<p>Most people think cancer becomes deadly when a tumor grows too large. But that’s not exactly true. In many cases, the real threat comes when cancer spreads. </p>



<p>This process, called metastasis, is responsible for the vast majority of cancer deaths. It’s not the tumor in one spot; it’s the new ones appearing in the brain, bones, or lungs that cause the damage.</p>



<p>Now, researchers have found something surprising: it might not be the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-activated-molecules-kill-cancer-cells-with-precision/">cancer cells</a> themselves that decide to spread. It could be the journey they take through the body. Being squeezed through the body’s tiniest blood vessels may transform them into a more dangerous version of themselves.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-cancer-cells-in-tight-spaces">Testing cancer cells in tight spaces</h2>



<p>Our blood vessels get incredibly narrow, especially in the capillaries - tiny tubes just wide enough for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-blood-cells-found-to-squeeze-clots-tight-using-physical-force/">blood cells</a> to pass through. Experts built a special lab device that mimics how these vessels work.</p>



<p>The researchers wanted to see what happens when cancer cells are forced through narrow spaces, like what they’d experience moving through blood.</p>



<p>The team used melanoma cells for the experiment. These are skin cancer cells known for spreading quickly and aggressively. </p>



<p>The device was made from a soft plastic material and contained channels as small as five micrometers wide - far narrower than a human hair. When the melanoma cells were forced through these channels, something changed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cells-reprogrammed-under-stress">Cells reprogrammed under stress</h2>



<p>Study lead author Dr. Giulia Silvani created the device at the Australian National Fabrication Facility, a joint venture between <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW</a>, the University of Sydney, and UTS.</p>



<p>“Within 15 minutes of being squeezed through the smallest channels, we observed how the melanoma cells became physically deformed,” said Dr. Silvani. </p>



<p>“When we analyzed the cells, we detected proteins linked to cancer spread and stem cell-like behavior - suggesting that the mechanical stress had reprogrammed them to adopt this new state.”</p>



<p>That’s important. Cancer cells that act like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blood-stem-cells-grown-in-the-lab-for-first-time-ever-leukemia-treatment/">stem cells</a> can multiply more easily and survive in different environments. This makes them much more likely to form new tumors in other parts of the body.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squeezed-cells-grow-more-tumors">Squeezed cells grow more tumors</h2>



<p>To test whether these changes made a difference in a living system, the researchers injected the “squeezed” melanoma cells into mice with weakened immune systems. These mice were also given unsqueezed cancer cells for comparison.</p>



<p>After 30 days, the results were clear. Mice injected with the squeezed cells developed far more tumors in the lungs, bones, and brain. The squeezing made the cells more aggressive and more likely to spread.</p>



<p>“One of the most exciting aspects of this project was the chance to study <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-discovery-about-cell-migration-will-help-defeat-cancer/">metastatic cancer cells</a> in a way that hasn’t been possible before,” said Dr. Silvani. “Their journey through the body is so hidden, leaving little trace and making them incredibly difficult to capture in action."</p>



<p>"We were able to recreate that journey in the lab, giving us a rare glimpse into the moment when these cells switch into their most aggressive state.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pressure-reshapes-cancer-cells">Pressure reshapes cancer cells</h2>



<p>This new discovery supports a longstanding idea among scientists: that mechanical pressure - like being squeezed through narrow blood vessels - can change cancer cells. But now, there's real evidence to show how it happens.</p>



<p>Professor Kris Kilian, who co-authored the study, explained what this could mean going forward. </p>



<p>“These results open up new possibilities for prognosis and treatment, by targeting the mechanical forces that lead to metastasis,” he said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-paths-for-diagnosis-and-care">New paths for diagnosis and care</h2>



<p>One future approach could be using imaging, like MRI scans, to find areas in the body with lots of tiny blood vessels. </p>



<p>These spots might be more likely to trigger the kind of cellular change seen in the study. Doctors could then watch those areas closely or even find ways to reduce the risk of cells squeezing through.</p>



<p>Another possibility is to look at cancer cells floating in a patient’s blood. Doctors could then test how easily those cells can transform under pressure. This could help doctors figure out how likely the cancer is to spread in a specific person.</p>



<p>“The point is, it used to be thought that it was just this extremely rare type of cell that found its way from a primary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-research-ai-will-change-the-way-we-see-tumors/">tumor</a> to a spot where they could invade,” said Kilian. </p>



<p>“But no, in some cases it’s actually the squeezing that changes the cell into this rare type, and it could put cancer researchers in a much stronger position to devise new treatment strategies.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breast-cancer-shows-blood-effect">Breast cancer shows blood effect</h2>



<p>About 90 percent of the work so far has focused on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melanoma-has-been-replaced-as-the-deadliest-form-of-skin-cancer/">melanoma</a>. But Kilian believes this squeezing effect might show up in other cancers too. He mentioned early results in breast cancer experiments look promising. More testing is planned across different types of tumors.</p>



<p>“I believe we’ll find evidence that many solid tumors metastasize this way - we’re already seeing compelling evidence when we repeat these experiments with breast cancer - and I’m looking forward to testing a range of cancer cell types in the lab,” he said.</p>



<p>Dr. Silvani is also eager to continue the work. She sees huge value in using engineering tools to better understand how cancer behaves. </p>



<p>“Watching this idea grow from a spark of intuition into a real discovery has been deeply inspiring,” she said. “It’s a powerful reminder of what can be achieved when engineering and biology come together."</p>



<p>"Cells are intricate machines, and unraveling their mysteries requires precise design and innovative tools, guided by the insights biology provides.”</p>



<p>This discovery doesn’t promise a cure. But it’s a fresh way of thinking about how cancer spreads - and a step closer to finding new ways to stop it.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63374-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a></em>.</p>



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Tiny blood vessels may fuel the spread of cancer cells

Most people think cancer becomes deadly when a tumor grows too large. But that’s not exactly true. In many cases, the real threat comes when cancer spreads. This process, called metastasis, is responsible for the vast majority of cancer deaths. It’s not the tumor in one spot; it’s the new ones appearing in the brain, bones, or lungs that cause the damage. Now, researchers have found something surprising: it might not be the cancer cells themselves that decide to spread. It could be the journey they take...

Colorful,Spawning,Salmon,Swimming,In,A,Shallow,Creek.

<p>The story of salmon migration is often told as a single, determined journey. Young salmon hatch in freshwater streams, then swim downriver to the ocean. After years at sea, they return to the very river where their lives began, to spawn and restart the cycle.</p>



<p>But new research is challenging this narrative. Many young salmon, it turns out, aren’t sticking to a straight path.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-broader-journey-than-expected">A broader journey than expected</h2>



<p>New research from <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a>, Tribal scientists, and university scientists shows that up to 22 percent of juvenile salmon in California and Washington streams make unexpected detours. </p>



<p>These young fish were tracked swimming down to the ocean and then back up into different rivers - some as many as nine times. In a few cases, they traveled as far as 40 miles (64 kilometers) up the coastline to entirely new rivers.</p>



<p>Rather than heading out to sea and staying there until adulthood, these juveniles wander. They criss-cross the coastal landscape, slipping between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-quarter-of-freshwater-fish-species-face-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">freshwater</a> and saltwater as they explore their options.</p>



<p>“Stretches of coast and their rivers form enormous salmon nurseries for the exploring juveniles,” explained the researchers.</p>



<p>The team documented this pattern in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-killing-coho-salmon-in-urban-streams/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coho salmon</a> (<em>Oncorhynchus kisutch</em>), as well as steelhead (<em>Oncorhynchus mykiss</em>), and cutthroat (<em>Oncorhynchus clarkii</em>) trout, all of which are salmonids . And they believe other salmon species may do the same.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-salmon-use-the-coast-for-migration">How salmon use the coast for migration</h2>



<p>The salmonids didn’t just travel at random. Some popped into unfamiliar rivers for short visits. Others spent entire seasons in new places.</p>



<p>The fish were seen using streams on Washington’s Olympic Peninsula and Northern California - places separated by long stretches of saltwater.</p>



<p>“The landscapes are much more connected than we realized, and salmon take advantage of that,” said Stuart Munsch, lead author of the study.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/salmon_young-juveniles_break-migration-rules_illustration_credit-Su-Kim_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/salmon_young-juveniles_break-migration-rules_illustration_credit-Su-Kim_1s.webp" alt="This schematic highlights empirically observed paths of two juvenile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch, orange and purple) and one juvenile Oncorhynchus mykiss (yellow) that made complex movements among drainages over periods of 203 days, 305 days, and 241 days, respectively. Numbers track individuals’ chronological detection sequences. Arrows indicate movement paths among drainages, with dashed line arrows showing additional details of individuals that moved back and forth between the East Twin and West Twin Rivers. Credit: Su Kim." class="wp-image-1968182"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>This schematic highlights empirically observed paths of two juvenile coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch, orange and purple) and one juvenile Oncorhynchus mykiss (yellow) that made complex movements among drainages over periods of 203 days, 305 days, and 241 days, respectively. Numbers track individuals’ chronological detection sequences. Arrows indicate movement paths among drainages, with dashed line arrows showing additional details of individuals that moved back and forth between the East Twin and West Twin Rivers. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Su Kim.</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>“This provides a more complete and accurate picture of the habitat they are using, which helps us make informed decisions as to how to promote their recovery.”</p>



<p>By testing out different rivers and streams, salmonids might find better shelter or more food. They might also be learning from each other - schooling with fish from different populations and picking up clues about where to find refuge or prey.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-habitats-with-new-risks">Stable habitats with new risks</h2>



<p>Heavy rains in the Pacific Northwest can quickly turn peaceful streams into violent torrents. Water flow shifts rapidly, and vital stream features like wood and gravel can be swept away. </p>



<p>In such unstable environments, the ability to search out new, more stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-will-create-large-habitats-for-pacific-salmon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitats</a> might be a lifesaver. But this behavior comes with danger. Young salmonids moving between fresh and saltwater become easier targets for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-salmon-outsmart-predators-on-their-journey-to-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a>.</p>



<p>“They’re perfect food for lots of other species, so they are taking a risk but also finding some benefits as they go,” said Todd Bennett, a salmon scientist at NOAA Fisheries’ Northwest Fisheries Science Center.</p>



<p>Still, the potential payoff may be worth it. Munsch noted that the young salmon and trout are searching for the best opportunities they can find.</p>



<p>“By moving around, they are also spreading the risk as some may find alternative habitats that better support them as conditions change," said Munsch.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-questions-about-salmon-behavior">New questions about salmon behavior</h2>



<p>It’s already known that adult salmon sometimes stray into different rivers than the ones they were born in. But could that behavior be shaped by their earlier wanderings as juveniles?</p>



<p>The scientists are still looking into that. They say more monitoring is needed to determine whether the rivers explored by juveniles affect where they return to spawn later in life.</p>



<p>What’s clear is that juvenile salmon are more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-welcome-salmon-to-the-arctic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mobile</a> than previously assumed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-closer-look-at-salmonid-migration">A closer look at salmonid migration</h2>



<p>On the Olympic Peninsula, the researchers documented nearly 900 juvenile coho salmon, steelhead, and cutthroat trout moving between different river systems. Depending on the location and year, up to 22 percent of tagged fish were later detected in other rivers.</p>



<p>Most fish moved between just two rivers. But around 8 percent of them moved between three different systems, making up to nine distinct migrations during their juvenile years.</p>



<p>In Northern California, 28 coho salmon were recorded moving between river drainages. One even swam from a tributary of Redwood Creek to another stream feeding Humboldt Bay - a journey of about 40 miles (64 kilometers).</p>



<p>This behavior might not be unique to the U.S. Pacific Coast. The team reviewed other studies and found similar movements on three continents. That suggests it could be widespread.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-salmon-management">Rethinking salmon management</h2>



<p>Some of the salmonids followed routes commonly traveled by other fish. Others used paths that were rarely monitored. </p>



<p>Because the study could only track fish in rivers equipped with monitors, the researchers believe their findings may underestimate how many juveniles make these kinds of moves.</p>



<p>The takeaway? Scientists may need to revise how they think about salmon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-unpredictable-effects-on-salmon-migration/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">migration</a>.</p>



<p>“We wouldn’t know about this unless we happened to be looking,” said Bennett. “Even after so many scientists have studied salmon over many decades, they still figure out how to surprise us.”</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/fee.2848" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a></em>.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Many young salmon break the typical migration rules, boosting survival chances

The story of salmon migration is often told as a...

Parents,Lie,On,The,Couch,And,Father,Read,A,Book

<p>Humanity has spent the last century wrestling with population growth. For decades, global efforts focused on reducing fertility rates to curb overpopulation. Family planning, access to contraception, and changing social norms contributed to a steep decline in births. </p>



<p>The global total fertility rate (TFR) dropped from 5.3 in the 1960s to 2.3 by 2023. Today, however, we face a paradox. Instead of a crowded future, scientists are now warning of potential collapse - not from too many people, but too few.</p>



<p>A recent study, published in the journal <em>PLOS One</em>, shifts the narrative again. Led by Takuya Okabe of <a href="https://www.shizuoka.ac.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shizuoka University</a> and colleagues, the research argues that the widely accepted replacement rate of 2.1 children per woman is too low to guarantee long-term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.</p>



<p>The analysis suggests a more realistic number is 2.7. This higher threshold takes into account the unpredictable forces that shape real-world populations - forces that statistics alone often overlook.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-2-1-isn-t-enough-anymore">Why 2.1 isn’t enough anymore</h2>



<p>The replacement fertility rate of 2.1 assumes a stable world. It expects low child mortality, equal numbers of boys and girls, and large, steady <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a>. These assumptions work in clean models, but reality is messier. </p>



<p>People don’t always have two children. Some have none. Some die before reproducing. And in small populations, such random variation - called demographic stochasticity - can wipe out entire family lines.</p>



<p>Okabe and his team developed mathematical models to test what happens over generations when these fluctuations are included. They simulated populations using a branching process, a tool commonly used in population ecology. </p>



<p>Each woman could have any number of children, following a Poisson distribution, and not all offspring would survive. These models revealed that unless the average number of children reaches 2.7, the risk of extinction remains high over time.</p>



<p>In short, the study calls for a reevaluation of what sustainability truly means. The average isn’t enough if too many fall below it.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-fertility-rate-may-erase-family-lines">Low fertility rate may erase family lines</h2>



<p>The consequences aren’t only theoretical. Even in large countries with millions of people, most family lineages will eventually disappear if the fertility rate remains below 2.7. </p>



<p>This has profound implications for identity, heritage, and cultural memory. Your surname, your traditions, your family stories - without enough descendants, all of it vanishes with time.</p>



<p>“Considering stochasticity in fertility and mortality rates, and sex ratios,” said Diane Carmeliza N. Cuaresma. “A fertility rate higher than the standard replacement level is necessary to ensure sustainability of our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-semen-quality-signifies-more-than-just-fertility-problems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">population</a>.”</p>



<p>Extinction here doesn’t mean the end of humanity in one dramatic event. Rather, it means the quiet fading away of individual histories, surnames, and ancestral lines. </p>



<p>It’s an erosion of human diversity, invisible until it's too late to reverse. This applies not only to families, but to the world’s languages and cultures.</p>



<p>At least 40% of the 6,700 spoken languages are predicted to vanish in the next century. Each lost language takes with it stories, songs, and spiritual beliefs that no data set can replace.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fertility-rate-is-dropping-across-the-world">Fertility rate is dropping across the world</h2>



<p>While global population numbers still rise, the future looks different depending on where you live. Two-thirds of the world’s people now reside in countries with fertility rates below the 2.1 mark. </p>



<p>In Japan, the rate is 1.3. In South Korea, it has dropped as low as 0.87. Even in the United States, it's only 1.66. These numbers suggest slow decline, but the reality may be steeper.</p>



<p>Japan’s population, for example, is projected to shrink by 31% every generation if current trends continue. This decline is compounded by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-and-traffic-noise-increase-risk-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aging</a>, as fewer young people are born to support older ones. </p>



<p>Policies in countries like France and Singapore attempt to raise birth rates through incentives, but they’ve seen only modest results.</p>



<p>Modern life comes with trade-offs. Education and careers delay parenthood. Housing and childcare costs are high. In some cultures, single-child families have become the norm. These social realities are harder to change than the numbers suggest.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-biased-births">Female-biased births</h2>



<p>The study offers a compelling insight: more girls can help prevent collapse. This isn’t about social engineering but about biology’s quiet adjustments. </p>



<p>A female-biased sex ratio at birth increases the pool of future mothers. This gives populations a better chance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-screening-will-be-drastically-improved-with-ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sustaining</a> themselves.</p>



<p>Stressful environments often trigger such shifts. Wars, famines, and environmental disasters have led to more girls being born. </p>



<p>In humans, psychological stress, poor nutrition, pollution, and even natural disasters have all been linked to a rise in female births. The same pattern appears in mammals like cattle, pigs, rats, and mice.</p>



<p>These adaptive shifts may be nature’s way of giving species a survival edge when facing extreme pressure. The presence of more females, even slightly, improves the odds that some lineages will persist through hard times.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-low-fertility-rate-leads-to-collapse">Low fertility rate leads to collapse</h2>



<p>Okabe’s team simulated thousands of generations to see what happens when fertility remains below the 2.7 mark. Most populations collapsed within 20 generations. </p>



<p>Even at a fertility rate of 2.1, extinction was all but certain. A handful of simulations survived longer - but those were exceptions, not the rule.</p>



<p>These findings show that survival, while not impossible, becomes highly improbable when fertility drops too far. As fertility approaches 2.7, survival chances improve. But anything lower becomes a gamble against mathematical odds.</p>



<p>In this model, randomness plays a central role. A few unlucky generations can eliminate an entire lineage, especially if there are no surviving males or females to continue it. That risk grows when fewer children are born on average. It's not enough to hit 2.1 once. Consistency across generations is key.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



<p>Though the study focuses on human populations, its lessons apply broadly. Conservationists often aim to boost fertility among endangered species. But many plans fail to consider randomness, sex ratios, and mortality. </p>



<p>As this study shows, achieving a simple average isn’t sufficient for long-term stability. Species with small populations, especially those isolated or fragmented, face similar extinction dynamics. </p>



<p>A slightly skewed sex ratio or unexpected drop in births can push them toward collapse. Adjusting targets to reflect these deeper risks could strengthen conservation strategies.</p>



<p>For humans, the study urges policymakers to rethink population goals. It challenges the notion that economic or environmental concerns justify perpetual decline. </p>



<p>Sustainability isn’t just about shrinking footprints. It’s also about keeping enough people - and diversity - to carry forward what makes humanity rich and resilient.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-population-goals-is-key">Rethinking population goals is key</h2>



<p>The debate over population often swings between panic over too many and fear of too few. </p>



<p>This research brings nuance to that conversation. It shows that the path to survival isn’t just about numbers - it’s about understanding the complex web of chance, biology, and behavior.</p>



<p>As fertility rates fall and the world changes, we must ask what kind of future we want. </p>



<p>Not just one where humans survive, but one where traditions, languages, and lineages live on. A fertility rate of 2.1 may no longer be enough to keep that future alive.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0322174" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.</em></p>



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Our current fertility rate isn't high enough for humanity to survive

Humanity has spent the last century wrestling with population growth....

<p>Earth’s ancient oceans once held marine predators that could rival the fiercest movie monsters. In the Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous, the seas were ruled by titanic predators. With jaws measuring up to two meters and teeth sharp enough to shred bone, pliosaurids were apex hunters.</p>



<p>Ichthyosaurs, with their streamlined bodies, resembled swordfish but grew far larger and swam faster. Crocodile-like thalattosuchians dominated the coasts and deeper <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-life-became-strangely-uniform-after-earths-worst-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> alike.</p>



<p>For millions of years, these animals sat atop marine food webs. Their dominance seemed unshakable. Then, something changed. The fossil record tells a story of sudden disappearance. </p>



<p>One by one, these giants vanished. In their place, a new lineup of marine predators took over - mosasaurs with eel-like tails, long-necked plesiosaurs, and rapidly diversifying sharks. What triggered this massive reshuffling of ocean life?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mass-extinction-of-marine-predators">Mass extinction of marine predators</h2>



<p>Scientists believe the answer lies in a dramatic period during the middle Cretaceous, around 94 million years ago, when top marine predators were lost in a mass extinction event.</p>



<p>According to a new study led by Valentin Fischer of the <a href="https://www.uliege.be/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Université de Liège</a> in Belgium, this shift was driven by severe environmental changes. The findings highlight a time of both ecological collapse and evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jurassic-extinction-may-hold-clues-about-our-oceans-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">opportunity</a>.</p>



<p>At the heart of the change is a period known as the Cenomanian/Turonian transition. It marked the peak of a greenhouse world, the hottest interval in the last 541 million years. </p>



<p>Atmospheric carbon dioxide soared and ocean circulation faltered. Vast parts of the ocean floor became anoxic (deprived of oxygen) making life impossible for many marine species.</p>



<p>Nutrients like sulphur and iron were thrown out of balance. These shifts cascaded throughout the food web. As Fischer’s team suggests, this extreme climate moment destabilized the entire marine ecosystem, especially at the top where large predators thrived.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-top-predators-faced-a-deadly-filter">Top predators faced a deadly filter</h2>



<p>Valentin Fischer and his colleagues aimed to understand how this transition shaped marine reptile <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-caused-marine-mass-extinctions-millions-of-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a>. To do so, they built a comprehensive dataset. </p>



<p>The researchers studied the evolutionary relationships of hundreds of marine reptile species, mapping which groups went extinct and when. Then, they compiled the largest collection to date of two-dimensional and three-dimensional anatomical data on marine reptiles.</p>



<p>The team combined data on the phylogenetic relationships of hundreds of marine reptile lineages to analyze how extinctions were distributed in the tree of life.</p>



<p>Then, they used the largest sample of 2D and 3D data on marine reptiles ever assembled to analyze the effect of these extinctions on the predatory capabilities of Cretaceous marine reptiles.</p>



<p>“Our analyses showed that the Cenomanian-Turonian transition is associated with elevated rates of extinction and that these extinctions disproportionally targeted some groups of large and fast predators, in a stepwise manner,” said Fischer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-marine-predators-hunted-differently">New marine predators hunted differently </h2>



<p>What does it mean for a predator to disappear from an ecosystem? Not just an empty niche, but a major change in how animals hunt, compete, and survive. </p>



<p>Fischer’s study found that predator skulls from before and after the transition had markedly different shapes. This affected feeding behavior in a fundamental way.</p>



<p>For example, skull shapes of predators were significantly different after the transition, notably resulting in distinct bite force, said Fischer.</p>



<p>This means that while new predators took over, they hunted differently. Some may have focused on smaller prey, while others developed crushing bites for armored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-was-the-cause-of-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">victims</a>. The loss of long-distance fast swimmers, like ichthyosaurs, opened the door for other body plans and strategies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-end-of-one-era-sparked-another">The end of one era sparked another</h2>



<p>The extinction of familiar marine predators didn’t signal the end of danger in the seas. It marked a rebirth. Mosasaurs surged in diversity and size, eventually becoming the new apex predators. </p>



<p>Sharks too adapted, evolving faster and with more varied diets. The marine ecosystems of the Late Cretaceous looked different not just in species but in structure and dynamics.</p>



<p>This was not merely evolution marching on. It was evolution restructured by crisis. An environmental shock turned the oceans into both a graveyard and a cradle. Out of loss came transformation. Understanding these moments helps us grasp how life on Earth responds to extreme climate events.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EGU25/EGU25-3100.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> was presented at the European Geosciences Union General Assembly (<a href="https://www.egu25.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EGU 2025</a>).</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Climate chaos caused a mass extinction of top marine predators

Earth’s ancient oceans once held marine predators that could rival...

<p>What makes people happy has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and ordinary people for centuries. Is happiness a gift we carry inside us, immune to outside conditions? Or is it built on the foundations of good jobs, strong relationships, financial comfort, and good health? </p>



<p>Every year, projects like the <a href="https://worldhappiness.report" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Happiness Report</a> attempt to measure and explain well-being across societies. Yet, the more we explore, the clearer it becomes: happiness isn’t simple, and it certainly isn’t the same for everyone.</p>



<p>A new study published in the journal <em>Nature Human Behaviour</em> sheds powerful light on this puzzle. It challenges the idea that happiness follows one clear path. According to lead author Emorie Beck and her team, people find happiness in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-believe-they-deserve-good-karma-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">different ways</a> - and what works for one person may not work at all for another.</p>



<p>“We have to understand the sources of happiness to build effective interventions,” said Beck, assistant professor of psychology at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-major-views-on-happiness">Two major views on happiness</h2>



<p>For decades, researchers have debated whether happiness comes from our life circumstances or our inner world. The first model, known as the “bottom-up” approach, argues that happiness builds up from life’s specific parts. </p>



<p>When people are satisfied with domains such as their job, relationships, income, health, and housing, their overall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-chasing-happiness-makes-you-feel-worse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life satisfaction</a> improves. This model shapes many public policies and international surveys. These efforts aim to boost happiness by improving access to external goods and services that support well-being.</p>



<p>But life doesn't always support that framework. Some people remain joyful even while facing hardship or loss. They seem untouched by circumstances that might break others. This brings attention to the “top-down” view of happiness. </p>



<p>This model suggests that personality traits, mindsets, and emotional habits shape how we experience life. It emphasizes mental health practices, therapy, or mindfulness as tools to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/happiness-influences-online-shopping-habits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improve well-being</a> by adjusting internal attitudes.</p>



<p>“But we all know people in our lives who experience traumatic events yet seem to be happy,” noted Beck.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-perspective-on-happiness">A new perspective on happiness </h2>



<p>The idea that both internal and external <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-increases-feelings-of-hope-happiness-and-gratitude/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forces</a> shape happiness isn’t new. What makes this study stand out is its attempt to measure this interaction across individuals and time. </p>



<p>According to the third model Beck and her team explored, happiness may flow in both directions. Inner qualities and outer life domains affect each other in ways that are dynamic and complex. From this perspective, targeting either the environment or the mind can make a difference.</p>



<p>But this still leaves many questions unanswered. Do all people follow the same pattern? Do policies based on population averages truly help those they aim to support? To answer these questions, the researchers introduced a fourth idea - a “personalized happiness” perspective.</p>



<p>This new approach proposes that happiness is not universal. Instead, the causes and effects of happiness are idiographic, or specific to each person. What raises happiness for one individual may not move the needle at all for another.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-on-happiness">Decades of data on happiness </h2>



<p>To explore these ideas, Beck and her collaborators analyzed an enormous data set. They studied 40,074 people in five countries: Germany, Britain, Switzerland, The Netherlands, and Australia. </p>



<p>These participants had taken part in repeated surveys over as many as 33 years. The surveys asked about their overall life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">satisfaction</a> and satisfaction in five life areas: work, income, health, housing, and relationships.</p>



<p>“What comes out is that we see roughly equal groups that demonstrate each pattern,” Beck explained.</p>



<p>Some participants fit the bottom-up model. Their happiness closely tracked satisfaction in life’s domains. Others followed a top-down pattern. Their internal well-being remained stable despite changes in their life circumstances. </p>



<p>Another group showed bidirectional influence, where changes in one area affected the other. Finally, some individuals did not fit any clear model at all.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personalized-happiness-is-more-than-a-theory">Personalized happiness is more than a theory</h2>



<p>These findings gave weight to the personalized happiness approach. The researchers discovered that the population-level models often failed to match the actual patterns seen in individual lives. </p>



<p>Between 41.4% and 50.8% of participants showed mostly one-way influences between domain satisfaction and life satisfaction. Only 19.3% to 25.9% showed bidirectional effects.</p>



<p>This shows that population averages often hide personal truths. Happiness, the study reveals, is shaped by unique configurations of traits and experiences. Even two people with similar incomes or job satisfaction may report entirely different levels of happiness.</p>



<p>The data also revealed that some people’s overall satisfaction did not link clearly to any of the measured domains. These individuals may experience satisfaction influenced by broader structural forces or singular life events that were not captured in the surveys.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-therapy">Implications for therapy</h2>



<p>If the aim is to improve happiness for as many people as possible, this research sends a powerful message. One-size-fits-all strategies will not work. Improving healthcare, housing, or income may support some individuals, but not all. </p>



<p>Likewise, mindfulness programs or therapy-based initiatives may not benefit people whose happiness depends more on external conditions. "Importantly, the most effective policies will be tailored to the individual themselves,” said Beck.</p>



<p>This perspective urges governments, organizations, and mental health practitioners to think differently. Instead of targeting a universal happiness recipe, they should aim to understand the diverse ingredients people draw from to feel fulfilled. </p>



<p>Doing so might not just improve lives - it may also make public efforts more effective and meaningful.</p>



<p>“These things are treated separately, but they aren’t really. They feed into each other at a personal level,” Beck added.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-needs-and-differences">Individual needs and differences </h2>



<p>The idea of personalized happiness, while promising, also presents challenges. The study showed clear individual patterns, but distinguishing those from random variations is difficult. </p>



<p>Beck and her colleagues suggest that future research needs more precise and innovative methods to capture these subtle trends.</p>



<p>Supported by the <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Institute on Aging</a>, this study lays the groundwork for a more human-centered view of happiness. Rather than assuming happiness is something we all measure in the same way, it invites a deeper respect for individual stories, differences, and needs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-path-doesn-t-fit-all">One path doesn’t fit all</h2>



<p>This research invites us to rethink everything we thought we knew about happiness. It is not an endpoint with a single route. For some, it lies in community or stability. For others, it may come from within - through purpose, peace, or personal growth.</p>



<p>The science is clear: happiness is personal. To understand it, we must listen more closely, not just to the numbers, but to the people behind them.</p>



<p>Other contributors included Joshua Jackson of&nbsp;<a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University</a>, Felix Cheung of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.utoronto.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Toronto</a>, and Stuti Thapa of the&nbsp;<a href="https://utulsa.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tulsa</a>.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02171-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.</em></p>



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Where does happiness come from? It depends on who you are

What makes people happy has puzzled philosophers, psychologists, and ordinary...

<p>The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history, is officially 35 years old.</p>



<p>To mark the milestone, NASA has released a fresh gallery of <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/missions/hubble/nasa-celebrates-hubbles-35th-year-in-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">images</a> spanning our solar system and well beyond - from Mars’s ruddy surface to star-forming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-the-mysterious-origins-of-the-crab-nebula/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nebulae</a> and a neighboring galaxy.</p>



<p>The new portraits serve not only as a birthday gift to the public, but also as a vivid reminder of how profoundly Hubble has transformed modern astronomy and popular culture alike.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixing-hubble-s-blurry-beginnings">Fixing Hubble’s blurry beginnings</h2>



<p>On April 24, 1990, the space shuttle Discovery roared into the sky with Hubble folded inside its cargo bay. A <a href="http://NASA.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a> commentator called the telescope "a new window on the universe," raising expectations sky-high.</p>



<p>Yet jubilation faded fast when engineers found a tiny mirror flaw that made early images frustratingly blurry.</p>



<p>The rescue came in December 1993, when astronauts performed the first of five intricate servicing missions. They installed corrective optics - an optical “contact lens” - and upgraded Hubble’s cameras and electronics. The successful fix restored the telescope’s vision and set the stage for three decades of breakthrough science.</p>



<p>“Hubble opened a new window to the universe when it launched 35 years ago,” said Shawn Domagal-Goldman, acting director of the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysics Division</a> at NASA Headquarters. </p>



<p>“Its stunning imagery inspired people across the globe, and the data behind those images revealed surprises about everything from early galaxies to planets in our own solar system.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-observatory-that-keeps-giving">An observatory that keeps giving</h2>



<p>Since that turning point, Hubble has recorded nearly 1.7 million observations of roughly 55,000 celestial targets. </p>



<p>Those data have generated more than 22,000 peer-reviewed papers, amassing over 1.3 million citations - figures that make Hubble the most scientifically productive telescope ever built. </p>



<p>All its raw images and spectra, totaling more than 400 terabytes, are publicly archived, fueling new discoveries every year.</p>



<p>The mission’s longevity lets astronomers revisit cosmic scenes and track their evolution in near-real time. </p>



<p>Hubble has tracked the seasonal shifts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> and Saturn, watched supernova remnants balloon outward, chronicled bright knots in active galactic nuclei, and even captured the afterglow of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-could-be-pushed-into-a-collision-course-with-earth/">asteroid collisions</a>. </p>



<p>Each long-baseline study illuminates processes that once seemed too slow to witness within a single human career.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-hubble-redefined-the-cosmos">How Hubble redefined the cosmos</h2>



<p>Before Hubble, ground-based observatories peering through Earth’s turbulent atmosphere could see only halfway across the visible universe. </p>



<p>Estimates of cosmic age oscillated wildly, and astronomers could only speculate about whether every galaxy harbored a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-black-holes-become-supermassive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black hole</a>. The existence of planets around other stars was still unconfirmed.</p>



<p>Hubble rewrote those narratives. Its legendary Deep Field images unveiled a staggering population of faint, ancient galaxies stretching back more than 13 billion years. </p>



<p>By tracking Cepheid variable stars and Type Ia supernovae, the telescope pinned down the rate of cosmic expansion. It helped expose <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-energy-is-ripping-the-universe-apart-but-we-arent-sure-how/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark energy</a>, a discovery that later earned the 2011 Nobel Prize in Physics.</p>



<p>Hubble also furnished the first measurements of exoplanet atmospheres and demonstrated that supermassive black holes lurk in the cores of most large galaxies. </p>



<p>The telescope’s wide-ranging achievements inspired a wave of next-generation observatories, including the infrared-optimized James Webb Space Telescope.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-made-hubble-unstoppable">Engineering made Hubble unstoppable</h2>



<p>Part of Hubble’s success stems from its design as a serviceable spacecraft. </p>



<p>Between 1993 and 2009, five shuttle crews rendezvoused with the 24,000-pound telescope to swap out gyroscopes, batteries, and scientific instruments. These cosmic pit stops transformed Hubble into a nimble, ever-improving workhorse.</p>



<p>“The fact that it is still operating today is a testament to the value of our flagship observatories, and provides critical lessons for the <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/programs/habitable-worlds-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Habitable Worlds Observatory</a>, which we plan to be serviceable in the spirit of Hubble,” Domagal-Goldman noted.</p>



<p>While the final shuttle mission in 2009 left Hubble in excellent health, engineers have spent the past decade developing innovative software patches. They also created remote troubleshooting techniques to counter aging hardware.</p>



<p>As a result, the Hubble telescope remains fully operational. It partners with Webb to study exoplanet atmospheres and map the formation of distant galaxy clusters.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cultural-icon">A cultural icon</h2>



<p>Beyond its scientific cachet, Hubble has captured the public imagination. Its images - Pillars of Creation, the Eagle Nebula, the Horsehead, the Sombrero Galaxy - decorate classrooms, inspire artists, and headline documentaries.</p>



<p>Hubble’s visual output demystifies astrophysics, turning arcane data into vibrant landscapes that convey both beauty and scale. </p>



<p>The telescope’s success has shown that deep-space exploration is not just for scientists, but for everyone who gazes upward in wonder.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-telescope-built-on-hubble-s-lessons">New telescope built on Hubble’s lessons</h2>



<p>Hubble’s torch will eventually pass to the Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO), NASA’s proposed successor for the 2040s. </p>



<p>With a mirror much larger than Hubble’s and capabilities in the ultraviolet and visible bands, HWO aims to be up to 100 times more sensitive to starlight.</p>



<p>A key mission goal is finding Earth-size planets in habitable zones and detecting possible signs of life in their atmospheres. Engineers plan to make HWO serviceable, drawing directly on the lessons learned from three decades of keeping Hubble alive and thriving.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-s-still-growing">A legacy that's still growing</h2>



<p>For now, Hubble continues its pioneering journey, orbiting Earth every 97 minutes at an altitude of about 330 miles. </p>



<p>Each day it scans the space, adding new data to its towering archive and offering humanity fresh vistas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-molecule-detected-in-space-where-stars-are-born/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star birth</a>, galaxy collisions, and planetary weather.</p>



<p>From its rocky start to its current stardom, Hubble’s 35-year run epitomizes ingenuity, perseverance, and curiosity - the very traits that fuel all great explorations. </p>



<p>NASA’s newest image release is both a birthday card and a reminder: somewhere high above, an aging yet agile Hubble telescope still opens that “new window on the universe,” inviting us to peer through and dream.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA/ Hubble Heritage Team</p>



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35 years of Hubble: The telescope that changed our view of the universe

The Hubble Space Telescope, the most celebrated observatory in history,...

<p>The Antarctic Peninsula has drawn widespread attention due to the unusual heat affecting the region, which is warming about five times faster than the global average. </p>



<p>The extreme heat shocked many observers when a temperature of 18.8°C (65.8°F) was recorded at Seymour Island in February 2020.</p>



<p>Scientists are concerned about how this temperature surge could impact ice melt and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-antarctic-waters-are-cooling-in-a-warming-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea</a> levels. These concerns prompted a new investigation into how conditions far away in the Tasman Sea might contribute to warming at the southern tip of the planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tasman-sea-heat-reaches-antarctica">Tasman Sea heat reaches Antarctica</h2>



<p>The research was led by Dr. Fei Zheng from <a href="https://www.sysu.edu.cn/sysuen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sun Yat-sen University</a>, whose team traced a path of influence from <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4350-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> between Australia and New Zealand to the icy peninsula.</p>



<p>The experts discovered that winter sea surface temperatures in the Tasman Sea can influence atmospheric patterns that steer heat toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-lies-beneath-16000-feet-of-antarctic-ice-a-world-never-before-seen-by-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a>. These findings highlight the surprising power of mid-latitude ocean changes.</p>



<p>“Our research shows that warmer or cooler temperatures in the Tasman Sea can send a climatic ‘ripple effect’ across the Pacific, ultimately warming the Antarctic Peninsula,” said Dr. Zheng.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-winds-drive-antarctic-warming">Shifting winds drive Antarctic warming</h2>



<p>One key feature is the <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/clim/29/17/jcli-d-15-0843.1.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pacific–South American pattern</a>, which emerges when the Tasman Sea shifts from cooler to warmer waters. This pattern forms a chain of shifting pressure and wind belts that can bring unusual warmth to certain parts of Antarctica.</p>



<p>The researchers noticed that high-resolution climate models capture this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pattern</a> better than those with fewer grid points.</p>



<p>“However, not all climate models capture this link accurately - higher-resolution models do a much better job,” said Dr. Zheng.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tasman-antarctica-link-confuses-models">Tasman-Antarctica link confuses models</h2>



<p>Some models overestimate how much the Antarctic Peninsula temperature changes from year to year. They also underestimate how the Tasman Sea fluctuates during the same seasons.</p>



<p>Researchers caution that this mismatch could exaggerate how the atmosphere reacts to ocean shifts in some simulations. They aim to refine these models so that future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emergency-meeting-reveals-the-alarming-extent-of-antarcticas-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperature</a> estimates become more dependable.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-heat-affects-sea-levels">Antarctic heat affects sea levels</h2>



<p>A warming Antarctic <a href="https://www.climate.gov/tags/antarctica" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Peninsula</a> can affect ice sheet stability and global sea-level changes. Insights from studies like this provide a clearer view of how distant oceans might tip the balance in vulnerable polar regions.</p>



<p>Shifts in temperature can also influence how local sea ice behaves and how wildlife copes with changing conditions. Tracking these influences supports better decisions about conservation and planning for future environmental shifts.</p>



<p>These findings may change how scientists and policymakers approach climate modeling on a global scale. If warming in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-is-greening-at-an-unprecedented-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Antarctica</a> is linked to changes thousands of miles away, forecasts must look beyond local conditions.</p>



<p>This could shift funding and research priorities toward better monitoring of mid-latitude oceans. Long-term planning for coastal cities and global sea-level projections may now need to factor in the Tasman Sea as a major player.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-ocean-feedback-loops">The role of ocean feedback loops</h2>



<p>The Tasman-Antarctica connection may also help explain recent feedback loops seen in climate records. Warmer waters in the Tasman Sea could alter wind patterns that trap heat in the Southern Hemisphere, reinforcing further warming in Antarctica.</p>



<p>This process, while still under study, suggests the ocean isn’t just responding to climate change - it may also be shaping it. Feedbacks like these are essential to understand if we want to predict how fast changes may unfold.</p>



<p>One major hurdle is the lack of high-resolution data for some ocean regions, including the Tasman Sea. Without better observations, even the most advanced models will struggle to predict future shifts accurately.</p>



<p>Researchers also warn that natural variability could mask long-term trends. Sorting short-term changes from deeper patterns will be key to improving projections for Antarctica’s future.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-link-to-global-weather"><strong>Antarctic link to global weather</strong></h2>



<p>The atmospheric patterns linked to the Tasman Sea might not just affect Antarctica. Some researchers suggest that parts of South America and even the western United States could experience shifts in weather due to these ocean changes.</p>



<p>While the focus is still on Antarctica for now, future studies could reveal broader connections. Understanding these ripple effects might help explain unusual weather in regions far from the Southern Ocean.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-coastal-communities">Protecting coastal communities </h2>



<p>Researchers plan to refine climate models by adding better data for smaller-scale ocean processes. They believe a closer look at ocean-atmosphere interactions will strengthen predictions for Antarctica and beyond.</p>



<p>Experts also hope that improving model accuracy could help communities plan for coastal threats. Robust forecasts may guide strategies that protect future generations from rising seas and shifting weather patterns.</p>



<p>Bringing together data from multiple sources helps researchers see the bigger picture of Antarctica’s challenges.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00376-024-4350-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Advances in Atmospheric Sciences</em></a>.</p>



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Antarctic warming is influenced by ocean changes thousands of miles away

The Antarctic Peninsula has drawn widespread attention due to the...

<p>The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger than any signpost. From a low ridge, the landscape looks plain enough - just ocher earth and scattered stones. Yet from the air, pale etchings known as Nazca geoglyphs spread out across thirty-one miles of desert like pages in an ancient picture book.</p>



<p>Scholars have long marveled at these Nazca geoglyphs: animals, people, and patterns scraped into the soil roughly two thousand years ago. </p>



<p>Their purpose has never been obvious, and for decades each new survey has offered more puzzles than answers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nazca-geoglyphs-carved-on-desert-canvas">Nazca geoglyphs carved on desert canvas</h2>



<p>Masato Sakai of Japan’s <a href="https://www.yamagata-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yamagata University</a> has spent two decades walking the Nazca Pampa, a dry plateau that sits about 1,640 feet above sea level. </p>



<p>The lack of rain and the region’s remoteness have sheltered the drawings from erosion and farming. </p>



<p>Two main styles dominate the site. Giant “line-type” designs - think the famous hummingbird - stretch for hundreds of feet. </p>



<p>Smaller “surface-type” figures appear where workers once brushed away dark stones to expose lighter sand.</p>



<p>Early mapping relied on planes and satellite photos. Even then, the sharpest images missed many faint or partial motifs. </p>



<p>Relief-type figures, often no larger than a city bus, hug age-old footpaths and easily hide in the dusty palette.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-scans-the-peruvian-sands">AI scans the Peruvian sands</h2>



<p>Enter a collaboration with IBM Research. Between September 2022 and February 2023, Sakai’s team fed an artificial-intelligence model examples of known glyphs, then set it loose on high-resolution photos of the entire plateau. </p>



<p>In six months, the system flagged 303 new surface-type drawings - almost doubling the catalog built up since the early twentieth century. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/Nazca-lines_petroglyphs_AI-analysis_credit-Yamagata-University_1s.webp" alt="Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Credit: Yamagata University" class="wp-image-1967878"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Fifteen of a total of 303 newly discovered relief-type figurative geoglyphs from the AI-assisted survey. Drone images taken during the field survey that confirmed the geoglyphs as authentic. The scale bars are 5 m. Outlines have been added as a guide to the eye. Versions of the images without the outlines and archaeological interpretations of the relief can be found in SI Appendix, Fig. S1. The figurative geoglyphs depict humanoids, head, domesticated animal (camelid), killer whales, birds, feline, ceremonial scene, and human/animal interaction. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Yamagata University</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>That fresh haul pushes the confirmed total to 430 pieces, 318 of which Yamagata University has logged since it began work in 2004.</p>



<p>Instead of boxing objects the usual way, the model treated the desert as a grid of tiny image tiles and scored each one for geoglyph likelihood. </p>



<p>The researchers split every confirmed figure into smaller patches to give the algorithm extra training material, a trick that compensated for the limited dataset.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-the-nazca-geoglyphs-telling-us">What are the Nazca geoglyphs telling us?</h2>



<p>Many newly spotted icons cluster within 141 feet of ancient trails. They show human torsos, stylized livestock, and eerie isolated heads. </p>



<p>“The human heads depict human sacrifices to the gods,” Sakai explained. The pathway setting hints that small groups used these pictures as teaching aids or spiritual prompts during routine travel.</p>



<p>Pottery shards nearby suggest such relief-type figures may predate the grander line drawings. Their subjects lean toward domestic life, a contrast to the wild creatures often celebrated in the larger images.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ritual-routes-and-roadside-lessons">Ritual routes and roadside lessons</h2>



<p>Line-type glyphs anchor the start and finish of broader pilgrimage routes, typically lying about 112 feet from ceremonial lines scored into the ground. </p>



<p>Archaeologists think processions moved along these corridors, stopping at the vast bird, monkey, or whale outlines for communal rites. </p>



<p>“At that time, there was no written language. People learned about the roles of humans and animals by looking at pictures and used them as places for rituals,” he said.</p>



<p>That spoken insight, paired with the spatial data, supports the idea that the Nazca culture wove its belief system straight into the landscape. </p>



<p>Travelers likely rehearsed myths, seasonal duties, or social roles by pacing past images tailored to each lesson.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behind-the-numbers">Behind the numbers</h2>



<p>The 303 fresh finds are all surface-type, yet they vary in design and age. Roughly half depict human or animal heads, many with eyes or mouths exaggerated for emphasis. </p>



<p>The rest show full figures, including camelids and felines that were vital to everyday survival. Their average length is about 20 yards. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/nazca-lines_location-map_credit-University-of-Michigan_1s.webp" alt="Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Credit: University of Michigan" class="wp-image-1967876"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Field survey confirms 303 new relief-type figurative Nazca geoglyphs. Map of 303 newly confirmed and 380 previously known (black) figurative relief-type geoglyphs. Newly confirmed geoglyphs are individually AI predicted (yellow), part of an AI-predicted geoglyph group (rose), or identified in the field survey without AI predicting that location (green). Inset: Histogram of ranked AI candidates (blue), visited AI candidates (red), new geoglyphs in AI groups (rose), individually confirmed AI geoglyphs (yellow), and extrapolated new geoglyphs (light yellow) as a function of rank. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Michigan</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>The AI’s accuracy jumped once researchers applied transfer learning - starting with a vision model trained on everyday photographs before fine-tuning it for desert imagery.</p>



<p>Such efficiency matters because the Nazca Pampa spans more than 190 square miles. Manual surveys would take years, but AI can flag probable sites in days, letting field crews focus on verification and conservation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-and-the-future-of-archaeology">AI and the future of archaeology</h2>



<p>The success in Peru demonstrates how machine learning can spotlight hidden heritage without disturbing the ground. </p>



<p>Similar techniques already aid shipwreck hunts in the Mediterranean and temple searches in Cambodia’s jungles. As satellite coverage improves, smaller teams will parse vast regions for subtle traces of ancient life.</p>



<p>For the Nazca Lines, the next step is protection. Mining, unregulated tourism, and modern roads nibble at the fragile crust. </p>



<p>Digital maps built from AI detections give local authorities a clearer picture of what needs fencing, signage, or rerouting. </p>



<p>Sharing these maps online also invites global scholars to test fresh hypotheses about how the drawings fit with climate shifts, trade, and social change over fifteen centuries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-the-nazca-geoglyphs">What's next for the Nazca geoglyphs?</h2>



<p>What began as a curiosity spotted by pilot Toribio Mejía Xesspe in 1927 now stands as proof - yes, proof - of cooperation between traditional fieldwork and cutting-edge tech. </p>



<p>The Nazca people left no written chronicles, but they etched stories big enough to survive millennia of wind and sun. </p>



<p>With new eyes in the sky and smarter algorithms on the ground, today’s researchers are finally starting to read those stories in full.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2407652121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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One of Earth's oldest and biggest mysteries is partially solved by Artificial Intelligence

The sun-baked flats of southern Peru hold a secret bigger...

<p>Acne, eczema, and other skin conditions are issues that manifest on the surface, but they’re closely tied to what’s living just beneath. Bacteria on our faces aren’t just passive passengers. They interact, compete, and sometimes even fuel disease.</p>



<p>Two major bacterial species - <em>Cutibacterium acnes</em> and <em>Staphylococcus epidermidis</em> - dominate most people’s facial microbiome. Yet, figuring out how they behave and change over time has long been a challenge.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-the-skin-s-future-health">Shaping the skin's future health</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> have now mapped out the behavior of skin bacteria in more detail than ever before.</p>



<p>Their work offers a clearer picture of when new strains appear, how long they stick around, and how this timing could shape future acne treatments. </p>



<p>The research also points to a crucial discovery: the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-teen-girls-struggle-more-with-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">teen</a> years may be a key time in which to shape the skin’s future health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teenage-skin-and-the-rise-of-acne-bacteria">Teenage skin and the rise of acne bacteria</h2>



<p>The team found that most new <em>C. acnes</em> strains - the ones commonly linked to outbreaks of acne - appear during the early teenage years.</p>



<p>But after that, the bacterial community on the face becomes incredibly stable. Even when people come into contact with new strains, they rarely take hold.</p>



<p>That insight has major implications. “We found that there are some surprising dynamics, and these dynamics provide insights for how to design probiotic therapy,” said Tami Lieberman, senior author of the study.</p>



<p>“If we had a strain that we knew could prevent acne, these results would suggest we should make sure we apply them early during the transition to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeling-loved-as-a-teen-linked-to-healthier-adulthood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adulthood</a>, to really get them to engraft.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-skin-bacteria-and-acne">Tracking skin bacteria and acne</h2>



<p>To understand these microbial patterns, the researchers studied the skin of 30 children and 27 of their parents, all from the same Boston-area school community. </p>



<p>Sampling family members helped the team to see how strains pass between people and how stable - or unstable - those strains really are.</p>



<p>Some participants were sampled more than once, allowing the scientists to track bacterial changes over time. </p>



<p>From each skin swab, they grew bacterial colonies and sequenced the DNA of individual cells. This helped them measure the number of different lineages in each person, how long each had been around, and how they changed over time.</p>



<p>They found 89 lineages of <em>C. acnes</em> and 78 of <em>S. epidermidis</em>. Up to 11 of each could be found on a single person. The findings surprised the team, as earlier studies had suggested these communities remained mostly unchanged over time.</p>



<p>“We wanted to know if these communities were truly stable, and if there could be times where they weren’t stable,” Lieberman explained. “In particular, if the transition to an adult skin-like microbiome would have a higher rate of acquisition of new lineages.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-ideal-environment-for-skin-bacteria">An ideal environment for skin bacteria </h2>



<p>Teenage years come with a spike in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-refined-carbs-can-make-you-less-attractive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oil production</a> on the face, which provides an ideal environment for bacteria. </p>



<p>Previous studies have shown a 10,000-fold increase in bacterial density during this period. The current study confirmed that while adult facial microbiomes are largely stable, the early teen years offer an opportunity for new strains of skin bacteria - particularly of <em>C. acnes</em> - to establish themselves.</p>



<p>“For <em>C. acnes</em>, what we were able to show was that people do get strains throughout life, but very rarely,” said Lieberman. “We see the highest rate of influx when teenagers are transitioning to a more adult-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-aging-have-been-found-in-the-skin-microbiome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin microbiome</a>.”</p>



<p>This supports the idea that acne-related probiotics might be most effective when used early, during the teenage transition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-bacteria-different-timelines">Different bacteria, different timelines</h2>



<p>The team also found that <em>S. epidermidis</em> is far more volatile than <em>C. acnes</em>. On average, each strain of <em>S. epidermidis</em> sticks around for less than two years. </p>



<p>However, even family members living together often didn’t share the same lineages. This implies that bacteria aren’t constantly passed back and forth, and that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-does-skin-become-leathery-after-too-much-uv-light-from-sun-exposure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">skin</a> might be more selective than expected.</p>



<p>“That suggests that something is preventing homogenization between people,” said Lieberman. “It could be host genetics or host behavior, or people using different topicals or different moisturizers, or it could be active restriction of new migrants from the bacteria that are already there at that moment.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



<p>The researchers now want to know whether the immune system reacts differently depending on when a person first acquires a new strain of <em>C. acnes</em>. They also hope to understand why individual microbiomes remain so distinct, even when people are exposed to each other’s bacteria daily.</p>



<p>“We want to understand why we each have unique strain communities despite the fact that there is this constant accessibility and high turnover, specifically for <em>S. epidermidis</em>,” said Lieberman. “What’s driving this constant turnover in <em>S. epidermidis</em>, and what are the implications of these new colonizations for acne during adolescence?”</p>



<p>While there’s still a lot to learn, one thing is clear: the story of skin bacteria starts early. And the choices we make - or don’t make - during our teenage years might leave a lasting mark.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S193131282500143X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Host &amp; Microbe</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Teen skin bacteria could hold the secret to acne prevention

Acne, eczema, and other skin conditions are issues that manifest...

Bearded,Father,Playing,Guitar,To,His,Little,Child.,Baby,Looking

<p>Music, movement, and the soothing hum of a lullaby are often seen as cornerstones of humanity. From bustling cities to remote villages, we expect every culture to dance in joy and sing to its children. </p>



<p>But the Northern Aché of Paraguay challenge that belief. These acts seem deeply human - automatic, perhaps even biological. But what if they aren’t?</p>



<p>A study published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em> by anthropologists Manvir Singh and Kim Hill asks us to reconsider this belief.</p>



<p>Drawing on over four decades of immersive research among the Northern Aché of Paraguay, the authors report a striking absence. This Indigenous group sings, yes - but they do not dance. And they do not sing to their babies.</p>



<p>This revelation disrupts long-standing theories about music as an evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-takes-a-major-toll-on-childrens-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universal</a>. Instead, it points to a more fragile reality: these traditions may be cultural inventions, and may be vulnerable to loss.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-northern-ache-don-t-dance-or-sing-lullabies">Northern Aché don’t dance or sing lullabies</h2>



<p>The Northern Aché, a once-isolated hunter-gatherer society in eastern Paraguay, have lived outside the influence of global norms for much of modern history. </p>



<p>Hill, a professor at <a href="https://www.asu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Arizona State University</a>, first began working with them in 1977. He would go on to spend 122 months - more than ten years - living alongside Aché families in forest camps and settlements.</p>



<p>During these years, Hill documented their daily life in extraordinary detail. He observed songs sung around campfires, flutes played in solitude, and expressions of grief and celebration. But never once did he witness coordinated dance. Nor did he hear an infant-directed song.</p>



<p>“Aside from church singing introduced by missionaries, Northern Aché adults sing alone and in a limited number of contexts,” Singh explained. “As far as we can tell, anthropologists have never observed dancing or infant-directed song among the Northern Aché.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-every-culture-sings-but-not-to-infants">Every culture sings, but not to infants?</h2>



<p>The Northern Aché’s musical life is real, but restrained. Men sing short bursts of melody about hunting and communal affairs. </p>



<p>Women sing more rarely, almost always about lost relatives. Children may imitate these songs, but there is no singing aimed at babies - none of the structured soothing sounds that we associate with lullabies.</p>



<p>This lack isn’t due to neglect. Parents calm fussy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/talking-to-kids-about-puberty-why-sooner-may-be-better-than-later/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> with smiles, tickles, and playful talk. Yet even during long forest treks - where infants remain close to their mothers nearly all day - Hill and fellow researchers never encountered lullabies.</p>



<p>“It’s not that the Northern Aché don’t have any need for lullabies,” Singh said. “Aché parents still calm fussy infants. They use playful speech, funny faces, smiling and giggling.”</p>



<p>This distinction matters. It shows that caregiving persists even in the absence of what many view as essential, universal tools.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-loss-not-natural-absence">Cultural loss, not natural absence</h2>



<p>Why are dance and infant-directed song missing from this society? The answer lies not in biology but in history.</p>



<p>The Northern Aché endured significant upheaval in the twentieth century. Their population plummeted due to disease and forced migration. </p>



<p>By 1970, only 338 individuals remained. With that decline came a shrinking of cultural practices. Alongside dance and lullabies, they lost other cultural practices, such as fire-making, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">puberty</a> ceremonies, hunting magic, and more.</p>



<p>“It does mean, however, that cultural transmission matters much more for maintaining those behaviors than many researchers, including myself, have suspected,” Singh said.</p>



<p>Unlike smiling, which appears across cultures without instruction, these behaviors vanish without teaching and memory. They are not spontaneous instincts. They are carefully maintained traditions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-singing-and-dancing-are-cultural-creations">Singing and dancing are cultural creations </h2>



<p>The Northern Aché belong to a wider language family - Tupi - which includes other groups with robust musical and ritual traditions.</p>



<p>Southern Aché communities, for example, have been seen dancing and singing in synchrony after contact. Tupi-speaking Araweté and Guarani peoples also have lullabies and dance music. This suggests that the ancestors of the Northern Aché once shared these practices.</p>



<p>But over generations, population bottlenecks and isolation stripped away many layers of cultural complexity. </p>



<p>They no longer make fire. They do not play stringed instruments. Their musical styles have narrowed. What remains is deeply individual, and hauntingly sparse.</p>



<p>Genetic studies support this story. The Northern Aché have less genetic diversity than their linguistic relatives, pointing to one or more historic population collapses. Such bottlenecks reduce not just biological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-impacts-brain-development-in-children/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">variation</a> but cultural content as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-behavior-shaped-by-culture">Human behavior shaped by culture</h2>



<p>Theories about music’s origin often assume a biological basis. Dance and lullabies are believed to build bonds - between groups, and between mothers and babies. Many researchers have treated them as evolutionary adaptations.</p>



<p>“Dance and infant-related song are widely considered universal, a view that has been supported by cross-cultural research, including my own,” Singh noted.</p>



<p>But this study suggests a different picture. It argues that these behaviors are more like fire-making than smiling. They are useful but not inevitable. They must be invented, preserved, and passed on. When communities shrink or break, those transmissions can fail.</p>



<p>This idea doesn’t disprove genetic readiness. Instead, it highlights that readiness alone isn’t enough. Cultural continuity sustains human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-northern-ache">Significance of the Northern Aché</h2>



<p>The absence of dance and lullabies in the Northern Aché people doesn't mean these behaviors are unimportant. It means we must reconsider what makes them possible. We need to look beyond cross-cultural surveys and explore histories of loss, isolation, and transformation.</p>



<p>Singh and Hill’s work shows the value of deep, long-term ethnography. Their observations emerged not from brief visits but from living as neighbors, sharing fires, and listening over decades.</p>



<p>“I found his observations totally fascinating and hugely important and urged him to publish them,” Singh said of Hill's work. “He wasn’t sure how to report them, so we ended up writing the manuscript together.”</p>



<p>In an increasingly globalized world, such quiet exceptions are rare. But they carry powerful messages. They remind us that humanity’s most cherished expressions - music, dance, the lullaby - are not just natural responses. </p>



<p>Singing and dancing are cultural creations that are fragile and resilient, shaped by memory and community. And when they fall silent, they speak volumes.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00447-6">Current Biology</a>.</em></p>



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Social dancing and singing lullabies to babies are not innate human behaviors

Music, movement, and the soothing hum of a lullaby are...

<p>Sunlight gives life to oceans. Yet in the icy polar seas, light barely enters. It reaches the water through a thick shield of snow and ice, scattered and dimmed but still biologically vital. </p>



<p>For countless generations, algae and phytoplankton have adapted to these low-light, multi-colored conditions. But that delicate balance is now vanishing.</p>



<p>Driven by climate change, sea ice is disappearing at alarming rates. This isn’t only opening new shipping routes or endangering polar bears. It’s rewriting the rules of underwater life. </p>



<p>New research led by Monika Soja-Woźniak and Jef Huisman at the <a href="https://www.uva.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Amsterdam</a>, in collaboration with Danish and Dutch scientists, has uncovered a major consequence of this change. Melting ice shifts the ocean’s color and light spectrum, which can have cascading effects across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-ice-can-speed-up-continental-drift-and-fuel-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine</a> ecosystems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shifting-color-of-ocean-light">The shifting color of ocean light</h2>



<p>Ice and water do not transmit light in the same way. Sea ice reflects most incoming sunlight and scatters the rest. Still, the small fraction that makes it through contains nearly the entire visible spectrum. That means red, green, and blue wavelengths all reach the life below the surface.</p>



<p>Seawater, however, tells a different story. It quickly absorbs red and green light. Blue light alone travels deep. This selective filtering of color is what gives the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glacier-melting-threatens-global-water-supplies-and-coastal-communities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> its rich blue appearance. </p>



<p>As ice melts and gives way to liquid water, organisms beneath the surface receive light with less color variety. They are exposed to a narrower, blue-dominated spectrum.</p>



<p>This subtle shift matters greatly for photosynthetic organisms. Algae and phytoplankton harvest light using pigments that are finely tuned to specific wavelengths of the spectrum. A change in available colors alters which species thrive - and which decline.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-ice-and-ocean-water-absorb-light">How ice and ocean water absorb light </h2>



<p>Light absorption depends on more than just the medium - it also depends on molecular movement. In liquid water, H₂O molecules vibrate freely.</p>



<p>These vibrations absorb light at specific wavelengths, creating gaps in the light spectrum. The gaps shape the available “spectral niches,” small bands of light that different algal species have evolved to use.</p>



<p>“Ice has a much smoother absorption spectrum,” noted the researchers. In solid form, water molecules lock into a crystalline structure. Their ability to vibrate disappears. Without these vibrations, fewer wavelengths are absorbed. More colors remain in the light that penetrates.</p>



<p>This key difference means that under sea ice, life enjoys a fuller spectrum of light. Phytoplankton adapted to these conditions use a diverse range of pigments to capture energy. As the ice disappears, the richness of their light <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-melting-ice-shelves-threaten-global-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> vanishes with it.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-ice-loss-narrows-light-range">Sea ice loss narrows light range</h2>



<p>To measure the exact changes, the team developed optical models using radiative transfer simulations. They analyzed different polar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environments</a>, from the pristine Arctic Ocean to murky coastal zones. Their models showed that open water absorbs nearly all longer wavelengths, leaving available light that is shifted toward blue.</p>



<p>In clear Arctic waters, the dominant wavelength dropped from about 550 nanometers (green) under ice to 472 nanometers (blue) in ice-free water. This shift also compresses the range of usable light, making the environment less diverse in spectral terms.</p>



<p>This spectral narrowing carries significant biological consequences. Organisms adapted to broad-spectrum light will likely lose out to those specialized for blue wavelengths. </p>



<p>“The photosynthetic pigments of algae living under sea ice are adapted to make optimal use of the wide range of colors present in the little amount of light passing through ice and snow,” said Soja-Woźniak, lead author of the study.</p>



<p>“When the ice melts, these organisms suddenly find themselves in a blue-dominated environment, which provides a lesser fit for their pigments.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-key-species-will-decline">Key species will decline</h2>



<p>The researchers examined how these spectral changes affect key photosynthetic species. </p>



<p>Ice algae, like many Arctic diatoms and the genus <em>Phaeocystis</em>, use a wide array of pigments, including fucoxanthin, which absorbs green and red light. These pigments allow them to photosynthesize efficiently in the colorful but dim light beneath sea ice.</p>



<p>In contrast, blue specialists like <em>Micromonas</em> - a genus of pico-phytoplankton - possess simpler pigment systems that are tuned to absorb blue and violet light. These species can thrive in the narrow-spectrum environment of open water.</p>



<p>The modeling results showed that as the underwater spectrum shifts, blue specialists may gain a competitive edge. Algal diversity could shrink. Coastal Antarctic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/melting-glaciers-threaten-global-water-security/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> have already seen signs of this: cryptophytes that are better suited to blue light, are increasing in number as pigment-rich species decline.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-algae-loss">Consequences of algae loss </h2>



<p>At first glance, this may seem like a technical shift of color bands in light. But it holds deeper implications for marine life. Photosynthetic algae sit at the base of the Arctic food web. Changes in their abundance, productivity, or species mix may have consequences further up the chain. </p>



<p>“Photosynthetic algae form the foundation of the Arctic food web. Changes in their productivity or species composition can ripple upward to affect fish, seabirds, and marine mammals. Moreover, photosynthesis plays an important role in natural CO₂ uptake by the ocean,” explained Professor Huisman.</p>



<p>If fewer algae can thrive, or if they photosynthesize less efficiently, the polar ocean’s ability to sequester carbon will suffer. Climate change, in this way, not only warms the planet but weakens its natural buffers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-models-must-capture-new-details">Future models must capture new details </h2>



<p>Current climate models largely ignore the fine details of light spectra underwater. Yet this research shows how crucial those details are. </p>



<p>A change in color can reshape entire ecosystems. Understanding the interactions between light transmission, pigment adaptation, and photosynthesis is essential for accurate ocean forecasts.</p>



<p>The team suggests incorporating these spectral dynamics into future models. Doing so could improve predictions of ecological change, carbon cycling, and biodiversity in polar regions. As sea ice continues to shrink, these predictions grow more urgent.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-ocean-light">The power of ocean light</h2>



<p>Some organisms may adapt. Species like <em>Phaeocystis</em> show signs of pigment flexibility - shifting pigment use depending on conditions. Whether that adaptability can keep pace with melting remains to be seen. Evolution is slow, but climate change is not.</p>



<p>As polar waters grow bluer, the underwater world is not just getting brighter. It is changing in quality. The transformation in light affects what grows, what survives, and what disappears. </p>



<p>This is the quiet power of light - a force that shapes life from the microscopic to the megafaunal. And as this study reveals, that power is now being rewritten by melting ice.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59386-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</em></p>



<p>Image Credit: Lars Chresten Lund-Hansen</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Sea ice loss alters the color of ocean light, and life struggles to adapt

Sunlight gives life to oceans. Yet in the icy polar...

<p>Jupiter is a planet of extremes - intense winds, towering cyclones, and magnetic forces that make Earth's weather look tame. Add to that its volcanic moon, Io, and there’s no shortage of cosmic drama in this distant part of the solar system.</p>



<p>The Juno spacecraft has just sent back new findings that give scientists an even clearer look at what’s happening both deep inside Jupiter and under the crust of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brilliant-new-images-of-jupiters-moon-io-captured-by-juno-spacecraft/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Io</a>.</p>



<p>Using a mix of radio signals, microwave sensors, and infrared imaging, the mission has uncovered how Jupiter’s cyclones behave and how Io manages to keep erupting with heat from within.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-juno-team">Insights from the Juno team</h2>



<p>The research was presented by scientists from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the <a href="https://www.swri.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Southwest Research Institute</a> at a recent science conference in Vienna.</p>



<p>The team shared two important updates: a new map of temperatures beneath the surface of Io, and a better understanding of how storms move across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-causing-the-mysterious-haze-at-jupiters-poles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jupiter’s poles</a>.</p>



<p>“Everything about Jupiter is extreme. The planet is home to gigantic polar cyclones bigger than Australia, fierce jet streams, the most volcanic body in our solar system, the most powerful aurora, and the harshest radiation belts,” said Scott Bolton, principal investigator of Juno at the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio. </p>



<p>“As Juno’s orbit takes us to new regions of Jupiter’s complex system, we’re getting a closer look at the immensity of energy this gas giant wields.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warm-magma-found-below-io-s-crust">Warm magma found below Io’s crust</h2>



<p>Juno’s microwave radiometer was originally designed to study Jupiter’s thick cloud cover. But scientists decided to turn it toward Io. They combined this data with infrared images from another instrument called JIRAM.</p>



<p>“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-jupiters-radiation-revealed-by-juno/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Juno</a> science team loves to combine very different datasets from very different instruments and see what we can learn,” said Shannon Brown, a Juno scientist at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California. </p>



<p>“When we incorporated the MWR data with JIRAM’s infrared imagery, we were surprised by what we saw: evidence of still-warm magma that hasn’t yet solidified below Io’s cooled crust. At every latitude and longitude, there were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-finds-glass-smooth-lake-of-cooling-lava-on-jupiters-moon-io/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cooling lava</a> flows.”</p>



<p>The data shows that about 10% of Io’s surface has pockets of lava just beneath the outer layer. That lava is slowly cooling - kind of like how a car radiator works, moving heat out from the core and shedding it into space.</p>



<p>“Io’s volcanos, lava fields, and subterranean lava flows act like a car radiator, efficiently moving heat from the interior to the surface, cooling itself down in the vacuum of space," said Brown.</p>



<p>The scientists confirmed that a massive eruption, spotted during Juno’s December 27 flyby, was still active as of March 2. They expect to get a better view on May 6, when Juno passes within 55,300 miles (89,000 kilometers) of the moon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-jupiter-s-temperature-extremes">Exploring Jupiter’s temperature extremes</h2>



<p>Juno is also collecting data using a method called radio occultation. In simple terms, scientists send a radio signal from Earth to Juno, which then travels back through Jupiter’s atmosphere. </p>



<p>On the way, the radio signal bends slightly, depending on the temperature and density of the atmospheric layers through which it passes.</p>



<p>So far, 26 signals have been sent. One key result: Jupiter’s north polar stratospheric cap is 11 degrees Celsius cooler than nearby regions. And it’s encircled by howling winds that top 100 miles per hour (160 kilometers per hour).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-jupiter-s-dancing-cyclones">Jupiter’s dancing cyclones</h2>



<p>Jupiter’s north pole is surrounded by nine giant cyclones - one in the center, and eight circling it like petals. Unlike hurricanes on Earth that pop up and fade, Jupiter’s cyclones are long-lived and stay near the poles.</p>



<p>Scientists tracked the movement of these storms using images from JunoCam and infrared scans from JIRAM. They noticed that each storm drifts slowly toward the pole due to a process called “beta drift.” This drift happens when circular wind patterns interact with the planet’s spin.</p>



<p>On Earth, storms lose power as they near the poles. But on Jupiter, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/io-jupiter-moon-juno-mission-discovers-fire-mountains-polar-cyclones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar cyclones</a> bunch together and interact. Their speed slows as they start bouncing off each other.</p>



<p>“These competing forces result in the cyclones ‘bouncing’ off one another in a manner reminiscent of springs in a mechanical system,” said Yohai Kaspi, a Juno co-investigator from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel. </p>



<p>“This interaction not only stabilizes the entire configuration, but also causes the cyclones to oscillate around their central positions, as they slowly drift westward, clockwise, around the pole.”</p>



<p>This new model could help scientists better understand storm movement, not just on Jupiter but possibly on Earth and other planets as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-road-ahead-for-juno">The road ahead for Juno</h2>



<p>Each orbit of Jupiter gives Juno a fresh view. As the spacecraft continues to adjust its path, it flies through some of the most intense radiation zones in the solar system.</p>



<p>“One of the great things about Juno is its orbit is ever-changing, which means we get a new vantage point each time as we perform a science flyby,” said Bolton. </p>



<p>“In the extended mission, that means we’re continuing to go where no spacecraft has gone before, including spending more time in the strongest planetary radiation belts in the solar system. It’s a little scary, but we’ve built Juno like a tank and are learning more about this intense environment each time we go through it.”</p>



<p>Juno’s mission keeps expanding our view of the solar system’s most powerful planet and its wildest moon. And with more flybys planned, the discoveries aren’t likely to stop anytime soon.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NASA / SwRI / MSSS / Jackie Branc (CC BY).</p>



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Juno reveals dancing cyclones on Jupiter and magma on its fiery moon

Jupiter is a planet of extremes - intense winds, towering...

<p>For decades, pterosaurs were cast as soaring shadows above the dinosaur-dominated world. These flying reptiles, icons of the Mesozoic skies, seemed distant from the muddy, grounded lives of their land-based cousins. </p>



<p>But a new study from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a> is challenging that image. Drawing on more than 160-million-year-old fossilized footprints, the researchers have made a significant breakthrough. These prints reveal a hidden side of pterosaur life - one where they walked, hunted, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-fossil-fills-crucial-gap-in-pterosaur-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thrived</a> on solid ground.</p>



<p>Published in <em>Current Biology</em>, the study identifies the makers of ancient tracks once thought enigmatic. With 3D modeling, statistical analysis, and close anatomical comparisons, the team linked three distinct track types to specific pterosaur groups.</p>



<p>The findings open up a deeper understanding of how these animals moved and evolved, showing a major ecological shift during the mid-Mesozoic period.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaurs-were-not-just-fliers">Pterosaurs were not just fliers</h2>



<p>The popular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-took-flight-millions-of-years-before-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">view</a> of pterosaurs has long focused on their aerial prowess. </p>



<p>They were seen as ocean-faring gliders or cliff-dwelling fliers, rarely imagined among swampy flats or dusty inland habitats. Preservation bias reinforced this picture - bones were often found in marine rocks, while trackways were rarer and harder to interpret.</p>



<p>But the new research confronts that bias. It shows that by the Middle Jurassic, some pterosaur groups had firmly established themselves on land. Quadrupedal walking was not just possible - it was a widespread and successful mode of movement.</p>



<p>“Footprints offer a unique opportunity to study pterosaurs in their natural environment. They reveal not only where these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaurs-mastered-land-before-dominating-the-sky/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> lived and how they moved, but also offer clues about their behavior and daily activities in ecosystems that have long since vanished,” noted lead author Robert Smyth, a doctoral researcher at the Centre for Palaeobiology and Biosphere Evolution, University of Leicester.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracks-tied-to-three-pterosaur-groups">Tracks tied to three pterosaur groups</h2>



<p>The team identified three distinct footprint types, each linked to a major pterosaur clade: ctenochasmatoids, dsungaripterids, and neoazhdarchians. </p>



<p>These prints vary in shape, size, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pterosaur-bones-biomimicry-could-inspire-better-aircraft-technology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">distribution</a>. Yet together, they illustrate a dramatic expansion of pterosaur diversity into land-based ecosystems during the Jurassic and Cretaceous.</p>



<p>Using both multivariate analysis and anatomical synapomorphies (shared traits), the team matched the fossil tracks with body fossils. Many of the prints retained fine details, such as joint pads, heel structures, and even traces of webbing between toes.</p>



<p>"Finally, 88 years after first discovering pterosaur tracks, we now know exactly who made them and how," said co-author Dr. David Unwin from the School of Museum Studies, University of Leicester.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaur-footprints-in-coastal-wetlands">Pterosaur footprints in coastal wetlands</h2>



<p>Ctenochasmatoids, known for their elongated jaws and filter-feeding teeth, left the most abundant tracks. Their footprints are broad, triangular, and often display splayed metatarsals and impressions of webbing. </p>



<p>These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">features</a> suggest they walked with plantigrade feet and likely moved through shallow water environments, such as tidal flats and lagoons.</p>



<p>Their tracks are found in formations across Europe and North America and often occur in large numbers. This suggests these pterosaurs were not just visitors but key players in coastal ecosystems. </p>



<p>The track features align with known skeletal remains of species like <em>Ctenochasma elegans</em>, which had long metatarsals and short toes ideal for walking in wet sediment.</p>



<p>Interestingly, these footprints show that metatarsal I was longer than the others - a rare trait among reptiles but common in ctenochasmatoids. This makes their tracks relatively easy to distinguish from those of crocodiles or other reptiles.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-others-walked-along-lakes">Others walked along lakes</h2>



<p>Found only in China’s Tugulu Group, dsungaripterid tracks are rarer but highly distinctive. These pterosaurs had powerful jaws with beak-like tips and large crushing teeth in the rear. </p>



<p>Their tracks feature a short digit I and longer outer digits, forming a unique footprint shape that reflects their specialized foot anatomy.</p>



<p>These prints appear alongside skeletal remains of <em>Dsungaripterus weii</em> and <em>Noripterus complicidens</em>, supporting their identification. The sediment they walked on - fine-grained mudstones and sandstones - suggests they roamed deltaic and lakeshore environments.</p>



<p>The matching between tracks and bones in this case is unusually strong. It provides one of the clearest examples of a direct connection between movement traces and the animals that made them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neoazhdarchians-walked-the-land">Neoazhdarchians walked the land</h2>



<p>Neoazhdarchians, which include giants like <em><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cracking-the-code-of-pterosaur-flight-soaring-vs-flapping/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quetzalcoatlus</a></em>, left narrow, elongated tracks often showing deep, round heel impressions.</p>



<p>Their footprints appear across Asia, Africa, and the Americas. These animals had long legs and necks, suggesting they hunted like modern ground-foraging birds, perhaps stalking prey in open environments.</p>



<p>Unlike the aquatic habitats favored by other pterosaurs, neoazhdarchian tracks are found mostly in continental settings. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/pterosaur_Balaeonognathus_steps_tracks_credit_ULeicester_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/pterosaur_Balaeonognathus_steps_tracks_credit_ULeicester_1s.webp" alt="Pterosaur tracks meet their match. Where ancient footprints meet their maker. A side-by-side comparison of a pterosaur’s hand and foot with 155-million-year-old tracks from Wyoming, USA. The false-color depth map reveals the shape and pressure of each step, showing that these creatures bore more weight on their hands while walking. Credit: University of Leicester" class="wp-image-1968081"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Pterosaur tracks meet their match. Where ancient footprints meet their maker. A side-by-side comparison of a pterosaur’s hand and foot with 155-million-year-old tracks from Wyoming, USA. The false-color depth map reveals the shape and pressure of each step, showing that these creatures bore more weight on their hands while walking. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Leicester</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>This includes plains, deserts, and dry riverbeds. Their stride patterns often match those of large dinosaurs, hinting at shared migration routes or similar responses to terrain.</p>



<p>These trackways typically lack deep impressions from the toes, suggesting that the feet had minimal soft padding and were adapted for efficient walking over firm ground.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pterosaurs-footprints-tell-a-story">Pterosaurs footprints tell a story</h2>



<p>Tracks are not just impressions in stone - they are records of action. They show how animals lived in their habitats, what surfaces they preferred, and sometimes even how they interacted with others. Unlike bones, which can be moved and broken, tracks stay where they were made.</p>



<p>This study confirms that the fossil track record can complement and even extend the fossil bone record. It fills gaps, clarifies behaviors, and adds context to the static images offered by skeletons.</p>



<p>"Tracks are often overlooked when studying pterosaurs, but they provide a wealth of information about how these creatures moved, behaved, and interacted with their environments," Smyth concludes. </p>



<p>"By closely examining footprints, we can now discover things about their biology and ecology that we can't learn anywhere else."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-tracks-from-fliers">No tracks from fliers</h2>



<p>One of the most striking findings is what isn’t there. Tracks from early pterosaurs - those before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/footprints-reveal-ancient-playground-for-giant-jurassic-dinosaurs-scottish-lagoon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Middle Jurassic</a> - are entirely absent.</p>



<p>This supports the idea that these species were arboreal or scansorial, rarely walking on flat land. Their limbs and feet were poorly suited to ground movement, and they likely spent most of their lives in trees or cliffs.</p>



<p>Also missing are footprints from groups like tapejarids and pteranodontians. These pterosaurs, though well known from bones, appear poorly adapted to life on the ground. </p>



<p>Their feet lacked the features seen in trackmakers, which may explain why their prints are absent from fossil surfaces.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-walking-changed-evolution">Land walking changed evolution</h2>



<p>This track-based approach has revealed a major shift in pterosaur evolution. </p>



<p>By the Middle Jurassic, the evolution of longer limbs and more stable feet allowed some pterosaurs to take advantage of ground-based habitats. They diversified and spread, becoming important members of land-based ecosystems.</p>



<p>The study shows that pterosaur terrestrial invasion was not a random occurrence. It was a structured expansion, involving specific clades with shared foot traits. These groups walked with purpose and left behind tracks that tell the story of their hidden lives.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-tracks-still-reveal">What tracks still reveal</h2>



<p>As more footprints are discovered and linked to their makers, the image of pterosaurs continues to evolve. Far from being limited to flight, many were capable terrestrial animals that played vital roles in their environments.</p>



<p>This study not only repositions pterosaurs in the Mesozoic world - it also highlights the power of trace fossils to reveal secrets that bones alone can’t show. </p>



<p>And perhaps most exciting of all, it suggests there’s much more to find - not just in the skies of prehistory, but in the ground beneath their feet.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00446-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.</em></p>



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Pterosaur footprints discovery leads to surprising conclusion

For decades, pterosaurs were cast as soaring shadows above the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



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<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



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<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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