<p>Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. </p>



<p>This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize.</p>



<p>A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> provides fresh insight. </p>



<p>Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element that enabled the inner core to solidify billions of years ago.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-core-composition-matters">Why Earth's core composition matters</h2>



<p>The makeup of Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/">core</a> determines not only its density but also its thermal and magnetic behavior. </p>



<p>Seismology shows that the core is less dense than pure iron, meaning lighter elements must be present. Candidates like silicon, sulphur, oxygen, and carbon have all been considered.</p>



<p>The latest simulations show that carbon, in particular, may have been essential. Without it, the inner core’s crystallization would have required impossible conditions, making its very existence a mystery.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984775"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-supercooling-paradox">The supercooling paradox</h2>



<p>Liquids rarely freeze solid the instant they cool past their <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/melting-point" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting point</a>. Instead, they must be supercooled, chilled further before crystals can form. </p>



<p>For molten iron alone, estimates suggested that a massive 800 to 1000 °C (1472 to 1832 °F) of supercooling would be needed.</p>



<p>If that had occurred, the consequences for our planet would have been dramatic. </p>



<p>The inner core would have grown far too quickly, disrupting the delicate balance of heat flow inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">Earth</a> and destabilizing the magnetic field that protects life from harmful solar and cosmic radiation.</p>



<p>Scientists know this did not happen. Geophysical evidence points instead to a modest level of supercooling, limited to about 250 °C (482 °F). </p>



<p>That small difference between theoretical predictions and observational reality has puzzled researchers for decades.</p>



<p>This contradiction, known as the inner core nucleation paradox, continues to inspire debate, experiments, and advanced simulations aimed at uncovering the true chemistry of Earth’s deepest layers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-the-impossible">Simulating the impossible</h2>



<p>To resolve the paradox, the research team ran atomic-scale simulations of iron mixed with different light elements. </p>



<p>They tested silicon, sulfur, oxygen, and carbon, and watched how each affected the first step of freezing: nucleation.</p>



<p>“Each of these elements exists in the overlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-ocean-of-fire-shaped-early-earths-core-according-to-a-new-study/">mantle</a> and could therefore have been dissolved into the core during Earth’s history,” explained co-author Associate Professor Andrew Walker from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.</p>



<p>“As a result, these could explain why we have a solid inner core with relatively little supercooling at this depth. The presence of one or more of these elements could also rationalize why the core is less dense than pure iron, a key observation from seismology.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984773"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-drives-earth-s-core-freezing">Carbon drives Earth's core freezing</h2>



<p>The simulations revealed that silicon and sulfur actually hindered freezing, which would have increased the supercooling requirement. Carbon, however, had the opposite effect.</p>



<p>With 2.4 % carbon, the required supercooling dropped to about 420 °C (788 °F). Still too high, but much closer to reality. </p>



<p>Extrapolating further, a carbon content of 3.8 % reduced the figure to 266 °C (511 °F), which is consistent with geological evidence.</p>



<p>This makes carbon the only element so far shown to both enable nucleation and align with seismic observations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-seeds-needed">No seeds needed</h2>



<p>Unlike hail forming around dust in clouds, Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-gold-reaches-earths-surface-from-the-mantle/">core</a> appears to have frozen without “nucleation seeds.” </p>



<p>Tests of possible seed materials, like oxides or metals, show they would melt or dissolve before reaching the center. That leaves chemistry itself, specifically the presence of carbon, as the driver of solidification.</p>



<p>“It is exciting to see how atomic scale processes control the fundamental structure and dynamics of our planet," said lead author Dr. Alfred Wilson from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>. </p>



<p>"By studying how Earth’s inner core formed, we are not just learning about our planet’s past. We’re getting a rare glimpse into the chemistry of a region we can never hope to reach directly and learning about how it could change in the future.”</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984777"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</em></figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-s-role-in-earth-s-core">Carbon's role in Earth’s core</h2>



<p>The research also helps refine estimates of when the inner core formed. Some argue it began crystallizing over two billion years ago, while others suggest it happened less than half a billion years ago. </p>



<p>By identifying carbon as the critical player, scientists can narrow down these timelines. </p>



<p>This enables a better understanding of how Earth’s deep engine has evolved to influence the magnetic field, surface conditions, and even the long-term habitability of our planet.</p>



<p>The message is clear: carbon is more than a surface element of life. It may also be the hidden architect of Earth’s inner heart, shaping its stability across geological time.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62841-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</em></p>



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Scientists have changed their minds again about the composition of Earth's core

Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize. A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and University College London provides fresh insight. Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element...

<p>An exceptionally well-preserved ant fossil encased in 16-million-year-old Dominican amber is offering scientists surprising new insights into the evolutionary journey of a rare group known as dirt ants, or <em>Basiceros</em>.</p>



<p>The fossilized ant - a previously unknown species named <em>Basiceros enana</em> - is the first of its kind ever uncovered in the Caribbean. The discovery suggests that these elusive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> once inhabited the islands before vanishing during the Miocene epoch, which spanned from roughly 23 to 5.3 million years ago.</p>



<p>“Dirt ants are rare finds in the wild. Finding one today is exciting given how well they stay hidden, but captured in amber, it's like finding a diamond,” said Gianpiero Fiorentino, the study’s lead author and a PhD candidate at the <a href="https://www.njit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Jersey Institute of Technology</a> (NJIT). “This fossil is singularly distinct from all its modern relatives and reshapes the evolutionary history of <em>Basiceros</em>.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-of-a-dirt-ant-species">Discovery of a dirt ant species</h2>



<p>Previously, all known members of this ant genus were limited to neotropical rainforests stretching from Costa Rica down to Southern Brazil. Currently, nine living <em>Basiceros</em> species are documented. </p>



<p>The discovery of <em>B. enana</em>, however, raises new questions about how these ants once dispersed and colonized parts of the Caribbean.</p>



<p>“Often lineages will have what appear to be fairly straightforward biogeographic histories. If you find a group of animals that only live in South America up to Costa Rica today, you really have no reason to expect that their early relatives lived in the Caribbean,” said Phil Barden, senior author of the study and associate professor of biology at NJIT.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“A fossil like this underscores how the distribution of living species can belie the complex evolutionary history of life on our planet.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-the-dirt-ant-s-ancestry">Tracing the dirt ant's ancestry </h2>



<p>To analyze the ancient ant, the team employed cutting-edge imaging methods, including Micro-CT scanning at NJIT and the <a href="https://www.oist.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University</a>. These techniques enabled them to reconstruct the fossil in 3D and examine intricate anatomical details otherwise invisible.</p>



<p>“The use of Micro-CT scanning really amplified this study, enabling us to capture features that were virtually impossible to see otherwise,” Fiorentino explained.</p>



<p>The researchers compared these structural features to all known living dirt ant species and used molecular dating methods to trace the species' ancestry. Because amber preserves creatures in three dimensions, the team was able to collect extensive information from the small specimen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-fossil">Significance of the fossil</h2>



<p>The fossil ant, measuring just 5.13 millimeters in length, is significantly smaller than its modern descendants, which can grow to nearly 9 millimeters. As a result, <em>B. enana</em> now holds the distinction of being the smallest member of its genus ever recorded.</p>



<p>“Our results show that the embiggening of these ants was relatively rapid,” Fiorentino said. “They almost doubled in size in the span of 20 million years." </p>



<p>"Previous hypotheses suggested that these ants were ancestrally large and shrank over time, so this flips that on its head and really illustrates how important fossils can be to understanding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-gene-families-pangenome-influence-called-revolutionary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolution</a> of a lineage.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-camouflage-already-in-play">Ancient camouflage already in play</h2>



<p>Yet despite its smaller size, <em>B. enana</em> already displayed some of the key adaptations that help modern dirt ants remain nearly invisible in their environment - a form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">camouflage</a> known as crypsis. </p>



<p>These include two layers of specialized hairs designed to trap dirt and debris: long brush-like setae that lift particles and shorter, tighter hairs that hold them close to the body’s surface.</p>



<p>“What this shows is that playing dead and hiding pays off,” Fiorentino said. “Uncovering a unique fossil like this helps us understand how long organisms may have been employing this strategy, though the presence of these characteristics does not necessarily guarantee they behaved in this way.”</p>



<p>The fossil also shares other recognizable features with today’s dirt ants, such as curved propodeal spines, a distinctive trapezoidal head, and sharp mandibles lined with a dozen triangular teeth - traits suggesting a predatory lifestyle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-piece-of-a-larger-puzzle">A piece of a larger puzzle </h2>



<p>Despite these survival advantages, <em>Basiceros</em> ants eventually disappeared from the Caribbean, likely due to dramatic environmental shifts during the Miocene. The team suggests that ancient land bridges might have allowed the ants to migrate from mainland South America to the islands.</p>



<p>“The presence of <em>Basiceros</em> in Dominican amber suggests ancient land bridges may have provided pathways for these ants to traverse from the mainland to the Caribbean,” Barden said. </p>



<p>“This fossil is a piece of a larger puzzle that will help us understand why some groups of organisms undergo <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-led-to-the-emergence-of-ant-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extinction</a> and others stick it out for millions of years.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loss-of-ants-in-the-caribbean">Loss of ants in the Caribbean</h2>



<p>Fiorentino noted that the dirt ants' extinction could have come down to a loss of available niches or interspecific competition. </p>



<p>"These ants are predators, and an overall trend that we see from the Caribbean is a loss of predator ant diversity," said Fiorentino.</p>



<p>“Over a third of ant genera have gone extinct on the island of modern-day Dominican Republic since the formation of Dominican amber. Understanding what has driven this pattern of local extinction is crucial to mitigating modern human-driven extinction and protecting biodiversity."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2171" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the Royal Society B</em></a>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: Gianpiero Fiorentino (NJIT)</p>



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Dirt ants were once masters of disguise in the Caribbean

An exceptionally well-preserved ant fossil encased in 16-million-year-old Dominican amber...

<p>We speak to our dogs constantly - during walks, feeding, play, or even casual chatter. Most of us assume they respond only to tone or gestures, not the actual words, but new research challenges this belief.</p>



<p>A collaborative study from the Universities of <a href="https://www.lincoln.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lincoln</a>, <a href="https://www.sussex.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sussex</a>, and <a href="https://www.univ-st-etienne.fr/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jean Monnet</a> has revealed that dogs can detect meaningful words even in monotone human speech.</p>



<p>The researchers found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-puppy-day-2025-where-happiness-meets-responsibility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> are not just responding to our cheerful pet voices. They actually “listen in,” parsing out significant phrases from otherwise irrelevant sentences.</p>



<p>This raises fascinating questions about language perception, attention, and the impact of thousands of years of domestication.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-don-t-need-baby-talk-speech">Dogs don’t need baby talk speech</h2>



<p>Humans often use an exaggerated, happy tone when addressing dogs. This is called dog-directed speech (DDS), and it's designed to grab their attention - just like baby talk for infants.</p>



<p>Until now, it was assumed that this exaggerated tone helped dogs identify important words. But are they just reacting to pitch, or do they understand actual language?</p>



<p>The researchers created an experiment to test if <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-dogs-replacing-children-how-modern-society-is-changing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> could pick out meaningful content when speech lacked the familiar emotional tone. They used a stream of neutral sentences delivered in flat monotone and inserted familiar phrases like “[Dog’s name], come on then.” </p>



<p>These phrases were spoken in either DDS or neutral reading prosody (NRP). The goal was to see if dogs could still identify these phrases without emotional clues.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-are-really-good-listeners">Dogs are really good listeners </h2>



<p>The findings were striking. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pet-dogs-severely-harm-wildlife-even-when-leashed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dogs</a> consistently responded to commands spoken in monotone, ignoring the irrelevant surrounding words. In other words, they weren’t just reacting to tone  they were actually parsing the speech for meaning.</p>



<p>"Dogs understand that we say their name to get their attention, and this is almost always paired with a happy 'baby talk' speech register because dogs prefer it," noted Dr. Holly Root-Gutteridge, one of the lead researchers.</p>



<p>"We wanted to see if dogs were only responding to this happy voice or if they could recognize their name, even when it was buried in a sentence and delivered in a flat voice."</p>



<p>"We found that dogs could absolutely find their name when presented in a monotone way and buried in stream of irrelevant speech - a prerequisite for comprehending language - and shows how good they are at listening to us."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-can-focus-on-relevant-speech">Dogs can focus on relevant speech </h2>



<p>This capacity relates to what scientists call the “cocktail party effect” - our ability to focus on a single voice amid background noise.</p>



<p>Humans can pick out meaningful speech in a noisy room. This study shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lost-in-translation-how-we-misread-our-dogs-emotions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a> may have a similar skill. Despite irrelevant noise and monotone delivery, they managed to isolate commands meant for them.</p>



<p>The dogs also performed better when a brief pause preceded the command, suggesting they use subtle structural cues to detect speech boundaries. This resembles how human infants learn to segment words.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-tone-boosts-attention">Emotional tone boosts attention</h2>



<p>To better understand how tone and content influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dogs-say-goodbye-before-they-die-these-signs-will-tell-you-if-your-friend-is-leaving-soon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dogs</a>, the researchers ran two experiments. First, they examined responses to DDS and NRP with and without meaningful content. Then, they tested if dogs reacted differently based on the speaker’s gender.</p>



<p>In the prosody experiment, dogs showed the most attention to DDS with meaningful phrases. But they also responded - though less often - to meaningful words in neutral tone. Surprisingly, they reacted to DDS-control phrases (with no meaning) as much as to NRP-meaningful phrases.</p>



<p>"So, this means that they're listening to us all the time and can pick out their name, but they will pay more attention if you give them both cues. So, 'Sheba, come on then' gets more attention from her if you sound eager to see her," noted Dr. Root-Gutteridge.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-aren-t-just-responding-to-tone">Dogs aren't just responding to tone </h2>



<p>In a follow-up experiment, the researchers explored whether dogs responded differently to male and female owners. While women tend to use more exaggerated DDS, the dogs didn’t show a clear preference. Both male and female speakers prompted similar responses.</p>



<p>"We show that dogs can recognize speech information relevant to them in the absence of the usual prosody we use when we address them," noted Professor David Reby, the project’s lead.</p>



<p>This suggests that the ability to perceive verbal content isn't just a reaction to tone or pitch. It may be tied to something deeper, like neural architecture adapted through domestication.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-break-speech-down">Dogs break speech down</h2>



<p>Dogs may be using a process similar to speech segmentation, long studied in humans. This is the ability to split a continuous flow of sound into distinct, meaningful units. </p>



<p>Infants learn it early on, using pitch, pauses, and patterns. Dogs seem to possess a version of this ability too.</p>



<p>They respond to repeated phonemes and meaningful words embedded in flat speech. Some even outperformed one-year-old human infants in earlier name-recognition tests. This points to a strong capacity for statistical learning and familiar sound identification.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dogs-understand-speech-content">Dogs understand speech content</h2>



<p>The researchers concluded that while DDS helps grab attention, dogs can still process flat speech. This means our furry friends might understand more than we think - especially when we say something they’ve heard often.</p>



<p>Dogs' attention was highest when meaningful content was paired with DDS. However, they still showed notable responses when only one of these cues was present. So, if you’re giving commands without the usual cheerful tone, your dog might still catch on.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-other-animals">Implications for other animals</h2>



<p>This study has deep implications. It suggests that dogs aren't just tuned to our emotional expressions - they're truly listening for meaning. </p>



<p>Future research might explore how well this applies to other species like cats or horses, or whether wild relatives like wolves show similar abilities.</p>



<p>The research team also hopes to study whether voice familiarity strengthens word recognition in dogs. Since human babies benefit from familiar voices, the same might be true for our pets.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-long-history-of-listening">A long history of listening</h2>



<p>Dogs have evolved alongside humans for over 14,000 years. This deep bond likely shaped their ability to understand us. While we’ve long known they respond to tone, this study proves they’re paying closer attention than we assumed.</p>



<p>Their ability to sift through speech, identify relevant phrases, and respond - regardless of tone - marks a new chapter in human-animal communication.</p>



<p>And next time you think your dog isn’t paying attention because you didn’t use a cheerful voice - think again. They might be listening all along.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10071-025-01948-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Cognition</a></em>.</p>



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Dogs can understand words even in monotone speech

We speak to our dogs constantly - during walks, feeding,...

<p>In the rugged landscapes of Canada’s Rocky Mountains, researchers have identified a previously unknown butterfly species hiding in plain sight.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Long mistaken for the Half-moon Hairstreak (<em>Satyrium semiluna</em>), the butterflies found in the Blakiston Fan region have now been named <em>Satyrium curiosolus</em>, or the Curiously Isolated Hairstreak.</p>



<p>This discovery reveals the species’ unique evolutionary path, suggesting it has remained cut off from its closest relatives for tens of thousands of years - potentially as long as 40,000 years - slowly evolving into a distinct population both genetically and ecologically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-completely-isolated-butterfly-population">A completely isolated butterfly population</h2>



<p>Zac MacDonald, co-first author of the study, is a postdoctoral researcher at <a href="https://www.ioes.ucla.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UCLA’s Institute of the Environment and Sustainability</a>. </p>



<p>“Our whole-genome sequencing of <em>S. curiosolus</em> revealed strikingly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflys-rapid-expansion-led-to-lower-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">low genetic diversity</a> and exceptionally high levels of historical inbreeding compared to the geographically nearest <em>S. semiluna</em> populations in British Columbia and Montana, more than 400 km distant,” said MacDonald.</p>



<p>Despite its small size, the species appears to have persisted independently for millennia. “Like the Channel Island Fox, <em>S. curiosolus</em> may have purged some of its harmful recessive genetic variation through a long, gradual history of inbreeding, allowing it to persist as a small and completely isolated population today,” MacDonald added.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterfly</a> is not only genetically distinct, but also occupies a unique prairie-grassland habitat, unlike its relatives, which typically reside in sagebrush steppe ecosystems. It has adapted to a different set of environmental conditions, relying exclusively on the silvery lupine (<em>Lupinus argenteus</em>) as its host plant - a species not used by <em>S. semiluna</em> populations in British Columbia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-mutualistic-partnership">A rare mutualistic partnership</h2>



<p>In another unexpected twist, the study uncovered a mutualistic bond between <em>S. curiosolus</em> larvae and a specific ant species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Furthermore, we recently discovered that <em>S. curiosolus</em> larvae have mutualistic relationships with a particular species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ants-perform-life-saving-amputation-surgeries-on-injured-nest-mates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ant</a> (<em>Lasius ponderosae</em>), which has not been observed in other <em>S. semiluna</em> populations,” said co-author James Glasier, an ecologist at the <a href="https://www.calgaryzoo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo</a>.</p>



<p>The caterpillars secrete a sugary substance known as honeydew, which the ants consume. In exchange, the ants protect the larvae from predators and parasites. </p>



<p>Caterpillars even retreat into ant nests when disturbed or during extreme temperatures, while adult females strategically lay eggs near the entrances of ant colonies beneath silvery lupines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-canada-s-isolated-butterfly">Protecting Canada's isolated butterfly</h2>



<p>Formally recognizing <em>S. curiosolus</em> as a distinct species has critical implications for conservation. Its long isolation has led to very low genetic variability, which can make adaptation to environmental shifts more difficult.&nbsp;</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-foxes-montane-need-genetic-rescue-as-they-edge-near-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Genetic rescue</a> - introducing individuals from closely related populations to increase genetic diversity - is often proposed in such cases. But for <em>S. curiosolus</em>, this approach may not be feasible.</p>



<p>Due to the high degree of differentiation from <em>S. semiluna</em>, the risk of outbreeding depression - where introduced genes reduce fitness - is high. In fact, the species may not even be reproductively compatible with its closest relatives. </p>



<p>Alternative conservation strategies, such as establishing new populations in safe habitats, may be necessary to preserve this butterfly’s future.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genomic-tools-advance-biodiversity-studies">Genomic tools advance biodiversity studies</h2>



<p>Co-first author Julian Dupuis, an assistant professor at the University of Kentucky, noted that the discovery of <em>S. curiosolus</em> is a powerful demonstration of how genomics is revolutionizing taxonomy and conservation.</p>



<p>“While traditional taxonomic methods often rely on morphology alone, our study underscores the importance of integrating genomic and ecological data to uncover hidden diversity," said Dupuis.</p>



<p>"With the rise of genomic tools, previously unrecognized species like <em>S. curiosolus</em> are being discovered, highlighting the need for conservation strategies that account for cryptic biodiversity.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tackling-complex-conservation-challenges">Tackling complex conservation challenges </h2>



<p>This kind of research would not be possible without strong partnerships. Academic institutions, national parks, and conservation groups worked together to make the discovery possible.</p>



<p>“Our studies on <em>S. curiosolus</em> and <em>S. semiluna</em> highlight the importance of collaboration between academic scientists, nonprofit organizations, and conservation managers,” MacDonald said. “All of this work was made possible through partnerships between academic researchers, <a href="https://parks.canada.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parks Canada</a>, and the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“By combining expertise in genomics, field ecology, and conservation management, we were able to produce findings that not only reshape our understanding of biodiversity but also provide actionable insights for species protection.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>MacDonald noted that moving forward, these interdisciplinary collaborations will be critical for tackling complex conservation challenges and ensuring the long-term survival of species like <em>S. curiosolus</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-isolated-butterfly">Significance of the isolated butterfly </h2>



<p>Now that the isolated butterfly <em>Satyrium curiosolus</em> has been officially recognized, the researchers emphasize that further study is needed. Investigating its evolutionary relationships, interactions with host plants and ant species, and responses to climate change will be essential. </p>



<p>Long-term monitoring led by Parks Canada and the Wilder Institute/Calgary Zoo will help determine how the butterfly copes with ongoing environmental shifts.</p>



<p>“This is a wonderful example of how such monitoring can connect diverse approaches and impactful answers to a simple question like ‘that’s odd - why is it there?’” said senior author Felix Sperling, a professor at the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/en/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Alberta</a> and curator of the <a href="https://www.ualberta.ca/en/museums/museum-collections/eh-strickland-entomological-museum.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Strickland Museum of Entomology</a>.</p>



<p>For now, the Curiously Isolated Hairstreak serves as a reminder of how even the smallest, most overlooked creatures can play a vital role in our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> - and in shaping how we protect it for future generations.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://zookeys.pensoft.net/article/143893/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>ZooKeys</em></a>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: MacDonald et al.</p>



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‘Curiously isolated’ butterfly found in Canada's Rocky Mountains

In the rugged landscapes of Canada’s Rocky Mountains, researchers have...

<p>Mars has long held our curiosity. Rust-colored, carbon-rich, and barren, it whispers tales of a very different past. Its dry riverbeds, crater lakes, and mineral-rich soil suggest that water once flowed across its surface. But something changed.</p>



<p>The thick atmosphere that could have supported that water is now gone. Where did it go? How did a once-wet Mars turn into the arid world we see today?</p>



<p>The answers may lie beneath the planet’s dusty surface. Thanks to NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/msl-curiosity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curiosity rover</a>, scientists now have evidence of a previously hidden carbon sink. It comes in the form of siderite - an iron carbonate mineral.</p>



<p>And its discovery could explain what happened to the carbon dioxide-rich atmosphere of ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-captured-in-true-color-like-youve-never-seen-the-red-planet-before/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mars-had-carbon-dioxide-and-water">Ancient Mars had carbon dioxide and water</h2>



<p>Mars, in its ancient days, likely had a dense atmosphere filled with carbon dioxide. </p>



<p>This atmospheric pressure, combined with the greenhouse effect, would have made liquid water stable on the surface. That water interacted with volcanic rocks, setting off a chain of chemical reactions.</p>



<p>The expected result? The formation of carbonate minerals, which are stable compounds that trap carbon dioxide in stone.</p>



<p>Yet for decades, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-collects-26th-rock-sample-on-mars-plans-to-bring-them-all-to-earth-for-study/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a> missions failed to find enough carbonates to support this theory. This gap left a puzzle. If early Mars had so much carbon dioxide, why didn’t its rocks hold more evidence of this?</p>



<p>That’s what makes Curiosity’s new findings so important. It drilled deep into Mount Sharp, inside Gale Crater, and brought up powdered rock from ancient layers. </p>



<p>Among these layers, scientists found siderite - an iron carbonate that has never before been seen in such abundance on Mars.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-surprising-and-important-breakthrough">"A surprising and important breakthrough"</h2>



<p>“The discovery of abundant siderite in Gale Crater represents both a surprising and important breakthrough in our understanding of the geologic and atmospheric evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-mars-atmosphere-may-improve-weather-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>,” said Benjamin Tutolo, assistant professor at the <a href="https://www.ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>, and lead author of the <em>Science</em> paper.</p>



<p>Siderite is a particularly useful clue. It forms under water-limited conditions and suggests that ancient Mars experienced both water interaction and evaporation. Its presence points to a carbon cycle - carbon dioxide moved from the air, into the water, and then into rock.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Mars_Ubajara-site_Curiosity-rover_carbon-discovery_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/Mars_Ubajara-site_Curiosity-rover_carbon-discovery_NASA_1s.webp" alt="NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover sees its tracks receding into the distance at a site nicknamed “Ubajara” on April 30, 2023. This site is where Curiosity made the discovery of siderite, a mineral that may help explain the fate of the planet’s thicker ancient atmosphere. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS" class="wp-image-1966478"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>NASA’s Curiosity Mars rover sees its tracks receding into the distance at a site nicknamed “Ubajara” on April 30, 2023. This site is where Curiosity made the discovery of siderite, a mineral that may help explain the fate of the planet’s thicker ancient atmosphere. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Curiosity’s Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin) instrument helped confirm the identity of siderite. Meanwhile, the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) suite revealed its chemical signature. </p>



<p>The drill samples - taken from sites named Tapo Caparo, Ubajara, and Sequoia - showed siderite concentrations of between 4.8% and 10.5% by weight.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-s-carbon-storage-hidden-in-plain-sight">Mars’s carbon storage hidden in plain sight</h2>



<p>Until now, orbital data failed to detect such minerals. Near-infrared satellite imagery can be obscured by surface dust or overwhelmed by brighter mineral signals. </p>



<p>Siderite’s location, which was buried beneath sulfate-rich deposits, may explain why previous missions missed it.</p>



<p>These sulfate-rich layers aren’t just located in Gale Crater. They exist across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-curiosity-rover-finds-sulfur-crystals-martian-rock-hints-at-possible-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mars</a>. If they hide siderite in similar concentrations, then Mars may have stored a large portion of its atmospheric carbon dioxide underground.</p>



<p>Scientists estimate that these layers could hold between 2.6 and 36 millibars of CO₂. That’s as much, or more, than the planet’s current atmospheric CO₂ levels.</p>



<p>Such a reservoir could have once supported the warm, wet conditions needed for lakes and rivers to exist on the Red Planet. But what’s even more interesting is that not all of this stored carbon stayed locked in stone.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-carbon-escaped-back-into-the-martian-atmosphere">Some carbon escaped back into the Martian atmosphere</h2>



<p>The drill samples don’t just contain siderite. They also hold various iron oxides - like hematite, goethite, and akageneite. </p>



<p>These oxides form when siderite breaks down under more oxidizing conditions. This process releases the previously trapped carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere.</p>



<p>“Drilling through the layered Martian surface is like going through a history book,” said Thomas Bristow, research scientist at NASA <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/ames/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ames</a>. “Just a few centimeters down gives us a good idea of the minerals that formed at or close to the surface around 3.5 billion years ago.”</p>



<p>The story told by these layers is dynamic. Siderite formed during a time of evaporation and groundwater activity. Later, as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a> changed - possibly due to acidic fluids or shifts in pH - some of that siderite decomposed.</p>



<p>This released carbon dioxide and formed new minerals, completing a carbon loop.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-had-an-incomplete-carbon-cycle">Mars had an incomplete carbon cycle </h2>



<p>Earth’s carbon cycle is balanced. Volcanic emissions, plant life, ocean chemistry, and weathering all work together to move carbon through the atmosphere, oceans, and rocks. Mars’s cycle, by contrast, appears broken and incomplete.</p>



<p>The presence of siderite shows that Mars once captured atmospheric CO₂ in mineral form. The iron oxides found in the same rocks reveal that some of that carbon later returned to the atmosphere. But not all of it. Some siderite remained preserved.</p>



<p>This incomplete cycle suggests that ancient Mars experienced a partial climate rebound. After trapping carbon dioxide, the planet may have warmed again temporarily. Then, over time, it cooled as more atmosphere escaped into space or got permanently buried.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-clues-and-future-searches">Global clues and future searches</h2>



<p>Sulfate-bearing layers like those in Gale Crater appear across the surface of Mars. If they also contain siderite, then this carbon sink might be global. But orbital instruments haven’t yet detected carbonate signatures in these areas.</p>



<p>The likely explanation is that these carbonates remain hidden under surface dust or mixed with other materials that mask their presence.</p>



<p>Future missions equipped with deeper drills or improved sensors could test this idea. If they confirm the widespread presence of siderite, we’ll have a clearer picture of Mars’s carbon history. We’ll also have a better understanding of how the planet lost its habitability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curiosity-reveals-a-deeper-martian-history">Curiosity reveals a deeper Martian history</h2>



<p>Curiosity’s discovery doesn’t just explain a mystery. </p>



<p>It paints a new picture of Mars - one where lakes once stood, minerals formed and reformed, and carbon danced between rock and sky. Each drill hole now tells a story that is millions of years old.</p>



<p>And with each story, we move closer to understanding whether Mars could once have supported life - and why it no longer does.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/epdf/10.1126/science.ado9966" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Curiosity finally found Mars' missing carbon: "Surprising and important breakthrough"

Mars has long held our curiosity. Rust-colored, carbon-rich, and barren,...

<p>The noises of everyday life might be stirring more than just your eardrums. Recent findings suggest that certain vibrations affect living cells in unexpected ways. </p>



<p>In an effort to see if cells truly respond to sound, researchers developed specialized setups that send mild pressure waves into cell cultures.</p>



<p>After extensive tests, Masahiro Kumeta from <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a> emerged as a leading voice in this field.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cells-detect-and-respond-to-sound">Cells detect and respond to sound</h2>



<p>Cells typically rely on chemical signals and mechanical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-people-are-born-to-enjoy-music-more-than-others/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cues</a> to regulate their growth. The notion that <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4659753/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">audible frequencies</a> might play a role in shaping cell functions has intrigued scientists for years.</p>



<p>“To investigate the effect of sound on cellular activities, we designed a system to bathe cultured cells in acoustic waves,” said Kumeta. </p>



<p>The researchers noted that subtle compressions could alter how cells communicate and function.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-cells-sense-pressure">When cells sense pressure</h2>



<p>One pivotal outcome was the identification of over 100 genes that seemed sensitive to specific sound conditions. </p>



<p>Different frequencies and intensities triggered varied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/music-has-the-power-to-change-the-mood-of-our-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses</a>, hinting at a surprisingly sophisticated cellular awareness.</p>



<p>“Since sound is non-material, acoustic stimulation is a tool that is non-invasive, safe, and immediate, and will likely benefit medicine and healthcare,” said Kumeta. </p>



<p>Observations <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11089525/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">suggested</a> that mechanical receptors on cell surfaces might be picking up sound-related pressure changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sound-affects-fat-development">Sound affects fat development</h2>



<p>The research also uncovered a link between vibrations and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/adipocyte" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">adipocyte</a> development. Cells destined to become fat cells showed reduced differentiation when exposed to tailored sound signals.</p>



<p>This effect was partly explained by increased levels of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/prostaglandin-e2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PGE2</a>, a molecule known to influence fat cell growth. The findings add weight to ongoing discussions about non-invasive ways to manage tissue health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-everyday-noise-impacts-cell-health">Everyday noise impacts cell health</h2>



<p>These discoveries raise questions about the relationship between environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/live-music-connects-people-emotionally-and-physically/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">noise</a> and cellular health. Future investigations might shed light on whether day-to-day soundscapes carry hidden effects for humans.</p>



<p>Such possibilities could open new therapeutic avenues to address metabolic issues or support tissue regeneration. </p>



<p>Learning more about how cells detect acoustic cues might guide clinicians toward safer treatment strategies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sound-can-control-cell-activity">Sound can control cell activity</h2>



<p>Researchers are keen to explore how mechanical waves can be tuned to different cell types. This tuning could help maintain specific cell behaviors without using invasive procedures.</p>



<p>Understanding these mechanisms might also improve regenerative medicine by providing a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upright-walking-may-have-sparked-human-creativity-and-music/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tool</a> that supports healing tissues. </p>



<p>Though the science is still expanding, the conversation around everyday sound’s potential influence on cellular well-being is gaining traction.</p>



<p>The idea that your cells respond to invisible shifts in pressure challenges traditional views of sensory biology. Investigations promise to reveal more about how we can harness acoustic signals in gentle yet meaningful ways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vibrations-shift-gene-activity">Vibrations shift gene activity</h2>



<p>Mechanobiology extends to how tissues interpret various physical forces. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5763187/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Studies</a> suggest that subtle vibrations might shift gene expression in skeletal and smooth muscle.</p>



<p>Research into <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234245/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neurotoxins</a> and other complex biological processes also shows that cells often respond to unexpected sound cues in their environment. </p>



<p>Low-intensity pulses can trigger molecular changes that were once thought impossible through conventional means.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-noise-pollution-may-harm-cells">Noise pollution may harm cells</h2>



<p>Efforts are underway to design experiments that separate normal mechanical stress from sound-induced signals. If those tests confirm unique responses, the results could open new doors in cell therapy.</p>



<p>Scientists are also curious about whether long-term exposure to mild acoustic environments might steer cells toward different fates.</p>



<p>Communities around the globe deal with noise pollution daily, so these results could change how we think about public health. It raises the possibility certain sound frequencies might either help or hinder basic cellular functions.</p>



<p>Finding a balance between beneficial and disruptive sound levels could become an unexpected health frontier. Communities might one day explore acoustic monitoring alongside typical environmental checks.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-07969-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Communications Biology</em></a>.</p>



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Our cells react to sounds we can't even hear

The noises of everyday life might be stirring more than...

<p>Researchers have long studied quantum entanglement to understand how photons appear to influence each other instantaneously.</p>



<p>This peculiar link first emerged when Albert Einstein pointed to what he called “spooky action at a distance,” suggesting that this peculiar behavior contradicted intuitive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/google-claims-commercial-quantum-computing-is-just-five-years-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">views</a> of cause and effect.</p>



<p>The conversation around these phenomena has evolved through the decades. </p>



<p>Ph.D. student <a href="https://phys.technion.ac.il/en/component/adm/person/1189" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amit Kam</a> and <a href="https://scholar.google.co.il/citations?user=Jf5cMM8AAAAJ&amp;hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Shai Tsesses</a> from <a href="https://www.technion.ac.il/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technion</a> are now adding a twist to this story by exploring surprising effects in photons that occupy incredibly tight spaces.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quantum-entanglement">Understanding quantum entanglement</h2>



<p>Quantum entanglement is a strange but very real phenomenon where two particles become linked in such a way that their states depend on each other, even when separated by huge distances. </p>



<p>Imagine you take a pair of gloves, put one in a box, and send it to the other side of the universe. The moment you open the box and see a left glove, you instantly know the other box has the right one. </p>



<p>With entangled particles, it’s like that, but much weirder. The twist is, unlike gloves that had a clear identity from the start, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-speed-is-measured-first-time-too-fast-for-humans-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">entangled particles</a> don’t “decide” their state until someone measures them. And once one does, the other reacts instantly, no matter how far away it is.</p>



<p>Einstein was never fully onboard with quantum entanglement because it seems to break the rule that nothing can travel faster than light. </p>



<p>But time and again, experiments have shown it’s real. No hidden signals. No delay. Just instant correlation. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-origins-of-entanglement">The origins of entanglement</h2>



<p>Einstein’s <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-epr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">collaboration</a> with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen produced a classic puzzle that challenged existing ideas. </p>



<p>Their EPR paper helped spark deeper inquiries into how one <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microsoft-announces-giant-leap-in-quantum-computing-majorana-1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particle</a> can instantly affect another across vast distances, a phenomenon that puzzled even seasoned physicists.</p>



<p>Years later, the idea reached practical horizons with <a href="https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.70.1895" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum teleportation</a>, which was conceptualized by Charles Bennett, Gilles Brassard, and Asher Peres. </p>



<p>This opened the door to quantum communication protocols that rely on bizarre correlations only possible in the quantum world.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-photon-spaces-are-revealing">Tiny photon spaces are revealing</h2>



<p>The push to miniaturize devices is not just about saving space. Scaling down light-based components can strengthen the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baffling-quantum-entanglement-statistics-puzzle-finally-solved-advanced-technologies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interaction</a> between photons and nearby materials, which may lead to applications that larger-scale systems cannot achieve.</p>



<p>Photons in <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acsanm.3c04950" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanoscale</a> environments showcase new combinations of properties. Instead of seeing separate spin and orbital components, scientists are dealing with <a href="https://faculty.washington.edu/seattle/physics541/12text.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">total angular momentum</a>, which merges these features into one quantity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strange-photon-actions-in-small-spaces">Strange photon actions in small spaces</h2>



<p>Most people imagine light beams spreading out freely, but these experiments <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">confine photons</a> into structures tinier than a thousandth the thickness of a human hair.</p>



<p>That restriction forces angular components of light to overlap in unexpected ways, altering how each photon can carry information.</p>



<p>These observations may hold promise for new kinds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum</a> devices. </p>



<p>Researchers propose that total angular momentum entanglement might enable more compact hardware for quantum computing or communication links than previously thought possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-kind-of-quantum-entanglement">Different kind of quantum entanglement</h2>



<p>Several forms of entanglement in photons involve separate characteristics such as direction, frequency, or polarization. In contrast, total angular momentum combines many properties into a single description.</p>



<p>Evidence for this new structure only surfaced when <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08761-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> tested how photon pairs behave once they pass through carefully designed nanoscale channels. </p>



<p>The outcomes hinted at correlations that do not resemble conventional entanglement structures in larger settings.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-this-matter">Why does this matter?</h2>



<p>Those studying photon-based technologies aim to construct more efficient equipment that harnesses quantum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-phase-superradiant-phase-transition-srpt-observed-in-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">effects</a> for faster computations or stealthy message exchanges. </p>



<p>Smaller components can pack more operations onto a single chip, much like the ongoing trend in electronics.</p>



<p>While some quantum methods focus on established particle attributes, this work suggests that total angular momentum could be an untapped resource. </p>



<p>The miniature systems explored by Technion scientists might offer fresh ways to encode and process data without taking up a lot of space.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photon-control-and-next-steps">Photon control and next steps</h2>



<p>Entangled photons, even in conventional systems, are notoriously sensitive to environmental disturbances. </p>



<p>Confining light in tiny spaces can amplify those effects, so the engineering behind these setups must address potential losses or interference.</p>



<p>Researchers also want to confirm whether total angular momentum entanglement behaves reliably in real-world conditions. </p>



<p>Investigations into materials and device architectures are underway, guided by the new data from these nanoscale experiments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-links-back-to-einstein">How this links back to Einstein</h2>



<p>Einstein’s skepticism about instant influence did not stop the scientific community from uncovering new frontiers in quantum theory. </p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2022/summary/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2022 Nobel Prize in Physics</a> recognized key contributions that shaped how we measure and interpret entanglement.</p>



<p>Today, the focus has turned toward next-generation experiments that push these correlations into ever-smaller spaces. </p>



<p>By compressing photons into structures below their typical wavelength, scientists hope to uncover possibilities beyond familiar optical behaviors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



<p>Each step in quantum research sparks questions about how nature encodes information. </p>



<p>The notion of merging spin and orbit into a single total angular momentum points to a shift in the thinking about light, especially when devices must stay small.</p>



<p>Further studies may translate these findings into commercial products. </p>



<p>Many experts foresee a path where photons replace electrons in computing tasks, leading to faster speeds and less heat dissipation. This new entanglement feature could become an essential piece of that puzzle.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08761-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



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New type of quantum entanglement will transform real-world technology

Researchers have long studied quantum entanglement to understand how photons appear...

<p>For centuries, the universe has offered humanity glimpses of unimaginable galaxies and structures. Some shine brightly, others hide behind veils of gas and dust.</p>



<p>The Southern Pinwheel Galaxy, or Messier 83 (M83), seemed like one of the latter. Its vibrant spiral arms and starburst activity have dazzled astronomers. Yet, deep in its luminous center, something powerful remained unseen - until now.</p>



<p>Recent observations from the James Webb Space Telescope (<a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a>) may have uncovered long-sought evidence of a supermassive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evidence-of-massive-early-universe-black-hole-stuns-astronomers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a> at the galaxy's core.</p>



<p>This finding, driven by the telescope’s Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI), marks a major shift in our understanding of M83 and other galaxies that were once thought to be starburst-only systems. The results open a new chapter in extragalactic astronomy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-hiding-in-a-starburst-galaxy">Black hole hiding in a starburst galaxy</h2>



<p>M83 lies just 4.6 million parsecs away - relatively close on the cosmic scale. Its classification as a barred spiral galaxy with intense star-forming activity placed it under frequent scrutiny.</p>



<p>Yet, despite decades of detailed study, researchers failed to detect signs of a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-in-the-shadows-giant-black-hole-emerges-from-cosmic-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">active galactic nucleus</a> (AGN), which is typically expected in galaxies of its size and structure.</p>



<p>Older optical and near-infrared observations suggested a complex nuclear region. Past efforts even revealed multiple candidate centers - each differing slightly in location and properties.</p>



<p>Still, none of these zones produced evidence strong enough to confirm AGN activity. If the galaxy held a supermassive black hole, it had to be dormant, hidden, or incredibly faint.</p>



<p>Astronomers suspected that thick dust may obscure faint AGN signals, especially in the galaxy’s nuclear starburst zone. Webb’s mid-infrared sensitivity changed that. With MIRI, researchers now see what previous instruments could not.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neon-signals-point-to-mystery">Neon signals point to mystery</h2>



<p>The new study, led by Svea Hernandez, reported clear detections of highly ionized [Ne v] (14.3 μm) and [Ne vi] (7.7 μm) emission in the nucleus of M83.</p>



<p>These lines require photon energies of 97 and 126 electron volts, respectively, which are far higher than typical stellar processes can generate.</p>



<p>“Our discovery of highly ionized neon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-active-black-holes-discovered-where-it-was-believed-they-couldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emission</a> in the nucleus of M83 was unexpected,” said Hernandez. “These signatures require large amounts of energy to be produced - more than what normal stars can generate. This strongly suggests the presence of an AGN that has been elusive until now.”</p>



<p>The emission appeared in distinct regions, including a point-like structure about 140 parsecs south of the optical nucleus, named P3. The structure measures less than 18 parsecs across and shows low obscuration, contrasting with the highly dust-shrouded core. This difference adds weight to the AGN scenario.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gas-flows-hinted-at-a-black-hole">Gas flows hinted at a black hole</h2>



<p>Velocity maps from JWST show [Ne v] distributed in a clumpy, north-to-south alignment, with different regions exhibiting distinct kinematic signatures. </p>



<p>P3’s [Ne vi] emission, for instance, shows a velocity of +80 km/s, slightly offset from the local [Ne v] velocity. Other zones closer to the nucleus display negative velocity offsets, hinting at motion that may trace outflow or turbulence.</p>



<p>The researchers compared the profiles of various ionized lines, from low to high energy. At P3, the high-ionization lines like [Ne v] and [Ne vi] are narrower than the lower-ionization lines.</p>



<p>This suggests that the gas producing these emissions may originate from a different physical process, possibly linked to AGN activity or compact shock-driven regions.</p>



<p>“Before Webb, we simply did not have the tools to detect such faint and highly ionised gas signatures in M83’s nucleus,” Svea added. “Now, with its incredible mid-infrared sensitivity, we are finally able to explore these hidden depths of the galaxy and uncover what was once invisible.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-radiative-shocks-the-culprit">Are radiative shocks the culprit?</h2>



<p>To explain the origin of these extreme neon lines, the researchers tested several scenarios. Fast radiative shocks were one possibility.</p>



<p>These shocks occur when turbulent gas, such as that from a supernova or stellar wind, moves at supersonic speeds and compresses surrounding material. The resulting heat can produce high-energy radiation.</p>



<p>Shock models did reproduce the observed line ratios - but only under extreme assumptions. Specifically, the preshock density had to be a mere 0.01 cm⁻³, which is much lower than what is typically found in star-forming galaxies.</p>



<p>The observed postshock densities were also much higher, exceeding 1000 cm⁻³. This discrepancy challenges the idea that shocks alone could explain the data.</p>



<p>Energetic shocks are also known to destroy PAH molecules. Interestingly, P3 - the only region with [Ne vi] - shows the weakest PAH features in its spectrum. This matches the shock hypothesis, yet the unusual density mismatch casts doubt on this explanation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-hole-models-explain-galaxy-emissions">Black hole models explain galaxy emissions</h2>



<p>The researchers then tested tailored photoionization models built around a low-luminosity AGN.</p>



<p>The models used a two-zone structure: one zone optically thin to ionizing radiation to generate high-energy lines like [Ne v], and another zone optically thick to generate lower-ionisation lines. This method reproduced the observed line strengths and ratios well.</p>



<p>The models assumed hydrogen column densities and metallicities consistent with M83’s central environment. They also used realistic ionisation parameters and densities. The best-fitting model places P3’s emission well within AGN-dominated zones on classic diagnostic plots.</p>



<p>“Webb is revolutionizing our understanding of galaxies,” said study co-author Linda Smith. “For years, astronomers have searched for a black hole in M83 without success. Now, we finally have a compelling clue that suggests one may be present.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ruling-out-other-extreme-sources">Ruling out other extreme sources</h2>



<p>Could other compact objects be responsible? High-mass X-ray binaries (HMXBs) can produce hard radiation, though usually at lower levels. </p>



<p>Past X-ray surveys of M83 revealed several sources, including a bright object coinciding with the optical nucleus. But P3, where [Ne vi] was detected, shows no corresponding X-ray source.</p>



<p>Starburst activity alone cannot easily explain these ionized lines either. Models based on massive stars, including Wolf–Rayet populations, typically fail to reproduce the observed [Ne v] and [Ne vi] strengths. These limitations, combined with the success of the AGN models, make the AGN scenario more likely.</p>



<p>“This discovery showcases how Webb is making unexpected breakthroughs,” noted Smith. “Astronomers thought they had ruled out an AGN in M83, but now we have fresh evidence that challenges past assumptions and opens new avenues for exploration.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-m83-may-not-be-so-pure-after-all">M83 may not be so pure after all</h2>



<p>For decades, M83 stood as a textbook example of a starburst galaxy. Optical data showed little hint of a central <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-turn-into-white-holes-and-blast-out-matter-and-time-runs-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black hole</a>, but the discovery of high-ionization neon lines shifts this picture. Mid-infrared diagnostics, less hindered by dust, reveal what optical instruments missed.</p>



<p>Line ratio plots now place M83’s nuclear regions alongside hybrid AGN-starburst systems. In particular, P3 falls between the domains of purely star-forming galaxies and low-luminosity AGNs. This blend suggests that more such “pure” galaxies may indeed harbor faint AGNs.</p>



<p>The study urges astronomers to rethink what defines a starburst galaxy. With JWST, similar hidden cores may soon be uncovered in other nearby systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-confirming-the-galaxy-s-black-hole">Confirming the galaxy’s black hole</h2>



<p>The Webb team has laid the groundwork, but the mystery isn't solved yet. Future observations with ALMA and the Very Large Telescope will help test whether the neon emission truly comes from an AGN or another exotic source. These studies will probe gas motion, composition, and geometry more precisely.</p>



<p>Simulations with more complex geometries may also provide better answers. For now, M83’s hidden giant remains a strong candidate - but not a confirmed one.</p>



<p>Still, this work shows the power of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exoplanet-k2-18b-strongest-evidence-yet-of-extraterrestrial-life-discovered-webb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb</a>. Where previous telescopes saw only dust and star formation in some galaxies, JWST has potentially opened a new window into spotting black holes and other hidden structures.</p>



<p>The study is published in <em><a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/adba5d" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.</em> </p>



<p>Image Credit: ESA</p>



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Black hole found hiding in a 'pure' starburst galaxy

For centuries, the universe has offered humanity glimpses of unimaginable...

<p>River deltas hold a record of climate history. On Earth, coastlines mark where land and sea constantly interact. Here, rivers meet oceans. Materials from land gather in deltas. These areas store vital clues about tectonics, climate, and planetary evolution.</p>



<p>Scientists apply that same logic to Titan, Saturn’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titan-may-harbor-life-but-it-will-be-difficult-to-find/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">largest moon</a>. Titan has active rivers and vast seas, but its coastlines don’t behave like those on Earth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-titan-has-rivers-with-no-deltas">Titan has rivers with no deltas</h2>



<p>Titan is the only body in the solar system, besides Earth, known to have stable liquid on its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-disturbance-the-mystery-of-titans-shifting-orbit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>. </p>



<p>Titan has clouds, rain, rivers, lakes, and seas. But the liquid is not water. It is replaced by methane and ethane, which remain liquid under Titan’s frigid atmospheric conditions. These features make it a rare and valuable analog to Earth.</p>



<p>If coastlines on Earth can store records of climate and tectonic change, then Titan’s might hold the same promise - offering a chance to study an alien hydrological system that’s still active today.</p>



<p>Yet there’s a mystery at Titan’s shores. Even though Titan has broad rivers and large lakes, river deltas appear to be almost entirely missing. This caught the attention of Sam Birch, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.brown.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brown University</a>.</p>



<p>“It’s kind of disappointing as a geomorphologist because deltas should preserve so much of Titan’s history,” Birch said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-deltas-just-hidden-from-view">Are deltas just hidden from view?</h2>



<p>Back in 2006, NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/cassini/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cassini</a> spacecraft gave scientists their first clear view of Titan’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturns-moon-titan-has-shorelines-shaped-by-waves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">surface</a>. Its Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) pierced Titan’s thick, hazy atmosphere and revealed flowing channels and dark, flat seas. </p>



<p>But even at the mouths of Titan’s largest rivers, Cassini’s radar showed no clear signs of deltas. Scientists wondered - were these deltas hidden or missing altogether?</p>



<p>To answer that question, Birch and his team created a model. They simulated what Earth’s coastlines would look like through Titan’s radar conditions. In their model, Earth’s water was swapped for methane, mimicking Titan’s fluids, which absorb and reflect radar differently. </p>



<p>The idea was simple: if Earth’s large deltas remain visible in these synthetic SAR images, then Cassini should have seen Titan’s deltas - if they existed.</p>



<p>“We basically made synthetic SAR images of Earth that assume properties of Titan’s liquid instead of Earth’s,” Birch explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-should-detect-titan-s-deltas">Cassini should detect Titan's deltas</h2>



<p>The model worked. Earth’s major coastal features - like the Mississippi River delta and barrier islands along the Gulf Coast - remained visible in the altered radar images.</p>



<p>This proved that Cassini should have been capable of detecting large deltas on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragonfly-space-mission-saturn-moon-titan-gets-greenlight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Titan</a>. With this in mind, the researchers returned to Titan’s SAR data and re-examined its coastlines.</p>



<p>“If there are deltas the size of the one at the mouth of the Mississippi River, we should be able to see it,” Birch said.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/titan_cassini-radar_earth-deltas_credit-Brown-University_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/titan_cassini-radar_earth-deltas_credit-Brown-University_1s.webp" alt="Earth, as seen by Cassini's radar. In order to understand what landforms on Titan could be seen by Cassini's radar, researchers looked at well-known Earth landforms through Cassini's perspective. The bottom image is how the U.S. Gulf Coast would have looked to Cassini. Credit: Birch Lab / Brown University" class="wp-image-1966464"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Earth, as seen by Cassini's radar. In order to understand what landforms on Titan could be seen by Cassini's radar, researchers looked at well-known Earth landforms through Cassini's perspective. The bottom image is how the U.S. Gulf Coast would have looked to Cassini. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Birch Lab / Brown University</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>But after carefully reviewing the data, they found that deltas were indeed rare. Aside from two likely deltas near the south pole, most large rivers on Titan showed no signs of delta formation. </p>



<p>Only about 1.3% of the moon’s coastal rivers ended in deltas. By comparison, nearly every major river on Earth forms a delta at its mouth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shifting-seas-may-erase-titan-s-river-deltas">Shifting seas may erase Titan's river deltas</h2>



<p>On Earth, coastlines are dynamic boundaries. Materials eroded from mountains travel down rivers and settle into sedimentary structures. </p>



<p>These interactions produce a range of landforms that help scientists trace environmental evolution. Coastal areas are also shaped by tides, storms, and long-term sea-level changes. </p>



<p>Titan, with its unique climate system, is no exception. It too hosts coastlines where energy and materials interact - just with different ingredients and under different rules.</p>



<p>But Titan’s liquids are transparent to microwave radiation. This means Cassini’s radar can’t always distinguish where the coastline ends and where the sea floor begins. </p>



<p>While that poses challenges, the team’s modeling showed that large features are still detectable - provided there is enough contrast between land and submerged surfaces.</p>



<p>The findings confirmed what many had suspected: Titan truly lacks deltas, and it’s not because of poor visibility. Something else is preventing these sediment-rich features from forming or surviving.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-clues-beneath-titan-s-seas">Hidden clues beneath Titan’s seas</h2>



<p>The new radar analysis also uncovered something unexpected. On Titan’s sea floors, the team found submerged river channels and deep pits of unknown origin.</p>



<p>These features suggest that sea levels may rise and fall frequently, eroding or dispersing any deltas before they have time to build up. </p>



<p>The researchers also suspect that winds and underwater flows might redistribute sediment, flattening coastlines before deltas can grow.</p>



<p>These discoveries hint at a much more dynamic Titan than previously assumed. Active coastal processes - shaped by tides, climate shifts, and even currents beneath the seas - may constantly reshape the landscape.</p>



<p>“It’s a playground for studying processes we thought we understood,” said Birch.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-dynamic-alien-coastline">A dynamic alien coastline</h2>



<p>The absence of deltas and presence of submerged features offer a new window into Titan’s climate and geological behavior. Birch and his colleagues have proposed several preliminary hypotheses.</p>



<p>Sea-level cycling, strong coastal winds, and sub-aqueous flows could all contribute to the vanishing deltas. But more data is needed to understand these interactions fully.</p>



<p>“This is really not what we expected,” Birch said. “But Titan does this to us a lot. I think that’s what makes it such an engaging place to study.”</p>



<p>The study also reinforces the value of improving future instruments. A better imaging system could reveal Titan’s river networks and coasts in greater detail, uncovering hidden patterns and explaining current mysteries.</p>



<p>Such improvements wouldn’t just benefit research on Titan. They could also refine how scientists observe Earth’s own changing coasts in the face of sea-level rise and erosion.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024JE008737" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research Planets</a>. </em></p>



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Why does Saturn's moon, Titan, have rivers but not deltas? Scientists have an idea

River deltas hold a record of climate history. On Earth,...

<p>For most of Earth’s first three billion years, oceans brimmed with single‑celled microbes that shuffled along at a slow biochemical pace -- life, but not complex. </p>



<p>It lacked ample phosphorus, the nutrient every cell needs for DNA assembly, membrane stability, and ATP energy swaps. Rivers dripped only trace amounts of phosphorus into seawater, holding biology to pint‑size proportions and throttling evolutionary experiments in body size.</p>



<p>Evidence for that long famine sits in ancient mudstones, which contain scant phosphate minerals compared with younger rocks. </p>



<p>Productivity lagged; oxygen production stayed low; food chains hid in microscopic layers. When phosphorus finally surged, life gained the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-ingredients-building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroid-bennu-dust-sample/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building blocks</a> to try larger, more complex designs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-chaos-and-complex-life">Volcanic chaos and complex life</h2>



<p>About 2.1 billion years ago, the Congo and São Francisco continental blocks slammed together. </p>



<p>Their collision squeezed faults, stirred magma, and unleashed underwater volcanoes across a shallow inland sea now preserved as the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franceville_basin" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Francevillian sub‑basin</a> in Gabon. </p>



<p>Eruptions pumped phosphorus‑rich fluids straight into the water and walled the basin off from the wider ocean.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycling-in-lakes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cyanobacteria</a> thrived in this enclosed lagoon, releasing oxygen and burying carbon as fast as nutrients arrived. </p>



<p>The chemical bloom raised local energy budgets many times over, creating conditions that favored bigger bodies and cooperative cell assemblies rather than lone bacterial drifters.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-discovery-challenges-timeline">Fossil discovery challenges timeline</h2>



<p>Black shales from the basin hold disc‑shaped, ribbon‑shaped, and leaf‑shaped impressions up to six inches long - giants for their day. </p>



<p>Their regular outlines and clustering hint at biological growth rather than odd mineral concretions. They appear in the same sedimentary layers that show the phosphorus spike, linking anatomy to chemistry.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/earth_complex-life_began-much-earlier_lobate-macrofossils_credit-UPoitiers_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/earth_complex-life_began-much-earlier_lobate-macrofossils_credit-UPoitiers_1s.webp" alt="The team’s research provides strong validation for the biological affinity of the lobate macrofossils whose validity has been widely debated in the scientific community. Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France" class="wp-image-1966454"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>The team’s research provides strong validation for the biological affinity of the lobate macrofossils whose validity has been widely debated in the scientific community. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>If these forms truly represent multicellular life, they push the arrival of complex organisms back by roughly 1.5 billion years. </p>



<p>That jump rewrites the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-life-ice-ages-gave-evolution-a-kick-start/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evolutionary timeline</a>, showing that animals were not the first to test large size; earlier prototypes surfaced when nutrients and oxygen briefly aligned.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chemistry-meets-biology">Chemistry meets biology</h2>



<p>The new work, led by <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a> geobiologist Dr. Ernest Chi Fru, pairs detailed rock chemistry with fossil mapping. </p>



<p>“The availability of phosphorus in the environment is thought to be a key component in the evolution of life on Earth, especially in the transition from simple single‑celled organisms to complex organisms like animals and plants," Dr. Chi Fru explained.</p>



<p>“We already know that increases in marine phosphorus and seawater oxygen concentrations are linked to an episode of biological evolution around 635 million years ago. Our study adds another, much earlier episode into the record, 2.1 billion years ago.”</p>



<p>Digging into the basin’s history, Dr. Chi Fru explained that the volcanic activity following the collision of continental blocks likely isolated the basin from the global ocean, creating a nutrient-rich inland sea. </p>



<p>This stable environment supported abundant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-was-once-a-green-marble-before-its-oceans-turned-blue/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cyanobacterial photosynthesis</a>, which in turn oxygenated the water and generated enough energy to support larger, more complex life forms like those seen in the fossils from the period.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-complex-life-experiment-stalled">Why the complex life experiment stalled</h2>



<p>Outside the Francevillian lagoon, oceans still lacked phosphorus and carried little oxygen. Larger creatures would have struggled in those harsh surroundings. </p>



<p>The basin’s shoreline barrier turned the ecosystem into a biological bubble; when volcanic vents cooled and nutrient flow faded, conditions reverted and the macro‑organisms vanished.</p>



<p>Their failure to spread shows that evolution tests possibilities whenever resources allow, but those trials can fizzle if the wider planet remains hostile. </p>



<p>Complexity needs both innovation and the freedom to roam - something the early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/timeline-of-lifes-evolution-extended-by-nearly-1-5-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proterozoic world</a> could not yet provide.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-steps-to-modern-animals">Two steps to modern animals</h2>



<p>Researchers see a “two‑step” path. The Francevillian pulse marks step one, following the first known rise in atmospheric oxygen. </p>



<p>Step two arrived nearly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/luca-last-universal-common-ancestor-progenitor-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.5 billion years later</a>, when another oxygen surge met a more sustained supply of nutrients during the Ediacaran period. </p>



<p>That tandem lifted complex life beyond isolated pockets, setting the stage for the Cambrian explosion and the diverse animals that populate Earth now.</p>



<p>The record hints that ample phosphorus may be as critical as oxygen for forging ecosystems full of active, energy‑demanding organisms. Without both factors in play, biology tends to stay microscopic.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



<p>Astrobiologists comb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-on-the-dwarf-planet-ceres/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">exoplanet atmospheres</a> for oxygen because it signals possible photosynthesis. The Francevillian story suggests they should also weigh a planet’s phosphorus cycle. </p>



<p>A world awash in oxygen but starved of phosphate could linger in a microbial phase for eons. Conversely, tectonic quirks that sprinkle oceans with phosphate might jump‑start evolutionary leaps.</p>



<p>Phosphorus, then, is more than fertilizer for terrestrial crops. It is a potential cosmic throttle on complexity, deciding whether life remains small or reaches for new biological heights.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301926824001669?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Precambrian Research</a></em>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: Professor Abderrazzak El Albani of the University of Poitiers, France</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Is this a fossil? If so, complex life on Earth emerged 1.5 billion years earlier

For most of Earth’s first three billion years, oceans brimmed...

<p>A shapeless liquid form is something we usually take for granted. We expect fluids to spread and assume the shape of the container in which they are held. But nature sometimes defies our intuition.</p>



<p>In a recent study, a curious liquid refused to remain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-appears-to-have-a-secret-liquid-phase/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chaotic</a> after being shaken and instead settled into a smooth, outlined shape reminiscent of a piece of classic pottery.</p>



<p>This strange finding was uncovered by a team that includes graduate student <a href="https://www.umass.edu/polymer-science/about/directory/anthony-raykh" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anthony Raykh</a> at the <a href="https://www.umass.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>. The group had been experimenting with oil and water when they noticed a shape they had never seen before.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-shape-recovering-liquids">Understanding shape-recovering liquids</h2>



<p>Some substances pull themselves together in neat ways. Others spread out in a disorderly manner.</p>



<p>For centuries, <a href="https://www.physics.ox.ac.uk/system/files/file_attachments/basic_thermo.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">thermodynamics</a> has helped predict these behaviors by setting rules about energy and equilibrium. </p>



<p>Typically, adding particles to an oil-water mixture encourages the two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-details-about-greenlands-melting-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquids</a> to combine more readily and form new structures.</p>



<p>This phenomenon is known as <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/emulsification" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emulsification</a>, and it is vital in the production of foods, cosmetics, and many other commercial products. The usual theory says that those particles should lessen the tension between oil and water.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-magnetism-matters">Why magnetism matters</h2>



<p>Raykh decided to use magnetized nickel particles in his mixture. He shook things up, and something uncanny happened.</p>



<p>“... in a complete surprise, the mixture formed this beautiful, pristine urn-shape,” said Raykh. He tried shaking harder, but the fluid returned to the same outline.</p>



<p>Lab tests hinted that strong magnetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wave-ripples-discovered-mars-surface-indicate-liquid-water-present-4-billion-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a> were the reason. These metallic bits were powerful enough to throw a wrench into the fluid's normal behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-magnetic-forces-and-liquid-shape">Magnetic forces and liquid shape</h2>



<p>Scientists often rely on known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interactions</a> to guide their experiments. Imposing magnetic forces adds another layer of complexity.</p>



<p>“When you look very closely at the individual nanoparticles of magnetized nickel that form the boundary between the water and oil, you can get extremely detailed information on how different forms assemble,” said <a href="https://www.umass.edu/natural-sciences/about/directory/david-hoagland" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David Hoagland</a>, professor of polymer science and engineering at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/liquid_shape-recovering_breaks-laws-thermodynamics_Credit-UMassAmherst_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/liquid_shape-recovering_breaks-laws-thermodynamics_Credit-UMassAmherst_1s.webp" alt="Raykh and his colleagues discovered that strongly magnetized particles can bend the laws of thermodynamics. Credit: Anthony Raykh/UMass Amherst" class="wp-image-1964865"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Raykh and his colleagues discovered that strongly magnetized particles can bend the laws of thermodynamics. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Anthony Raykh/UMass Amherst</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>No one expected this intense attraction to stiffen the boundary so much that the liquids would create a neat form.</p>



<p>Researchers found that these <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0143720818304157" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dipolar pulls</a> can drive up the tension between oil and water. This stands in contrast to what most textbooks tell us should happen.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



<p>A single exception to well-known rules might inspire more questions on these types of liquid forms. The next challenge is figuring out the deeper mechanisms behind these robust fluid contours.</p>



<p>“Imagine your favorite Italian salad dressing. It’s made up of oil, water, and spices, and before you pour it onto your salad, you shake it up so that all the ingredients mix,” said <a href="https://www.umass.edu/polymer-science/about/directory/thomas-russell" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Thomas Russell</a>, Silvio O. Conte distinguished professor of polymer science and engineering at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.</p>



<p>He compared his everyday culinary example to the surprising phenomenon in the lab.</p>



<p>The urn-like outline is stable enough to tease scientists with new ideas. Explorations of these forces could lead to fresh theories about soft materials and how they behave under powerful <a href="https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Introduction+to+Magnetic+Materials%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9780471477419" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetic</a> influences.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-means-for-the-laws-of-physics">What it means for the laws of physics</h2>



<p>This discovery doesn’t mean thermodynamics is broken. But it does suggest that, under specific conditions, there may be edge cases where the traditional models don’t fully apply. </p>



<p>Scientists call these scenarios “exceptions” rather than violations, and they help sharpen our understanding of how physical laws behave under extreme or unusual circumstances.</p>



<p>It’s a reminder that physical laws are models of reality, not reality itself. They hold true across vast numbers of conditions - but surprises like this urn-shaped liquid reveal that even well-tested theories can be stretched in new and useful ways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-liquid-shape-and-future-applications">Liquid shape and future applications</h2>



<p>This experiment opens the door to unexpected applications in fields that involve finely tuned liquids. </p>



<p>Medical formulations might someday use this kind of shape control to ensure more precise delivery of components.</p>



<p>Researchers are now looking into how strongly magnetized particles might alter other standard chemical processes.</p>



<p>Scientists remain cautious about declaring any new technology from this peculiar mixture. Even so, this discovery proves that our understanding of fluid behavior can still be surprised by odd twists.</p>



<p>-----</p>



<p>Click here to <a href="https://youtu.be/H02E7YTTFGQ" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watch a video of this phenomenon...</a></p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-025-02865-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Physics</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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'Shape-recovering liquid' accidentally created by student breaks the laws of thermodynamics

A shapeless liquid form is something we usually take for...

<p>Bite-sized chunks of fiber-grown chicken are gaining attention these days. They offer a texture similar to the meat of everyday grocery store chicken.</p>



<p>Shoji Takeuchi from <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The University of Tokyo</a> is at the center of this work. He and his collaborators have brought forward a process involving the use of semipermeable hollow fibers that act like tiny delivery channels for nutrients and oxygen to reach developing cells.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-fibers-grow-chicken-muscle-in-the-lab">How fibers grow chicken muscle in the lab</h2>



<p>Researchers are mimicking the steady flow of nutrients and oxygen to cells by using these narrow fibers, which are similar to those used in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8236/2/4/50" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dialysis machines</a>. This setup helps the cells stay active as they grow into chicken muscle.</p>



<p>They place the cells in a collagen-based mixture that sits around the fibers. Once the culture starts, the cells grow together and develop a structure that feels and appears like small pieces of real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-residue-in-meat-what-experts-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chicken</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fibers-improve-chicken-texture-and-flavor">Fibers improve chicken texture and flavor</h2>



<p>Texture is linked to how tightly these cells pack and bind. </p>



<p>Scientists rely on <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016777992500085X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">myosin heavy chain markers</a> to spot proper muscle formation. With better distribution of nutrients, the muscle fibers show stronger alignment, making the final product denser.</p>



<p>Taste is about more than spices or seasonings. Investigations show that <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4935284/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">free amino acids</a> influence flavor. The new system seems to produce a higher fraction of these flavor molecules, so the bite is more appealing.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lab-grown-fiber-chicken-solves-old-problems">Lab-grown fiber chicken solves old problems</h2>



<p>The method stands out because regular diffusion alone can’t keep large tissues alive. </p>



<p>Traditional <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-0112-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">approaches</a> struggle once the tissue goes beyond about half an inch (1.3 centimeters) thick, and cells in the middle often lose oxygen. This new system fixes that by pumping nutrients and oxygen along the tiny channels into the developing tissue.</p>



<p>The approach aims to be efficient. It makes structured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-phase-superradiant-phase-transition-srpt-observed-in-lab/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meats</a> that are thicker, juicier, and have the resilience you expect from a store-bought cut. It also tries to reduce waste by limiting the need for multiple small batches that might fall short on consistency.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-automation-could-scale-fiber-grown-chicken">Automation could scale fiber-grown chicken</h2>



<p>Large-scale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-protein-boosts-survival-but-plants-boost-longevity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">production</a> depends on reliable hardware and robotic assistance. </p>



<p>Researchers have created automated ways to line up the fibers, so they can pack a lot of them in a small space. This leads to consistent distribution of cells, and it cuts back on wasted time.</p>



<p>More improvements are possible. Edible fibers might simplify the final steps, so there’s no need to remove them. There are also conversations about lowering costs by moving away from animal-based growth media, but that will take more research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-tech-could-grow-more-than-chicken">This tech could grow more than chicken</h2>



<p>The process may have applications beyond fiber-grown chicken.</p>



<p>Some believe it could pave the way for other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-people-are-willing-to-switch-to-plant-based-food-to-save-the-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meats</a>, tissues for regenerative medicine, and even muscle-based soft robotics. Cells are adaptable, so the possibilities stretch into several branches of biological engineering.</p>



<p>Even so, tasks like oxygen delivery in bigger cuts of meat remain a puzzle. Some scientists point to synthetic blood or special carrier molecules for better oxygen transport. Others feel the entire pipeline might benefit from advanced monitoring tools that track vital cell conditions in real time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-may-reduce-harm-to-animals">This may reduce harm to animals</h2>



<p>Curiosity about <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-022-00658-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">immortalized fibroblast cells</a> keeps growing because they skip the need to harvest cells from live animals. This might ease ethical concerns linked to routine animal tissue collection. It also reduces the time needed to scale, since these cells can keep dividing in large numbers.</p>



<p>“This system enables cell distribution, alignment, contractility, and improved food-related properties,” said Shoji Takeuchi. </p>



<p>He sees a future where this method can help meet the demand for large amounts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-will-switch-to-plant-based-meat-if-it-is-cheaper-than-real-meat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chicken</a> muscle without the same environmental footprint as traditional livestock.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lab-grown-fiber-chicken-may-change-how-meat-is-made">Lab-grown fiber chicken may change how meat is made</h2>



<p>As the concept becomes more refined, public perception and policy will play a big role. People want to know if it’s safe, tasty, and made in a cost-effective way. </p>



<p>While there’s a way to go before it’s commonplace on dinner plates, the progress hints at changing times in how chicken and other meats can be produced.</p>



<p>Fiber-grown chicken isn’t just a nod to environmental or ethical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-meat-less-protein-lacks-certain-nutrients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">goals</a>. It’s also about exploring newer technologies in tissue growth. </p>



<p>The arrival of high-density fiber networks is a sign that these efforts may step beyond small samples and head toward a broader range of culinary experiences.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S016777992500085X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Trends in Biotechnology</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Lab-grown chicken just got a flavor and texture boost

Bite-sized chunks of fiber-grown chicken are gaining attention these days....

Man,Pointing,North,In,A,Spiral,Star,Trail

<p>A new analysis suggests that the universe could be spinning at a speed so gentle it has escaped our notice. This proposal may offer a way to explain why researchers get conflicting numbers when measuring how quickly space has been expanding.</p>



<p>One of the scientists exploring the rotation theory is István Szapudi, a researcher at the University of Hawaiʻi <a href="https://www.ifa.hawaii.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute for Astronomy</a>. In a recent study, Szapudi analyzed subtle changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/zhulong-torch-dragon-the-oldest-known-spiral-galaxy-in-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> expansion that might be tied to an extremely slow turn of all known matter.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-century-old-puzzle-about-cosmic-expansion">Century-old puzzle about cosmic expansion</h2>



<p>Most astronomers accept the current models that say the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-galaxies-discovery-would-upend-current-understanding-of-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> expands evenly in all directions, with no sign of rotation. </p>



<p>They have known about cosmic expansion for nearly a century, but there has been a lingering discrepancy called the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/ab2f73" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble tension</a>.</p>



<p>This puzzle stems from comparing two ways of measuring the expansion rate of the universe. One method relies on supernovae in faraway galaxies to track distances, while the other depends on the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2020/09/aa33910-18/aa33910-18.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic microwave background</a>, which is the afterglow from the universe’s earliest days.</p>



<p>In theory, both methods should give the same overall growth speed. However, they do not always match, and experts have been trying to explain this discrepancy for years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expansion-rate-of-a-spinning-universe">Expansion rate of a spinning universe </h2>



<p>A new approach suggests that a tiny spin of the universe throughout <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-baby-pictures-of-the-very-early-universe-cosmic-microwave-background/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> might reconcile those conflicting numbers. If the entire cosmos had even a small swirl, it could influence how distances stretch over time.</p>



<p>“Much to our surprise, we found that our model with rotation resolves the paradox without contradicting current astronomical measurements,” noted Szapudi.</p>



<p>Scientists who favor this rotating model believe the rate of spin is much too slow to detect with current methods. </p>



<p>One possible estimate is that the universe completes one full turn every 500 billion years, so it would be nearly impossible to see from our vantage point.</p>



<p>“Therefore, perhaps, everything really does turn,” said Szapudi. They say this slight swirl could finally close the gap between our local measurements and what is observed when we look back almost 13 billion years in time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-universe-spin-may-fit-known-physics">Universe spin may fit known physics </h2>



<p>No known laws of physics would prohibit such a phenomenon. Planets, stars, galaxies, and even black holes all rotate, so the idea of everything sharing a unified spin is not far-fetched in cosmic terms.</p>



<p>If a slow turning is factored into the equations of cosmic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-found-something-strange-at-core-of-milky-way-galaxy-webb-meerkat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">expansion</a>, it could account for the mismatched data about how fast space has been stretching. </p>



<p>The findings fit within current understanding, as the rate of this twist would remain far below anything that might distort familiar observations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-cosmic-spin-with-new-models">Testing cosmic spin with new models</h2>



<p>The next steps involve transforming these early calculations into a detailed computer model. Researchers will also look for subtle signatures in the large-scale structure of the universe that might hint at a gradual rotation.</p>



<p>If future observations confirm any sign of this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dark-matter-if-it-exists-has-a-strictly-limited-lifetime-new-study-says/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic</a> turn, it would clear up one of astronomy’s biggest disagreements. </p>



<p>Confirmation of a spinning universe might also open up a new way of thinking about how time and matter behave on the largest possible scales.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-does-all-of-this-mean">What does all of this mean?</h2>



<p>Going forward, experts are eager to determine whether a slowly spinning universe theory would provide better agreement between local and distant measurements of expansion.</p>



<p>Some feel it could refine how we study everything from galaxy formation to <a href="https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/ESSAYS/Fairall/fairall.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the layout of superclusters</a>.</p>



<p>Others are cautious because many proposed <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/ac5c5b" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">solutions</a> to the Hubble tension have come and gone. Regardless, this swirling scenario stands out as a creative effort that does not break existing theories.</p>



<p>Space often surprises us with discoveries that stretch our imagination. A rotating universe may add another layer of wonder to how we see our cosmic neighborhood.</p>



<p>It is not often that an everyday motion like spinning could clarify a problem that has puzzled researchers for years. That element of surprise keeps scientists excited about searching the skies for new answers.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/538/4/3038/8090496?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</em></a>.</p>



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Cosmic twist: The entire universe might be spinning

A new analysis suggests that the universe could be spinning...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



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<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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