When you think about the immune system sampling all of the possible solutions, the more chances we give it to identify an effective solution, the better,” Love explained. 



“Generating broadly neutralizing antibodies is something that likely requires both the kind of approach that we showed here, to get that strong and diversified response, as well as antigen design to get the right part of the immunogen shown,” he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toward-a-one-and-done-vaccine">Toward a one-and-done vaccine</h2>



This approach could simplify vaccine schedules. Instead of needing multiple doses, a single shot might be enough.



“What’s potentially powerful about this approach is that you can achieve long-term exposures based on a combination of adjuvants that are already reasonably well-understood, so it doesn’t require a different technology. It’s just combining features of these adjuvants to enable low-dose or potentially even single-dose treatments,” Love concluded.



The research points to a future of smarter vaccines - and fewer needles.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/scitranslmed.adw7499" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Translational Medicine</a>.



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A smarter shot: Scientists explore single-dose vaccine power

A potential single-dose vaccine might be closer than we think....

If you logged onto your bank account this morning, the security protocols still seem secure - but things are changing quickly in the tech world. A team in China just showed that the math behind RSA encryption is starting to bend to the will of the quantum realm. 



Using a <a href="https://docs.dwavequantum.com/en/latest/quantum_research/quantum_annealing_intro.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum annealing processor</a> built by D‑Wave Systems, the researchers say they factored a 22‑bit RSA integer that had resisted earlier attempts on the same class of hardware. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/scientific-contributions/Chao-Wang-2171190355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wang Chao</a> and colleagues at Shanghai University carried out the experiment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rsa-s-reputation-for-toughness">RSA's reputation for toughness</h2>



When <a href="https://65610.csail.mit.edu/2023/lec/l13-rsa.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">RSA encryption</a> debuted in 1977 it was lauded for tying security to the difficulty of splitting a large semiprime into its two prime factors . 



Classic computers still need sub‑exponential time to break today’s 2048‑bit keys, and the largest key so far cracked with conventional methods is only 829 bits (RSA‑250) after weeks on a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-ai-framework-dimon-turning-any-laptop-into-a-supercomputer/">supercomputer</a>.



“Using the D‑Wave Advantage, we successfully factored a 22‑bit RSA integer, demonstrating the potential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-put-into-silicon-chip-may-be-holy-grail-for-error-proof-quantum-computing/">quantum machines</a> to tackle cryptographic problems,” the authors wrote. 



The group translated factorization into a Quadratic Unconstrained Binary Optimization problem, which the D‑Wave Advantage system solves by letting qubits tunnel through energy barriers seeking the lowest energy state. 



They also applied the same method to <a href="https://how.dev/answers/what-are-substitution-permutation-networks" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Substitution–Permutation Network ciphers</a> such as <a href="https://www.iacr.org/archive/ches2007/47270450/47270450.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Present</a> and <a href="https://eprint.iacr.org/2014/084.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rectangle</a>, calling it “the first time that a real quantum computer has posed a substantial threat to multiple full‑scale SPN structured algorithms in use today.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-twenty-two-bits-still-matter">Twenty‑two bits still matter</h2>



A 22‑bit key is trivially small compared with production‑grade RSA, yet the test matters because the approach scaled beyond past demonstrations that stopped at 19 bits and required more qubits per variable. 



Reducing the local‑field and coupling coefficients in the Ising model cut noise, letting the annealer reach correct factors more often and hinting at paths to bigger keys, according to the paper.



“The advancement of quantum computers can seriously threaten data security and privacy for various enterprises,” warned <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/prabhjyot-kaur-b7a006222/?originalSubdomain=in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prabhjyot Kaur</a> of analyst firm <a href="https://www.everestgrp.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Everest Group</a>, who was not involved in the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-annealing-vs-shor-s-promise">Annealing vs. Shor’s promise</h2>



Universal, gate‑based quantum machines run <a href="https://www.quera.com/glossary/shors-algorithm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shor’s algorithm</a>, which in principle can shred RSA by finding the period of modular exponentiation in polynomial time. 



Those devices still struggle with error correction, while <a href="https://docs.dwavequantum.com/en/latest/quantum_research/quantum_annealing_intro.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">D‑Wave’s annealers</a>, though not universal, already pack more than 5000 qubits and avoid deep circuits by using a chilling 15 mK environment and analog evolution.



Annealing excels at combinatorial optimization, so the Shanghai team reframed factoring as that type of search problem instead of using Shor’s period‑finding route. 



The strategy sidesteps current qubit‑count limits of gate machines but pays a price in exponential scaling, which is why only a 22‑bit modulus fell this time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-policy-clock-keeps-ticking">The policy clock keeps ticking</h2>



Standards bodies are not waiting. In August 2024 NIST released FIPS 203, 204 and 205, the first federal standards for post‑quantum cryptography based on lattice problems, and in March 2025 it selected HQC for the next wave.&nbsp;



A White House event framing the publication urged <a href="https://www.axios.com/2024/08/13/nist-post-quantum-cryptography-encryption" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. agencies</a> to begin swapping vulnerable keys because adversaries may already be hoarding encrypted data for “hack now, decrypt later” attacks.



“Businesses must treat cryptographic renewal like a multi‑year infrastructure project,” the <a href="https://deloitte.wsj.com/cio/nists-postquantum-cryptography-standards-this-is-the-start-of-the-race-6e279b49" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wall Street Journal’s CIO briefing</a> noted when the final standards neared release last year. Corporate technology leaders echoed that sense of urgency.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rsa-vs-quantum-cracking">RSA vs. quantum cracking</h2>



Most businesses haven’t yet updated their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baffling-quantum-entanglement-statistics-puzzle-finally-solved-advanced-technologies/">cryptography</a> inventories, and many don’t even know which algorithms their systems depend on. 



Security experts recommend starting with an internal audit to identify all uses of RSA, ECC, and other vulnerable algorithms before building a replacement plan.



While full migration may take years, organizations can begin by testing quantum-safe libraries such as <a href="https://openquantumsafe.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Open Quantum Safe</a>, deploying hybrid key exchange methods.



Integrating crypto-agility - the ability to swap <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/escaping-dead-zones-in-the-barren-plateau-of-quantum-computing/">cryptographic algorithms</a> without reengineering entire systems - is also a good option. This makes future upgrades less painful as new standards arrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next-and-what-to-watch">What comes next and what to watch</h2>



Large‑key RSA is still safe today, yet the study shows that hardware improvements and smarter embeddings keep shaving away at the gap. 



D‑Wave plans a <a href="https://support.dwavesys.com/hc/en-us/articles/6820989477911-What-Is-the-Zephyr-Topology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zephyr‑topology processor</a> with more than 7000 qubits later this year, and each topology upgrade improves connectivity, which in turn reduces the number of physical qubits needed per logical variable.



Cryptographers, meanwhile, recommend adopting hybrid schemes that wrap lattice‑based algorithms such as <a href="https://eprint.iacr.org/2017/634.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CRYSTALS‑Kyber</a> around classical RSA signatures to provide forward secrecy during the transition period. 



Organizations holding sensitive data for decades, health records, genomic files, diplomatic cables, have the most to lose if they wait until a full‑scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-put-into-silicon-chip-may-be-holy-grail-for-error-proof-quantum-computing/">quantum</a> computer arrives.



Some observers point out that the Shanghai result relied on heavy classical pre‑ and post‑processing, and that the annealer still required many runs to locate the right factors. 



Even so, history shows that cryptanalytic proofs of concept rarely stay small: DES fell to a $250,000 machine in 1998 only four years after the first partial cracks surfaced.



The study is published in the <a href="https://cirics.uqo.ca/chinese-researchers-break-rsa-encryption-with-a-quantum-computer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Journal of Computers</a>.



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China breaks RSA encryption with a quantum computer, threatening global data security

If you logged onto your bank account this morning, the...

Ever found yourself glued to a playground spat, wondering what started it? You’re not alone. This common habit reflects our natural social curiosity, a deeply rooted instinct we share with chimpanzees.



A new cross-species study shows both children and chimpanzees enjoy watching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-pressure-alters-how-you-make-decisions/">social</a> scenes more than solo performances, even when there’s something to lose.



Researchers found that curiosity about social life isn’t uniquely human. It likely helped our species build trust, choose allies, and survive in group settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-minds-and-social-curiosity">Young minds and social curiosity</h2>



The study tested 94 children aged 4 to 6 and 27 chimpanzees living at the Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary. 



The researchers used two boxes, each showing a video: one with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-pressure-is-straining-teen-friendships/">social</a> interaction (like grooming, playing, or arguing), and another with an individual acting alone. Both kids and chimps spent more time with the social videos.



Statistical models showed strong effects. Chimpanzees watched social videos an average of 6.97 seconds, compared to 4.19 seconds for nonsocial ones. 



Kids showed an even stronger pattern, watching social videos for about 14 seconds versus just under 10 for the nonsocial ones.



Study lead author Dr. Laura Simone Lewis is an expert in developmental and evolutionary psychology at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California in Santa Barbara</a>.



“After years of observing both children and chimpanzees sometimes jumping up in the middle of research games to observe their peers, the research team was inspired to pursue a new social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-activity-may-delay-the-onset-of-dementia-by-years/">avenue</a> in the blossoming field of curiosity research,” noted Dr. Lewis. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-info-over-rewards">Social info over rewards</h2>



The second experiment tested if participants would pay a cost for curiosity. For chimps, that meant giving up jackfruit seeds. For kids, it meant skipping a chance to earn marbles. Some, especially younger kids and male chimps, chose the social videos over the rewards.



The study showed 4-year-old children stayed longer at the video box in the social condition, while older children preferred the reward. Male chimps spent over 7.6 seconds watching the social video, significantly more than in the no-info condition.



“These findings mean social curiosity emerges early in human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gen-ai-and-social-media-divert-peoples-attention-from-climate-crisis/">development</a> and is shared with one of our closest living cousins, the chimpanzees,” said Dr. Lewis. 



“Our strong interest in the lives of others, think gossip magazines and celebrity shows, seems to have deep evolutionary roots in our great ape lineage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-or-positive-age-and-gender-matter">Negative or positive? Age and gender matter</h2>



In the third experiment, researchers tested interest in positive versus negative social content. Positive videos showed playing and grooming. Negative ones featured arguments or crying.



Chimpanzees didn’t care much either way. But in children, patterns emerged with age and gender. 



Younger boys watched more positive interactions. Older boys preferred negative ones. Girls, by contrast, leaned more toward positive content as they aged.



“This study tells us that curiosity about what others are doing, what you might call being a bit nosey, starts young and runs deep," noted study co-author Dr. Esther Herrmann.



"It’s probably something that helps not only us but also our closest living relatives to survive and thrive in complex social groups."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-curiosity-helps-us-survive">Social curiosity helps us survive</h2>



Social curiosity has clear benefits. It helps identify allies, threats, and opportunities without risk. Watching others helps us learn who to trust, what behaviors lead to success, and how relationships shift.



Children and chimps weren’t just seeking stimulation. They were seeking information. One possible reason is that a video with two agents contains more data than a solo video. Observers learn about both individuals and their relationship.



The study also suggests that male chimps may be more attentive to conflicts because they initiate the majority of them in the wild. Female chimps, who generally avoid conflict, showed less interest in aggressive videos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next?</h2>



The researchers suggest testing curiosity across different cultures, ages, and other great apes like bonobos or orangutans. 



Future work could explore how social roles, friendships, or dominance influence curiosity. Larger samples of young chimpanzees could also help compare developmental trajectories.



Curiosity is a tool that helps us build friendships, avoid danger, and understand the social web we live in. Whether at a zoo or on a playground, curiosity serves the same goal: making sense of the world through others.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2242" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Social curiosity starts young and helps us survive

Ever found yourself glued to a playground spat, wondering what...

As Earth’s temperature rises, nature begins to shift. Butterflies, along with many animals and plants, now move north into places that were once too cold. Scientists are closely watching this trend to see how evolution shapes these movements - and where it might fall short.



A new study focuses on wall brown butterflies, which offer big clues about the role of evolution in climate-driven movement. Researchers wanted to know how much change the species could manage on its own



The research reveals that while evolution helps, it has its limits. Temperature remains a gatekeeper, keeping some places off-limits despite warming trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-adapt-as-they-move-north">Butterflies adapt as they move north</h2>



The wall brown (Lasiommata megera) is a grassland <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-hovering-technique-could-revolutionize-drone-design/">butterfly</a> found across Europe. In recent decades, it has become more common in parts of Scandinavia. Yet it has declined sharply in Western Europe. 



The butterfly's success in the north is not random. It has changed its life cycle to suit longer days and different seasonal patterns.



Mats Ittonen is one of the lead authors of the study, which was conducted by researchers in the Department of Zoology at <a href="https://www.su.se/english/education">Stockholm University</a>.



“Our results show that even though the butterflies adapt their life cycle as they move northwards, there are limits that evolution cannot easily overcome,” said Ittonen. 



Evolution seems to help the species match new environments. In particular, it allows the butterfly to respond to cues that remain steady, like the number of daylight hours. 



These cues are important because they guide dormancy and development. Still, not everything can change easily. Winters in northern regions continue to block further movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-evolution-help-butterflies-survive">Does evolution help butterflies survive?</h2>



To explore how the wall brown has changed over time, the researchers carried out detailed field experiments. They collected butterflies from both southern and northern parts of Sweden.



The southern group came from Skåne county. The northern group came from Södermanland and Uppland counties. Then, they placed the butterflies in cages in three places: Skåne, Södermanland, and southern Dalarna.



The goal was to see how each group fared when exposed to identical environmental conditions. 



Dalarna sits just beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/">species</a>’ current northern range. If butterflies from northern populations could survive there, it would suggest they had evolved better survival traits. The study looked at growth rate, timing of winter dormancy, and survival through the cold months.



“We wanted to know whether traits like faster growth, properly timed winter dormancy, and improved winter survival have evolved in northern butterflies, traits that could help them establish even further north,” said Professor Karl Gotthard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-improved-some-butterfly-traits">Evolution improved some butterfly traits</h2>



The findings showed that northern caterpillars did indeed grow faster. Summers are shorter in higher latitudes, so a quicker life cycle helps. They also entered dormancy at the right time. 



But these advantages did not translate into long-term survival. When winter came, the caterpillars in Dalarna struggled. Most did not make it.



The researchers concluded that even though evolution had helped improve some of the butterfly's traits, it had not yet solved the problem of cold resistance. 



Insects need more than just good timing and growth to thrive through northern winters. Without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/">traits</a> that guard against extreme cold, they simply cannot expand further.



“These kinds of limits are important to recognize if we want to predict how far north other species, including pests and disease vectors, will be able to move in a future climate,” said Professor Gotthard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reality-of-environmental-pressures">The reality of environmental pressures</h2>



This study reveals something important about climate adaptation. Evolution can move quickly in insects, but it doesn’t always improve the right traits. 



Speed and timing matter, but without the ability to survive freezing temperatures, further expansion becomes impossible. Warmer summers help, but they do not guarantee success unless winters also become milder.



The butterflies serve as a reminder that not all environmental pressures can be overcome easily. Natural selection works with what’s available. 



If key genes for cold tolerance are rare or slow to spread, progress will stall. That seems to be the case with the wall brown butterfly. It has changed, but not enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-other-species">What this means for other species</h2>



Many insect species have shifted their ranges in the past few decades. Sweden, in particular, has seen a steady rise in insect diversity further north. But each species carries its own set of traits and limits. What works for one may not work for another.



“The wall brown is far from alone. Many other insect species have also expanded northward over the past few decades, both in Sweden and elsewhere," said Ittonen.



"Understanding both which traits evolve and which ones actually set the limits for where species can live is essential for predicting the future of ecosystems and biodiversity in a warming world."



If winters remain harsh, many species will hit similar boundaries. Their success will depend not just on temperature trends, but on how fast and in what direction evolution works. 



Predicting this will require close studies like this one, where fieldwork meets biology to trace nature’s next move.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-the-edges-of-change">Watching the edges of change</h2>



The story of evolution in wall brown butterflies shows how nature reacts to climate change in small, careful steps. Evolution offers a path forward, but it is not a magic key. Cold winters still act as a wall. 



As climate change continues, scientists must ask not only if species can adapt, but whether those adaptations come in time.



For the wall brown and many others, survival at the edge depends not just on warming trends but also on biological timing, hidden traits, and chance. 



The cold sets a limit. And evolution, though powerful, sometimes stops short of breaking through.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418392122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Butterflies can adapt quickly - but evolution has its limits

As Earth’s temperature rises, nature begins to shift. Butterflies, along...

Scientists have found that a common parasite might have a bigger impact on brain function than we previously realized - even when it infects only a few cells.



Most people who carry the parasite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasite-makes-infected-people-look-more-attractive/">Toxoplasma gondii</a> never even realize. It can hide in the brain for years without causing any symptoms.



A new study from researchers at the University of California, Riverside sheds light on how this microscopic intruder messes with the brain’s communication system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-parasite-does-in-brain-cells">What the parasite does in brain cells</h2>



Toxoplasma gondii is able to infect almost any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-and-birds-became-warm-blooded-after-surviving-a-mass-extinction/">warm-blooded</a> animal, including humans. It tends to settle in the brain, where it forms long-lasting cysts inside neurons. Once there, it can stay dormant for decades.



Using both mouse models and human cells, the researchers found that infected neurons release fewer extracellular vesicles - small packets used by cells to pass information. This breakdown in communication can have ripple effects throughout the brain.



Emma H. Wilson, a professor of biomedical sciences in the <a href="https://medschool.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside School of Medicine,</a> led the research team. 



“We found this disruption in EV signaling can interfere with how neurons and glial cells, especially astrocytes, maintain a healthy brain environment,” said Professor Wilson. “Even a handful of infected neurons can shift the brain’s neurochemical balance."



"This suggests that communication between neurons and supporting glial cells is not only critical, but also vulnerable to hijacking by parasites.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-common-infection-with-hidden-risks">A common infection with hidden risks</h2>



About 10–30% of people in the U.S. are estimated to be infected with Toxoplasma gondii. The parasite is usually picked up from eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worrying-levels-of-antibiotic-resistance-found-in-uncooked-meats/">undercooked meat</a> or contact with cat feces.



While a healthy immune system keeps it in check, it can become dangerous in people with weakened immunity, such as those undergoing chemotherapy or living with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/">HIV</a>.



Current tests can only show if someone has been exposed by detecting antibodies. They can’t tell if the parasite is still in the brain or whether it’s affecting brain health.



According to Professor Wilson, the research opens the door to using EVs as biomarkers, which can be isolated from blood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-brain-chemistry-breaks-down">When brain chemistry breaks down</h2>



Professor Wilson explained that in healthy mouse brains, astrocytes help keep neurotransmitters like glutamate in balance, preventing neurons from becoming overexcited.



But when Toxoplasma gondii infects neurons and disrupts their EV signaling, that balance is lost. Glutamate levels rise, which can lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-is-more-likely-to-cause-seizures-than-the-flu/">seizures</a>, neural damage, or changes in brain connectivity.



“The parasite may play a larger role in neurological and behavioral conditions than we previously thought,” said Professor Wilson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-clues-and-future-treatments">Blood clues and future treatments</h2>



The research team is now analyzing human blood samples to search for EVs that could signal a Toxoplasma gondii brain infection.



They are also working to understand how glial cells sense and respond to parasite proteins. This knowledge could one day lead to new treatments - or even a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-influenza-vaccine-could-offer-lifetime-immunity/">vaccine</a>.



“Our brains have built-in defenses that may recognize and respond to neurons infected by Toxoplasma gondii,” noted Professor Wilson. “If we can learn how to support or enhance that process, we may be able to better protect people, especially the most vulnerable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-the-public">What this means for the public</h2>



Despite its potential effects, the parasite is often misunderstood. “There’s no need to avoid someone who is infected; most people live their entire lives without symptoms,” said Professor Wilson.



 “Pregnant individuals should be cautious as the parasite can cause serious birth defects if contracted for the first time during pregnancy."



The most effective prevention is proper food handling and hygiene. "Cook meat thoroughly, wash vegetables, and always wash your hands after handling cat litter, especially from young cats, which are more likely to shed the parasite."



This research doesn’t mean everyone needs to panic. But it does mean we should take this tiny parasite seriously - not just because of what it does when active, but because of how it quietly changes the way brain cells talk to each other. 



Understanding those changes may eventually help protect millions of people living with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-can-hide-in-lung-cells-and-cause-chronic-disease/">chronic infections</a> they never knew they had.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1012733">PLOS Pathogens</a>.



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Common parasite may be affecting your brain without symptoms

Scientists have found that a common parasite might have a...

Rust eats away at iron in bridges, ships, and garage tools. It turns strong metal into flaky, reddish-brown dust. If left unchecked, this corrosion costs the global economy around <a href="https://inspectioneering.com/news/2016-03-08/5202/nace-study-estimates-global-cost-of-corrosion-at-25-trillion-ann" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">$2.5 trillion</a> each year. 



Professor Elad Gross and his team at the <a href="https://www.studyinjerusalem.com/?utm_source=google&amp;utm_medium=cpc&amp;utm_campaign=US%20ALO%20Google%20Search&amp;utm_content=Brand&amp;gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=21498753725&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw097CBhDIARIsAJ3-nxdh8hG35m15XlYauLeFiKVEP5YIWdcJotvnBO5b3VViQjWGqO6T_LAaAlf5EALw_wcB">Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a> have now developed a coating that sticks - and protects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-iron-ore-deposits-reveal-a-1-3-billion-year-old-secret/">iron</a> for longer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rust-weakens-iron-and-costs-billions">Rust weakens iron and costs billions</h2>



When a gate creaks or a car panel bubbles, we see the surface trouble, yet industries feel the deeper sting through unplanned shutdowns and heavier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-found-the-worlds-largest-iron-ore-deposit/">designs</a>. 



Builders and ship owners pour money into maintenance crews and thicker steel plates, just to buy safety margins.



Iron anchors modern infrastructure because it is strong, workable, and cheap. Unfortunately, oxygen and moisture turn its skin into brittle oxide, exposing the fresh metal beneath.



Protective paints, <a href="https://galvanizeit.org/hot-dip-galvanizing/what-is-zinc" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">zinc galvanizing</a>, and polymer wraps slow the cycle. Even so, salt spray, ultraviolet light, and thermal swings open pinholes that let water creep in. 



A single weak spot starts an electrochemical cell that accelerates decay. Inspections, sandblasting, and repainting follow, adding cost and downtime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-coatings-don-t-stick-well-to-iron">Old coatings don’t stick well to iron</h2>



Traditional primers hinge on sulfur‑based molecules that bond firmly to noble <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iron-was-lifes-first-essential-metal-and-shaped-early-evolution/">metals</a> yet break down on iron. Organic polymers form thick films but rarely achieve the chemical grip needed to survive abrasion and flexing.



Ceramic layers, sol‑gels, and graphene sheets each solve one piece of the problem, yet introduce production hurdles such as high heat conditions or exotic precursors.&nbsp;



A 2024 <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214785324004851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> of polymer barriers called poor adhesion the main bottleneck for long service. Gross’s team approached the problem from the bottom up by giving the polymer something to hold onto.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-iron-coating-sticks-better-lasts-longer">New iron coating sticks better, lasts longer </h2>



The new recipe begins with a one‑molecule‑thick primer of <a href="https://baranlab.org//images/grpmtgpdf/Eastman_May_07.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">N‑heterocyclic carbene (NHC)</a>, a species that bonds strongly to metals. 



Crudden and coworkers showed in 2014 that NHC films on gold shrug off boiling water and strong acids far better than do thiols. 



The process developed by Gross and colleagues involves electrodepositing a <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24755592/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">self‑assembled monolayer</a> of <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/80662" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benzNHC</a> across the iron surface. 



Next comes a spin‑coated layer of bisphenol‑A ethoxylate diacrylate that locks into a cross‑linked polymer network (<a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsomega.3c09042" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CPN</a>) under ultraviolet light.



“This discovery offers a major leap forward in protecting iron from corrosion,” said Professor Gross, the study’s senior author. He stressed that the primer’s chemistry is what keeps the overcoat anchored in place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-salt-tests-show-strong-rust-protection">Salt tests show strong rust protection</h2>



Engineers test anti‑rust films in 3.5 wt % sodium chloride, a seawater mimic recommended by <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-6412/12/3/344" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ASTM G44</a>. Gross compared bare iron, iron with only CPN, iron with only NHC, and iron with the duplex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/">system</a>.



Bare substrates corroded fast, and the single‑layer samples offered modest relief. The NHC + CPN combo, however, slashed corrosion current by more than two orders of magnitude and shifted the corrosion potential 475 mV toward the noble side. 



That translates to 99.6 % rust protection after a full day in saltwater. Importantly, the film did not blister, peel, or crack during electrochemical cycling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peeking-inside-with-focused-beams">Peeking inside with focused beams</h2>



The group turned to focused ion beam–scanning electron microscopy (<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0300944017301182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FIB‑SEM</a>) to expose the hidden interface, a technique valued for its precision cross‑sections. Images showed an 11.8‑micron polymer layer clinging to NHC‑primed iron, even after testing.



A control sample lacking the primer lost nearly half its polymer and displayed voids where salt had invaded. 



X‑ray photoelectron and Raman spectra still carried NHC and ester signatures, confirming covalent bonding rather than weak physical contact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-iron-coating-has-many-benefits">New iron coating has many benefits</h2>



Shipyards schedule dry‑dock visits years ahead because a three‑day coating job costs more than a transoceanic fuel bill. Extending intervals by even one season could save operators millions. 



Bridges and concrete rebar stand to gain as well. Coated bars resist chloride attack for longer, delaying cracking and spalling that demand disruptive repairs.



The primer deposits at room temperature and flows with electric field lines, so odd‑shaped parts and internal channels are within reach.&nbsp;



The polymer uses commercial monomers and standard UV lamps, which eases adoption on existing production lines. 



Environmental gains stack on top of the economic ones. Fewer recoating cycles mean less abrasive grit, solvent fumes, and steel scrap heading to landfills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-upgrades-could-expand-its-uses">Future upgrades could expand its uses</h2>



Gross thinks tweaking the polymer recipe could adjust flexibility, tint, or conductivity for specific sectors. Early trials hint that low‑alloy steels and cast iron accept the primer as well, though each will need its own optimization.



Future studies will probe scratch healing, antifouling additives, and accelerated weathering under UV‑ozone lamps. The team also plans to explore varied electrolyte chemistries for chemical plants.



If those efforts pan out, the humble nail might one day rival stainless steel for staying power, without the nickel price tag.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/anie.202422879" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angewandte Chemie International Edition</a>.



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New coating makes iron almost completely rust resistant

Rust eats away at iron in bridges, ships, and garage...

For centuries, scientists have tried to understand how sharks and other animals grow and function as they increase in size. 



At the heart of this inquiry lies a simple geometric principle: surface area grows more slowly than volume. The "two-thirds scaling law" captures this relationship, suggesting that surface area scales with volume to the power of 2/3. 



While the idea is elegant, proving it in large, complex animals like sharks has been a challenge.



Now, a new study led by researchers from James Cook University (JCU) and the <a href="https://www.umass.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts</a> offers compelling proof that this rule holds true for one of the most diverse and ancient animal groups on the planet - sharks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-grow-by-the-rules">Sharks grow by the rules</h2>



Using digital models of 54 shark species, the team uncovered remarkable consistency in how these animals scale in size. Their work not only strengthens a foundational principle in biology but also reveals hidden constraints that may shape evolution itself.



“We found that sharks follow what's known as the 'two-thirds scaling law' almost perfectly,” said Joel Gayford, lead author and PhD candidate at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JCU</a>.



This means that as the body of a shark gets larger, the surface area increases in a predictable way based on their volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-models-map-the-shark-s-body">3D models map the shark's body</h2>



The team created high-resolution 3D meshes from CT scans and photogrammetry of museum specimens. The models were cleaned and processed in Blender software to remove distortions caused by preservation. Surface area and volume were measured digitally for accuracy.



The sample ranged from the tiny&nbsp;Euprotomicrus bispinatus&nbsp;to the massive&nbsp;Rhincodon typus, the whale shark. Across these, the team observed nearly perfect adherence to the expected geometric rule. 



They scaled every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-sea-monster-shark-fossils-found-in-worlds-largest-cave-325-million-years/">species</a> to the same body length (500 cm) and still found minimal differences in surface area and volume. This step removed body length as a confounding factor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-scaling-stays-consistent">Shark scaling stays consistent</h2>



The study grouped sharks by habitat - pelagic, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-two-thirds-of-coral-reef-sharks-and-rays-face-extinction/">reef-associated</a>, demersal, and others. Most showed near-identical surface area-to-volume relationships. 



Only reef-associated sharks showed minor deviation, with a scaling exponent of 0.60. Pelagic sharks matched the theoretical 0.66 almost exactly.



The team also accounted for evolutionary history using phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) analysis. This ensured close relatives did not skew the results. Even after this, the average scaling value was just 0.64, only 3% off from 0.66.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-restricts-growth">Biology restricts growth</h2>



“This ratio is fundamental,” said Professor Jodie Rummer. “It underpins how animals breathe, regulate temperature, and process waste.” The near-perfect fit hints at deep-rooted evolutionary and developmental constraints.



Developmental limitations may prevent major changes in tissue distribution. Altering body geometry early in development is likely energy-intensive.



“Changing the way tissue is distributed throughout the body might require major changes during early embryonic development, and that's expensive, energetically speaking,” said Gayford.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-shape-stills-matters">Why shape stills matters</h2>



The two-thirds law is not just theoretical. It supports models predicting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/">animals</a> regulate heat, absorb oxygen, or respond to climate change. 



“Surface area-to-volume ratios are key inputs in equations used to model how animals respond to climate change,” said Gayford. These equations can now be applied with greater confidence to sharks and other large animals.



The authors also observed that surface area in sharks did not follow phylogenetic patterns as strongly as volume did. This suggests that surface area may be more flexible but still constrained by developmental factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-body-follows-deep-biology">Shark body follows deep biology</h2>



Despite massive variation in shark ecology and movement, some are sluggish bottom-dwellers and others fast-swimming predators, their surface-to-volume relationships stay constant. 



Even differences in shape and lifestyle do not seem to change the rule. That consistency points to deeper biological limits rather than ecological demands.



This study adds weight to the idea that body design follows strict physical and developmental rules. It also shows how new tools like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/">3D imaging</a> can answer long-standing questions in biology. 



Although researchers still need to explore the energy costs of body shape changes, this study lays a strong foundation.



Sharks obey the geometry of life, their body surfaces grow in lockstep with volume in a way that supports a basic biological law. The rule holds true across shape, size, and ecological function.



That’s a rare kind of simplicity in biology and one that might apply far beyond sharks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.242205" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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How the shark's body grows with geometric precision

For centuries, scientists have tried to understand how sharks and...

Thick, planet-wide blankets of clay are among the Red Planet’s most intriguing geological puzzles. Because clay forms only in the presence of abundant liquid water, scientists have long viewed these deposits as potential time capsules for ancient life.



A new study now paints a clearer picture of where, when, and how those mineral layers took shape.



Led by planetary geologist Rhianna Moore during her postdoctoral work at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">The University of Texas at Austin</a>, the team sifted through high-resolution images and topographic data for 150 previously cataloged clay outcrops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quiet-clay-terraces-on-mars">Quiet clay terraces on Mars</h2>



Thick clay deposits span across Mars and consistently show a surprising set of shared traits. Most sit at low elevations, adjacent to the vestiges of long-vanished lakes. Yet they remain distinctly removed from ancient river valleys that once carved the highlands.



“These areas have a lot of water but not a lot of topographic uplift, so they’re very stable,” Moore said. She added that such stability would have limited destructive erosion by fast-moving water. 



This would have allowed clays to accumulate layer upon layer rather than being scoured away.



“If you have stable terrain, you’re not messing up your potentially habitable environments. Favorable conditions might be able to be sustained for longer periods of time,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-earth-s-tropics"><a></a>Lessons From Earth’s tropics</h2>



Study co-author Tim Goudge, an assistant professor in <a href="https://eps.jsg.utexas.edu/">UT Austin’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a>, sees an echo of earthly analogues in Mars’ ancient past.



“On Earth, the places where we tend to see the thickest clay mineral sequences are in humid environments, and those with minimal physical erosion that can strip away newly created weathering products,” said Goudge.



The Martian patterns, he noted, match the latter half of that recipe almost perfectly. “These results suggest the latter element is true also on Mars, while there are hints at the former as well.”



Because Mars lacks plate tectonics, its surface doesn’t undergo the constant stirring seen on Earth. 



That relative stillness, combined with a clement climate billions of years ago, created quiet basins where rainfall and standing ponds could slowly break down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-volcanic-clues-hint-at-ancient-life-on-mars/">volcanic rock </a>into clay minerals. Violent floods didn’t sweep the new sediments away, allowing them to accumulate over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-carbonate-conundrum"><a></a>A carbonate conundrum</h2>



The same conditions that favored clay formation could also explain one of Mars’ long-standing mysteries: the scarcity of carbonate rocks.



On Earth, volcanic CO2 reacts with fresh basaltic crust, eventually locking carbon into sprawling beds of limestone and dolomite. But on Mars, with no tectonic conveyor belt to bring up fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-lava-worlds-magma-oceans-affect-the-evolution-of-hot-planets/">lava</a>, that cycle stalled.



Instead, the study proposes, CO2 may have remained aloft longer, warming the planet and further fueling slow, persistent weathering that built clays.



At the same time, by trapping byproducts of that weathering inside impermeable mineral layers, clay growth might have robbed the environment of ingredients needed to form carbonates in the first place.



“It’s probably one of many factors contributing to this weird lack of predicted carbonates on Mars,” Moore said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-life-friendly-conditions">Signs of life-friendly conditions</h2>



Taken together, the findings hint at expansive, placid watery habitats that persisted long enough to concentrate minerals - and perhaps organic molecules - essential for life.



Thick clays help astrobiologists by preserving biochemical evidence, protecting it from radiation and geological disruption.



Moore, now part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grow-plants-on-moon-by-2026-nasa-artemis-iii-mission/">NASA’s Artemis</a> program team, emphasized that the work grew out of <a href="https://habitability.utexas.edu/">UT Austin’s Center for Planetary Systems Habitability</a>, an initiative that crosses disciplinary boundaries to answer where life might arise beyond Earth.



By mapping mild, lake-adjacent clay basins, the study offers a shortlist of enticing targets for future rover missions or even human explorers looking for fossilized biosignatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conditions-where-life-may-have-thrived">Conditions where life may have thrived</h2>



Mars today is frigid and desiccated, but during the period when these clays formed - more than three billion years ago - it was likely dotted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-largest-lake-once-contained-an-enormous-amount-of-water/">lakes</a> and seas.



The new analysis suggests those bodies of water were not just transient puddles fed by catastrophic floods. Instead, long-lived, shallow basins may have hosted slow-unfolding chemical reactions over millennia.



Although valley networks delivered water downhill, the most extensive clay blankets on Mars avoided the valleys themselves. This is evidence that turbulence and sediment-choked streams were not the primary architects.



Instead, chemical dissolution - not physical abrasion - sculpted much of the ancient surface. That balance created calm, warm conditions where life might have thrived beneath a thicker, greenhouse-gas-rich atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-clays-for-clues">Probing clays for clues</h2>



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-rover-captured-driving-for-the-first-time/">orbiters</a> continuing to beam back ever finer data, researchers hope to refine models of how water cycled through early Mars. Drill cores from future missions could verify the age, chemistry, and longevity of the newly mapped clay fields.



Meanwhile, laboratories on Earth will experiment with simulated Martian conditions to test whether stable, low-energy ponds truly can yield the mineral fingerprints observed from space.



For now, the study suggests that Mars’ most promising habitats might not have been in raging river deltas. Instead, they may have been in quiet lakeshores where mud settled gently, season after season, sealing away the planet’s watery secrets - and perhaps its biological ones as well.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02584-w">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image Credit: Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UArizona



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Clay layers on Mars may have harbored ancient life

Thick, planet-wide blankets of clay are among the Red Planet’s...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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