<p>Not everything in the universe is what it seems. Some things, like tiny red objects captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), might look like stars or galaxies. But new research suggests they could be something else entirely - something we’ve never seen before.</p>



<p>The objects, called “little red dots,” were first spotted when Webb returned its initial pictures in 2022. The dots appeared where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/">young galaxies</a> would be alone, 500 to 700 million years after the Big Bang. But they were too bright and too big to be galaxies that early in the universe. Something wasn’t adding up.</p>



<p>For a while, researchers thought they had discovered ancient, mature galaxies that somehow formed way faster than expected - so fast they started calling them “universe breakers.” But after digging deeper, a new idea started to form. Maybe these weren’t <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-galaxies-revealed-in-a-single-webb-image/">galaxies</a> at all.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-star-that-s-hiding-a-black-hole">A star that's hiding a black hole</h2>



<p>In a recent study, scientists proposed a bold theory: the red dots might be something called a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/free-floating-black-hole-appears-to-be-feeding-on-a-star/">black hole</a> star. Picture a huge sphere of gas that looks like a cold, low-energy star - but inside, it’s hiding a growing supermassive black hole.</p>



<p>Instead of getting its energy from fusion like a normal star, this object feeds off matter falling into the black hole at its core. That process generates energy and gives off light, creating the bright signal scientists saw.</p>



<p>“Basically, we looked at enough red dots until we saw one that had so much atmosphere that it couldn't be explained as typical stars we’d expect from a galaxy,” said Joel Leja, an associate professor of astrophysics at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a>. </p>



<p>“It’s an elegant answer really, because we thought it was a tiny galaxy full of many separate cold stars, but it’s actually, effectively, one gigantic, very cold star.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cold-stars-that-shine-strangely">Cold stars that shine strangely</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/video/earth-humans-and-all-living-creatures-are-made-from-stars/">Stars</a> that are cold emit very little visible light. They glow mainly in the red or near-infrared part of the spectrum - a type of light our eyes can’t see. These stars are usually small and faint, which makes them hard to find.</p>



<p>But these red dots stood out. The light they gave off wasn’t from a hot, bright region like we usually see near black holes. Instead, it came from very cold gas, similar to what’s found around low-mass stars.</p>



<p>Webb was built to pick up exactly this kind of ancient, stretched-out infrared light. Its infrared sensors can see light that traveled across the universe for over 13 billion years. That makes it perfect for spotting objects from the very early days of the cosmos.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-most-extreme-red-dot">The most extreme red dot</h2>



<p>Between January and December 2024, the team gathered spectra - a kind of light fingerprint - from 4,500 galaxies. Spectra can tell scientists how bright something is across different wavelengths, which helps them figure out what it’s made of and how massive it is.</p>



<p>One of these objects stood out. Nicknamed “The Cliff,” it turned out to be the most extreme of all the red dots. It was so far away that its light took about 11.9 billion years to reach Earth.</p>



<p>“The extreme properties of The Cliff forced us to go back to the drawing board, and come up with entirely new models,” said Anna de Graaff, a researcher for the <a href="https://www.mpia.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Astronomy</a>.</p>



<p>Spectral analysis showed that The Cliff wasn’t made up of countless tiny stars. It was a single, massive object - a black hole pulling in gas so fast that it wrapped itself in a glowing shell of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-forming-hydrogen-cloud-discovered-surprisingly-close-to-earth-eos/">hydrogen</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-are-black-hole-stars-a-missing-link">Are black hole stars a missing link?</h2>



<p>Black holes are found at the center of most galaxies. Some of them are enormous - millions or even billions of times more massive than our sun. But no one knows exactly how they got that big, or how they formed in the first place.</p>



<p>“No one's ever really known why or where these gigantic black holes at the center of galaxies come from,” said Leja. “These black hole stars might be the first phase of formation for the black holes that we see in galaxies today - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-holes-are-much-more-common-in-the-universe-than-believed/">supermassive black holes</a> in their little infancy stage.”</p>



<p>That idea could help solve a major puzzle in astronomy. If these red dots are actually black hole stars, then maybe they’re the missing link - the early-stage objects that grow into the supermassive black holes we see in today’s galaxies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-clues-from-the-universe">Following clues from the universe </h2>



<p>The team plans to keep studying these black hole star candidates, especially by looking at how dense the gas is and how strong the light output is. That might help confirm whether they’re really seeing a new type of object.</p>



<p>“This is the best idea we have and really the first one that fits nearly all of the data, so now we need to flesh it out more,” said Leja. </p>



<p>“It's okay to be wrong. The universe is much weirder than we can imagine and all we can do is follow its clues. There are still big surprises out there for us.”</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2025/09/aa54681-25/aa54681-25.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a></em>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: T. Müller/A. de Graaff/Max Planck Institute for Astronomy</p>



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Mystery objects in the early universe may be black hole stars

Not everything in the universe is what it seems. Some things, like tiny red objects captured by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), might look like stars or galaxies. But new research suggests they could be something else entirely - something we’ve never seen before. The objects, called “little red dots,” were first spotted when Webb returned its initial pictures in 2022. The dots appeared where young galaxies would be alone, 500 to 700 million years after the Big Bang. But they were too bright and too...

<p>A recent discovery by an international team of astronomers has revealed an enormous, spiral galaxy unlike any other yet observed in the Universe.</p>



<p>Led by researchers from <a href="https://christuniversity.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Christ University</a> in Bangalore, this team found something strange and unsettling. </p>



<p>A massive, well-structured galaxy nearly a billion light-years away seems to defy everything we thought we knew about galactic behavior.</p>



<p>At its core lies a supermassive black hole. What’s shocking is that this black hole is producing enormous jets of energy, six million light-years long. These kinds of jets usually only come from elliptical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-signals-from-the-center-of-our-galaxy-hint-at-a-new-kind-of-dark-matter/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>. </p>



<p>But this galaxy, a spiral like our Milky Way, is somehow managing to survive - and even remain stable - under extreme cosmic stress.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiral-galaxy-that-shouldn-t-exist">Spiral galaxy that shouldn't exist</h2>



<p>The galaxy, known as 2MASX J23453268−0449256, is not just a bit bigger than the Milky Way - it is three times the size. </p>



<p>Its structure remains beautifully intact, with sweeping spiral arms and a glowing central bar. Yet, it's producing some of the largest radio jets ever seen in a spiral galaxy.</p>



<p>Powerful radio jets usually rip apart the delicate structure of spirals. They disrupt star formation, break the balance of matter, and change how galaxies grow. </p>



<p>But this one breaks that rule. It continues to exist as a peaceful spiral, even while ejecting energy into space on a stunning scale.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/galaxy-spiral-J23453268−0449256_massive_credit-GMRT_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/galaxy-spiral-J23453268−0449256_massive_credit-GMRT_1s.webp" alt="The giant radio jets stretching six million light-years across and an enormous supermassive black hole at the heart of spiral galaxy J23453268−0449256, as imaged by the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope. Credit: Bagchi and Ray et al/Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope" class="wp-image-1963256"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>The giant radio jets stretching six million light-years across and an enormous supermassive black hole at the heart of spiral galaxy J23453268−0449256, as imaged by the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope. Credit: Bagchi and Ray et al/Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>"This discovery is more than just an oddity - it forces us to rethink how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/euclid-captures-26-million-galaxies-in-vivid-deep-field-photos/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a> evolve, and how supermassive black holes grow in them and shape their environments," said lead author Professor Joydeep Bagchi of Christ University, Bangalore.</p>



<p>"If a spiral galaxy can not only survive but thrive under such extreme conditions, what does this mean for the future of galaxies like our own Milky Way? </p>



<p>"Could our galaxy one day experience similar high-energy phenomena that will have serious consequences for the survival of precious life in it?" </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quiet-galaxy-with-inner-chaos">Quiet galaxy with inner chaos</h2>



<p>The team used several powerful tools to study this unusual galaxy. These included the&nbsp;<a href="https://hubblesite.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hubble Space Telescope</a>, the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.gmrt.ncra.tifr.res.in/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope</a>, and the&nbsp;Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (<a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA</a>).&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts analyzed the galaxy in many wavelengths, building a detailed picture of its internal dynamics.​</p>



<p>At the center of J23453268−0449256 lies a supermassive black hole that’s billions of times more massive than the Sun. </p>



<p>The jets coming from this black hole stretch out across six million light-years of space. That’s about sixty times the diameter of the Milky Way.</p>



<p>Incredibly, even with such intense activity, the galaxy’s structure remains untouched. The spiral arms remain well-shaped. </p>



<p>A bright bar stretches through the center. A peaceful ring of stars surrounds it. This calm appearance hides the violent energy pulsing from its core.</p>



<p>Adding to the mystery is a huge halo of hot gas that surrounds the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-the-universe-lets-us-travel-back-11-billion-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a>. This gas glows in X-ray light, indicating extremely high temperatures. </p>



<p>Over time, this halo would normally cool and allow stars to form. But the black hole jets keep it too hot for that, acting like a cosmic furnace that stops star birth.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-our-own-galaxy-behave-like-this">Could our own galaxy behave like this?</h2>



<p>Could the Milky Way one day look like this galaxy? Right now, the black hole at our center - called Sagittarius A* - is quiet. It has a mass of four million Suns and shows no signs of powerful activity. But that could change.</p>



<p>If a gas cloud, star, or even a small galaxy falls into Sagittarius A*, it could trigger a violent reaction. This is known as a tidal disruption event (TDE). </p>



<p>TDEs have been seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-found-in-the-early-universe-that-shouldnt-exist/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>, but not yet in our own. If such an event were to occur, Sagittarius A* might awaken and produce high-energy jets. </p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/galaxy-J23453268-0449256_Milky-Way_comparison_Hubble_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/galaxy-J23453268-0449256_Milky-Way_comparison_Hubble_1s.webp" alt="Colour image of J23453268-0449256, which is 300,000 light-years across, as captured by the Hubble Space Telescope. It is shown alongside a depiction of our own Milky Way galaxy, which is three times smaller. Credit: Bagchi and Ray et al/Hubble Space Telescope" class="wp-image-1963254"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Color image of J23453268-0449256, which is 300,000 light-years across, as captured by the Hubble Space Telescope. It is shown alongside a depiction of our own Milky Way galaxy, which is three times smaller. Credit: Bagchi and Ray et al/Hubble Space Telescope</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>The danger lies in their direction and strength. If a TDE were aimed near Earth, it could damage our atmosphere, harm DNA, and raise mutation rates. In the worst-case scenario, it could erode the ozone layer and trigger mass extinction.</p>



<p>Even if no extinction follows, these jets could still affect the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-known-galaxy-contains-surprising-oxygen-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy</a>. They might halt star formation in some areas or reshape the interstellar medium. That’s what seems to have happened in the case of J23453268−0449256.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-is-this-spiral-galaxy-so-stable">Why is this spiral galaxy so stable?</h2>



<p>Another piece of the puzzle is dark matter. The research team found that J23453268−0449256 has ten times more dark matter than the Milky Way. This likely helps keep the galaxy’s disc stable, even with massive forces trying to tear it apart.</p>



<p>Dark matter is invisible but exerts gravitational pull. It holds galaxies together. In this case, it may be the key that allows the galaxy to survive such violent internal processes without falling apart.</p>



<p>By studying the balance between dark matter, the supermassive black hole, and the galaxy’s structure, the researchers have opened up a new window into how galaxies might behave in extreme situations. </p>



<p>Their findings could shift our entire understanding of cosmic evolution.</p>



<p>"Understanding these rare galaxies could provide vital clues about the unseen forces governing the universe – including the nature of dark matter, the long-term fate of galaxies, and the origin of life," noted study co-author Shankar Ray, a Ph.D. student at Christ University.</p>



<p>"Ultimately, this study brings us one step closer to unraveling the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spherex-will-scan-the-galaxy-to-look-for-lifes-ingredients/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mysteries of the cosmos</a>, reminding us that the universe still holds surprises beyond our imagination."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



<p>The mystery is far from solved. Scientists don’t yet know how often such spiral galaxies form. They also don’t know what triggers their black holes to produce jets of this magnitude. </p>



<p>Every answer leads to more questions.</p>



<p>Could the Milky Way already be preparing for such a phase? Is Sagittarius A* a ticking bomb, just waiting for the right spark? </p>



<p>These questions don’t have clear answers yet, but discoveries like this one give us important clues.</p>



<p>For now, the Milky Way is calm, as life on Earth continues. But the universe, always changing and never fully known, reminds us that peace in the cosmos is never permanent. Somewhere, just a billion light-years away, a spiral galaxy lives on the edge - and still spins.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <em><a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/538/3/1628/8084797" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>. </em></p>



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Spiral galaxy discovered that defies everything we thought we knew about galaxies

A recent discovery by an international team of astronomers has...

<p>Ocean currents swirl, surge, and shift across vast blue territories. Once clean and free, they now carry drifting human waste - on its way to find a settling place.</p>



<p>One of these destinations is the <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/great-pacific-garbage-patch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Pacific Garbage Patch</a>, an enormous stretch of floating plastic located between Hawaii and California. Larger than the state of Texas, it has become a symbol of the ocean’s pollution <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weakening-ocean-currents-could-cost-trillions-of-dollars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crisis</a>.</p>



<p>But it’s not alone. Similar garbage patches exist all over the globe. Invisible highways of water link distant shores, pulling in bottles, nets, and microplastics. Cleaning the circulating water has proven difficult and expensive.</p>



<p>Fuel costs, environmental risks, and the sheer scale of the problem leave many efforts stuck in trial stages. But now, a group of scientists might have found a smarter way - by looking down from space.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents-that-clean-for-us">Ocean currents that clean for us</h2>



<p>A recent study in <em>Ocean Science</em> offers a new idea: stop chasing the trash, and let the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/critical-ocean-current-may-be-more-stable-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> bring it to you. </p>



<p>Using satellite data and knowledge from years of tracking ocean currents, scientists have identified areas where debris naturally gathers. These hotspots form through specific current patterns and making use of these could help clean the seas more efficiently.</p>



<p>"With this information, we can let the currents do the work. Instead of boats slowly trawling and burning fuel, they can hold their position and keep the nets steady at a location where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-circumpolar-current-speed-increasing-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">currents</a> funnel and aggregate drifting objects, which will theoretically save cleanup crews time, money and fuel," explained <a href="https://www.psi.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> research scientist Rodrigo Duran.</p>



<p>Instead of deploying sweeping boats over long distances, crews could position nets at fixed points. The currents, not engines, would collect the waste. This method could reduce fuel usage, lower emissions, and cut down on operational costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ocean-clean-up">The Ocean Clean Up</h2>



<p>The lead author of the study is Luca Kunz, a graduate student from the University of Hamburg.</p>



<p>The project received support from <a href="https://theoceancleanup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Ocean Cleanup</a>, a nonprofit in the Netherlands that is developing plastic removal technologies. <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/r-duran" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rodrigo Duran</a>, the U.S.-based co-author, explains how ancient physics ideas now help decode ocean behavior.</p>



<p>"Sir Isaac Newton was the first to solve trajectory problems while trying to understand celestial bodies orbiting within a gravity field. But, he was thinking in terms of how Earth orbits the sun," Duran said.</p>



<p>"Over the following centuries, new tools and ideas were used to solve these kinds of extremely complicated problems. However, it wasn't until the last couple of decades that these tools were adapted to surface <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-broke-records-for-450-straight-days/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> currents and wind, which bring an additional level of complexity. It's not like the equations of gravity, which remain predictable for a very long time. The ocean is always changing."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traps-and-why-they-matter">TRAPs and why they matter</h2>



<p>To study these unpredictable currents, the researchers analyzed more than 20 years of satellite observations. They also used data from “drifters” - floating devices that move with currents and log their paths.</p>



<p>From this data set, the team identified 3.5 million Transient Attracting Profiles, known as TRAPs.</p>



<p>TRAPs are not fixed garbage patches. They are temporary zones where currents merge and pull in floating objects. These zones are created when two or more eddies - circular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atlantic-ocean-currents-slowing-as-water-temperature-rises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">current</a> systems - interact in specific ways.</p>



<p>Each eddy can stretch between 60 and 180 miles (96 and 290 kilometers) wide. When combined, they form a larger area, up to 60 miles (96 kilometers) across, that holds drifting material for several days.</p>



<p>These regions don’t last forever. On average, TRAPs stay active for about six days before dissolving or shifting. Still, that window offers a valuable opportunity for targeted cleanup.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geometry-of-stability">Geometry of stability</h2>



<p>Among the many TRAPs identified, some stand out for their efficiency. The research team found that the most stable and common configuration involves four eddies positioned in a special arrangement. </p>



<p>If imagined on a grid, counterclockwise eddies sit in the top right and bottom left. Clockwise eddies spin in the top left and bottom right.</p>



<p>"This is almost 60% of cases," Duran said. "These are common because they are the most stable."</p>



<p>This balance helps the TRAP hold its shape and function more reliably. It offers a predictable way to plan cleanup strategies. Rather than reacting to ocean chaos, scientists can work with nature’s patterns and set traps in advance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-garbage-broader-possibilities">Beyond garbage: Broader possibilities</h2>



<p>While the focus of the study was on cleaning ocean waste, the applications don’t stop there. Knowing where the ocean pulls material can help in emergencies or scientific predictions. The same method could guide rescue missions, track oil spills, or monitor airborne hazards.</p>



<p>"An obvious example would be search and rescue of missing people," Duran said, "or maybe a cargo ship loses their cargo. This can even be used for atmospheric data. When volcanoes erupt or wildfires break out, airports need to know whether to redirect flights. It's a very exciting time."</p>



<p>These insights give agencies tools to act quickly and precisely. By reading the invisible pull of the ocean, we gain not just cleanup opportunities, but also protection and preparedness.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-working-with-nature-to-clean-oceans-nbsp">Working with nature to clean oceans&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The collaboration behind this research unites institutions from Germany, the U.S., and the Netherlands. With the <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hamburg</a> leading the data science, and The Ocean Clean Up pushing forward practical solutions, the project blends theory and action.</p>



<p>Rather than relying solely on expensive equipment, this approach embraces simplicity and efficiency. Nature's own movements offer guidance. If we can learn to predict and use them, we may finally be able to manage what we’ve dumped into the sea.</p>



<p>The path ahead remains uncertain. But one thing is clear: the ocean is not a passive victim. It moves, it organizes, and now - with the right science - it might help us repair what we’ve broken.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://os.copernicus.org/articles/20/1611/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean Science</a></em>.</p>



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Ocean currents may soon clean up waste, thanks to space tech

Ocean currents swirl, surge, and shift across vast blue territories....

<p>For years, scientists have puzzled over one big question: where do meteorites come from? </p>



<p>These rocky visitors crash into Earth from space, but tracing their paths back to specific locations in the asteroid belt has been a challenge. </p>



<p>Thanks to years of work tracking fireballs streaking across the sky, scientists are beginning to piece together the answer.</p>



<p>The new research comes from astronomers at <a href="https://www.curtin.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Curtin University</a> and the SETI Institute, in collaboration with NASA Ames Research Center.</p>



<p>The findings connect the orbits of 75 meteorites to their likely points of origin in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter.</p>



<p>This long-term effort brings us closer to mapping the geology of our solar system’s asteroid neighborhood.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-catching-fireballs-on-camera">Catching fireballs on camera</h2>



<p>About ten years ago, the team began setting up a network of all-sky cameras across California and Nevada. </p>



<p>These cameras were designed to catch the flash of light created when a meteorite hits Earth’s atmosphere. </p>



<p>“Others built similar networks spread around the globe, which together form the Global Fireball Observatory,” said astronomer Hadrien Devillepoix of Curtin University. "Over the years, we have tracked the path of 17 recovered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weather-radar-systems-can-detect-meteorite-falls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meteorite falls</a>.”</p>



<p>In addition to professional networks, many fireballs were also captured by doorbell cameras, dashcams, and videos from citizen scientists. </p>



<p>With enough data from these sources, the researchers could begin plotting the meteorites’ paths through space.</p>



<p>“Altogether, this quest has yielded 75 laboratory-classified meteorites with an impact orbit tracked by video and photographic cameras,” said study lead author Peter Jenniskens of the SETI Institute and NASA Ames Research Center.</p>



<p>“That proves to be enough to start seeing some patterns in the direction from which the meteorites approach Earth.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-meteorites-to-their-source">Tracing meteorites to their source</h2>



<p>Most meteorites that land on Earth come from the asteroid belt, home to over a million objects larger than one kilometer. </p>



<p>Many of these meteorites were originally part of larger parent bodies that broke apart in violent collisions. The resulting debris fields, or clusters, continue to spread out over time.</p>



<p>“We now see that 12 of the iron-rich ordinary chondrite meteorites (H chondrites) originated from a debris field called “Koronis,” which is located low in the pristine main belt,” said Jenniskens. “These meteorites arrived from low-inclined orbits with orbital periods consistent with this debris field.”</p>



<p>The researchers used a technique called cosmic-ray exposure dating to determine how long ago a meteorite was exposed to space. This method helps identify when the rock was dislodged from its parent body.</p>



<p>When matched with the dynamical age of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-chaos-how-an-asteroid-strike-would-change-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">asteroid</a> clusters, a clearer picture emerges.</p>



<p>“By measuring the cosmic ray exposure age of meteorites, we can determine that three of these twelve meteorites originated from the Karin cluster in Koronis, which has a dynamical age of 5.8 million years, and two came from the Koronis2 cluster, with a dynamical age of 10–15 million years,” said Jenniskens. </p>



<p>“One other meteorite may well measure the age of the Koronis3 cluster: about 83 million years.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-families-more-clues">More families, more clues</h2>



<p>Not all H chondrites came from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Koronis</a>. Some meteorites with steep orbits seem to be linked to the Nele asteroid family, located in the central belt.</p>



<p>Others, with an exposure age of about 35 million years, appear to come from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-molecules-discovered-on-an-asteroid-for-the-first-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massalia</a> family in the inner belt.</p>



<p>“In our opinion, these H chondrites originated from the Massalia asteroid family low in the inner main belt because that family has a cluster of about that same dynamical age,” said Jenniskens. “The asteroid that created that cluster, asteroid (20) Massalia, is an H chondrite type parent body.”</p>



<p>The researchers also traced lower iron meteorites - L chondrites and LL chondrites - to their own source regions.</p>



<p>LL chondrites are strongly linked to the Flora family, while L chondrites likely originated from the Hertha family.</p>



<p>“We propose that the L chondrites originated from the Hertha asteroid family, located just above the Massalia family,” said Jenniskens. </p>



<p>“Asteroid Hertha doesn’t look anything like its debris. Hertha is covered by dark rocks that were shock-blackened, indicative of an unusually violent collision."</p>



<p>"The L chondrites experienced a very violent origin 468 million years ago when these meteorites showered Earth in such numbers that they can be found in the geologic record.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-planetary-defense">What this means for planetary defense</h2>



<p>Understanding where meteorites come from is more than just a scientific curiosity. It’s also crucial for identifying and preparing for potentially hazardous asteroids that could threaten Earth.</p>



<p>“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/27500-hidden-near-earth-asteroids-discovered-using-google-cloud/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Near Earth Asteroids</a> do not arrive on the same orbits as meteorites, because it takes longer for these to evolve to Earth,” said Jenniskens. “But they do come from some of the same asteroid families.”</p>



<p>This connection means that by learning which asteroid families are sending meteorites our way, scientists can better assess which larger bodies might pose a risk in the future.</p>



<p>Jenniskens and Devillepoix also examined other meteorite types and their possible source regions. While not every link is confirmed, the expanding map of meteorite origins is already providing key insights.</p>



<p>“We are proud about how far we have come, but there is a long way to go,” said Jenniskens. "Like the first cartographers who traced the outline of Australia, our map reveals a continent of discoveries still ahead when more meteorite falls are recorded.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-in-meteorite-tracking">Next steps in meteorite tracking</h2>



<p>In the future, scientists hope to observe more asteroids in space just before they reach Earth. That was the case in 2008, when a small asteroid named 2008 TC3 was tracked in space and then recovered after it landed.</p>



<p>Thanks to upcoming observatories and new detection technologies, researchers expect to repeat this process more often - and continue filling in the blanks on their asteroid belt map.</p>



<p>As more meteorites are tracked from sky to ground, each one becomes another puzzle piece in understanding our solar system’s past, and preparing for its future.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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What meteorites tell us about their birthplace in space

For years, scientists have puzzled over one big question: where...

<p>Ten years ago, the scientific community had no idea that a remarkable group of microbes called Asgard archaea even existed. </p>



<p>That changed in 2015 when researchers studying deep-sea sediments stumbled upon mysterious gene fragments. With the help of computer software, they pieced these fragments together and discovered something entirely new - a previously unknown group of microbes.</p>



<p>These microbes are part of a group of organisms known as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aggressive-predatory-behavior-discovered-in-tiny-single-celled-organisms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">archaea</a>, and are single-celled organisms similar to bacteria but genetically distinct.</p>



<p>Archaea differ from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-pass-down-memories-to-future-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a> in important ways, such as how their cell envelopes are built and how they process energy. </p>



<p>This newly identified group was so unique that scientists gave it its own category: Asgard archaea. </p>



<p>The name, inspired by Norse mythology, acknowledges their initial discovery near Loki’s Castle, a hydrothermal vent in the mid-Atlantic Ocean.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tiny-microbes-to-complex-life">From tiny microbes to complex life</h2>



<p>What made this discovery even more exciting was the realization that Asgard archaea may be the closest living relatives of eukaryotes - organisms whose cells contain a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cell-nuclei-play-unexpected-role-in-organ-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nucleus</a>, including humans, animals, and plants.</p>



<p>This revelation challenged the long-standing model that life falls into three domains: bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. Some scientists now argue that eukaryotes may actually have evolved from within the Asgard archaea, which would reduce the tree of life to just two early domains: archaea (including eukaryotes) and bacteria.</p>



<p>At <a href="https://sce.ethz.ch/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>, scientists have been exploring these microbes for several years. In a 2022 study, researchers focused on a species that is found in the sediments of a brackish water channel in Slovenia called <em>Lokiarchaeum ossiferum</em>.</p>



<p>The species was isolated by a research team from the University of Vienna. The team found that <em>Lokiarchaeum ossiferum</em> shares key features with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oldest-organisms-ever-discovered-show-dazzling-diversity-and-complexity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eukaryotic</a> cells.</p>



<p>“We found an actin protein in that species that appears very similar to the protein found in eukaryotes – and occurs in almost all Asgard archaea discovered to date,” explained Professor Martin Pilhofer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-skeleton-of-tentacles">A skeleton of tentacles</h2>



<p>To study this further, the researchers used a variety of advanced microscopes. They discovered that this actin protein, named Lokiactin, forms long, thin filaments, which are especially visible in the many tentacle-like projections of the microbes. </p>



<p>“They appear to form the skeleton for the complex cell architecture of Asgard archaea,” added Florian Wollweber.</p>



<p>Eukaryotic cells don’t just have actin filaments - they also rely on structures called microtubules, which are built from proteins known as tubulins. Microtubules help move materials around inside cells and play a key role during cell division.</p>



<p>For a long time, scientists didn’t know where microtubules originally came from. That mystery may now be closer to being solved. </p>



<p>The ETH Zurich team found similar structures in Asgard archaea. Although the Asgard versions are smaller, they share striking similarities with the microtubules found in eukaryotes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-but-important-structures">Rare, but important structures</h2>



<p>Interestingly, only a small number of <em>Lokiarchaeum</em> cells produced these microtubule-like structures. </p>



<p>Unlike the widely present actin proteins, tubulins only appear in a few known Asgard species. It’s still unclear why they are so rare or what precise function they serve. In eukaryotic cells, microtubules act like highways, allowing motor proteins to transport materials. </p>



<p>So far, the ETH Zurich researchers have not seen these types of motor proteins in Asgard archaea. But they did observe something telling. </p>



<p>“We have shown, however, that the tubes formed from these tubulins grow at one end. We therefore suspect that they perform similar transport functions as the microtubules in eukaryotes,” explained Jingwei Xu, co-first author of the study.</p>



<p>Xu produced the tubulin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/proteins-identified-that-allowed-vertebrates-to-evolve/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">proteins</a> using insect cells and examined their shape and behavior.</p>



<p>The study brought together experts in microbiology, biochemistry, cell biology, and structural biology. “We would never have progressed so far without this interdisciplinary approach,” stated Pilhofer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-blocks-of-complex-life">Building blocks of complex life</h2>



<p>Could the cytoskeleton - the structural framework inside cells - have played a vital role in the rise of complex life? The researchers think so.</p>



<p>They believe that long ago, an Asgard archaea may have used its tentacle-like appendages to grab a bacterium.</p>



<p>Over time, this type of bacterium became a permanent resident inside archaeans, and evolved into the mitochondrion - the energy center of today’s cells. From there, other features like the nucleus eventually developed, giving rise to the eukaryotic cell.</p>



<p>“This remarkable cytoskeleton was probably at the beginning of this development. It could have enabled Asgard archaea to form appendages, thereby allowing them to interact with, and then seize and engulf a bacterium,” said Pilhofer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-for-elusive-microbes">Fishing for elusive microbes</h2>



<p>The ETH Zurich team isn’t stopping here. They’re now shifting focus to understand the role of actin and tubulin in Asgard archaea. They also plan to study the unique proteins that appear on the microbes’ outer surfaces.</p>



<p>One goal is to create antibodies that can recognize these surface proteins. This would let scientists “fish” for Asgard archaea within complex microbial communities. </p>



<p>“We still have a lot of unanswered questions about Asgard archaea, especially regarding their relation to eukaryotes and their unusual cell biology,” said Pilhofer. “Tracking down the secrets of these microbes is fascinating.”</p>



<p>The search for answers continues, but one thing is clear: these tiny organisms may hold the key to one of life’s biggest mysteries.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00254-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0092867425002545%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a></em>.</p>



<p>Image Credit: Margot Riggi, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Tiny microbes may have given rise to complex life

Ten years ago, the scientific community had no idea that...

<p>Most people can't recall their first steps, their first birthday, or even their first favorite toy - as if the brain somehow erased those early memories.</p>



<p>For decades, researchers believed this memory loss, known as "infantile amnesia," stemmed from the underdevelopment of a key brain region. But new research from <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> challenges that idea.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-role-of-the-hippocampus">Early role of the hippocampus</h2>



<p>Scientists at Yale University have found that even very young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wearable-imaging-device-reveals-infant-brain-activity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a> can encode memories. </p>



<p>The team studied babies aged four months to two years using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to monitor their brains as they viewed new images of faces, objects, and scenes. </p>



<p>When infants were shown a previously seen image alongside a new one, those who had more hippocampal activity during the first viewing were more likely to look longer at the familiar image. That’s a sign the infant remembered it.</p>



<p>Study senior author Nick Turk-Browne is a professor of psychology in Yale’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences and director of Yale’s Wu Tsai Institute.</p>



<p>“The hallmark of these types of memories, which we call episodic memories, is that you can describe them to others, but that’s off the table when you’re dealing with pre-verbal infants,” said Turk-Browne.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-measuring-memory-in-babies">Measuring memory in babies</h2>



<p>Because babies can’t talk, studying their memory has always been tricky.</p>



<p>The team developed a test using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sounds-can-change-the-way-we-see-things/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual recognition</a>. Babies usually look longer at things they recognize. So, if a baby stared at a previously seen image longer than a new one, researchers took that as a sign of recognition.</p>



<p>“When babies have seen something just once before, we expect them to look at it more when they see it again,” said Turk-Browne. </p>



<p>“So in this task, if an infant stares at the previously seen image more than the new one next to it, that can be interpreted as the baby recognizing it as familiar.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-activity-in-the-hippocampus">Brain activity in the hippocampus </h2>



<p>The study focused on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-reboots-the-brain-making-room-for-new-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hippocampus</a> - the area of the brain involved in memory. The researchers found that activity in the hippocampus during the initial viewing of an image predicted how well the baby would recognize it later.</p>



<p>The strongest activity was in the back part of the hippocampus, which in adults is associated with episodic memory - our ability to remember specific events.</p>



<p>The results were consistent across all 26 infants in the study, but the effect was especially strong in those over 12 months old. This supports the idea that the hippocampus gradually develops the capacity for episodic memory in the second year of life.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-memory-in-one-small-brain">Two types of memory in one small brain</h2>



<p>This isn’t the first time the Yale team has looked at memory in babies. In earlier research, the researchers showed that even three-month-old infants use a different type of memory called "statistical learning."</p>



<p>While episodic memory helps us remember specific events - like a birthday party - statistical learning helps us notice patterns, such as how most birthday parties have balloons and cake.</p>



<p>“Statistical learning is about extracting the structure in the world around us,” said Turk-Browne. </p>



<p>“This is critical for the development of language, vision, concepts, and more. So it’s understandable why statistical learning may come into play earlier than episodic memory.”</p>



<p>These two types of memory use different areas of the hippocampus. Statistical learning happens in the front part, which develops earlier. Episodic memory relies more on the back part, which matures later. </p>



<p>This difference might explain why babies are good at picking up patterns even if they can’t recall specific events.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-do-those-early-memories-go">Where do those early memories go?</h2>



<p>If babies can form episodic memories, why don’t we remember our own earliest experiences? According to Professor Turk-Browne, there are a few possible explanations.</p>



<p>One is that these early memories don’t stick around - they may fade before becoming part of long-term memory. Another idea is that the memories still exist but are inaccessible later in life.</p>



<p>In fact, the Yale team is now exploring whether memories formed in infancy can persist, even if we can't recall them as adults. </p>



<p>The researchers are testing whether children can recognize home videos taken from their own perspective as babies. Early results suggest some of these memories might last into preschool years.</p>



<p>Tristan Yates, lead author of the current study,  is a developmental cognitive neuroscientist at Colombia University who received her PhD from Yale under the guidance of Professor Turk-Browne.</p>



<p>“Tristan’s work in humans is remarkably compatible with recent animal evidence that infantile amnesia is a retrieval problem,” said Turk-Browne. </p>



<p>“We’re working to track the durability of hippocampal memories across childhood and even beginning to entertain the radical, almost sci-fi possibility that they may endure in some form into adulthood, despite being inaccessible.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-understanding-of-the-baby-brain">A new understanding of the baby brain</h2>



<p>This study suggests that the baby brain might be more powerful than we thought and that our earliest memories may not be completely lost. Instead, they might be stored in ways we don’t yet understand. </p>



<p>The hippocampus seems to be working much earlier in life than once believed, and the idea that we simply can’t retrieve those memories - rather than not forming them at all - is gaining traction.</p>



<p>The research opens new questions about how memory develops, how it changes over time, and whether those lost moments from our baby years are still hidden deep within us.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt7570" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a></em>.</p>



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We can’t remember being babies - but our brains might

Most people can't recall their first steps, their first birthday,...

Latimeria,Fish,Isolated,On,The,Black,Background

<p>Among the many wonders and ancient tales about marine life and ocean creatures, one fish long believed to have vanished from our planet captured worldwide attention. </p>



<p>This interest emerged from an unexpected finding that changed our perspective on what might still be lurking in the deep.</p>



<p>Before 1938, experts spoke of the coelacanth as a classic example of an extinct fish dating back more than 400 million years. Scholars concluded it had disappeared 65 to 70 million years ago. </p>



<p>This assumption crumbled when a 32-year-old museum employee in East London, South Africa, examined a strange specimen brought by a local fisherman near the Chalumna River. The fish defied every existing category she knew.</p>



<p>Soon after, she contacted <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._L._B._Smith" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor James Leonard Brierley Smith</a> of <a href="https://www.ru.ac.za/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rhodes University</a> for advice. He confirmed that the fish was indeed a living coelacanth. </p>



<p>That surprise discovery shifted the zoological narrative and demonstrated how the fossil record can be incomplete, especially when only a small number of individuals survive.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fascinating-fish-tale">Fascinating fish tale</h2>



<p>In the eyes of many scientists, the coelacanth’s resurgence placed it into what is called a Lazarus taxon. The term refers to creatures that vanish from evidence, then reappear without warning. </p>



<p>One telling moment from that occasion remains the telegram from Brierley Smith: “MOST IMPORTANT PRESERVE SKELETON AND GILLS = FISH DESCRIBED.” </p>



<p>No one anticipated those words, yet they confirmed something rare had surfaced.</p>



<p>After that event, more than a decade passed before another coelacanth turned up. In 1952, two fishermen in the Comoro Islands accidentally netted the second specimen, prompting renewed fascination among marine researchers. </p>



<p>A further revelation followed in the 1990s, when experts identified a second species around the Indonesian archipelago. </p>



<p>These examples carry the names <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-megacities-at-highest-risk-from-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">West Indian Ocean</a> coelacanth (<em>Latimeria chalumnae</em>) and Indonesian coelacanth (<em>Latimeria menadoensi</em>s).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coelacanth-has-unique-physical-traits">Coelacanth has unique physical traits</h2>



<p>This fish stands apart for its lobed pectoral fins, which appear to be an early link to vertebrates that eventually ventured onto land. These fins move in a synchronized pattern, allowing the fish to navigate underwater terrains. </p>



<p>Unlike many other fishes, it also bears an unusual hinge in its skull, once a subject of speculation about how it might bite or process food.</p>



<p>Its coloration often blends with the rocky surroundings where it resides, offering a measure of cover in deep marine environments. </p>



<p>The habitat provides sufficient shelter from predators, while the species’ low metabolism helps it survive on fewer resources. </p>



<p>Scientists note that it rests in lava-cave recesses during daylight hours, an approach that likely shields it from hazards in open water.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancestral-ties-to-land-creatures">Ancestral ties to land creatures</h2>



<p>Researchers classify the coelacanth under the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysterious-fish-like-fossil-finally-classified/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">group Sarcopterygii</a>, or lobe-finned fishes, which include lungfish and the earliest ancestors of amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. </p>



<p>Shared skeletal features, such as sturdy fin bones, point to a closer relationship with organisms that adapted to life on land. </p>



<p>This connection is intriguing because it shows how certain aquatic traits can mirror structures later found in creatures roaming dry terrain.</p>



<p>Some studies suggest that the coelacanth’s rostral organ, located in its snout, may sense electrical signals from prey. </p>



<p>That adaptation is reminiscent of strategies seen in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coelacanth-ngamugawi-wirngarri-new-species-living-fossil-fish-survived-over-400-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lobe-finned fish</a>, hinting at a link between modern species and those that made their way onto shore millions of years ago. </p>



<p>Observers note that this hidden ability emphasizes how an ancient design can remain effective.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-stability-has-helped-coelacanths">Geological stability has helped coelacanths</h2>



<p>The ancient environment of undersea caverns has changed little over vast stretches of time. </p>



<p>Because of this stable setting, the coelacanth has not faced the intense pressures that other species might encounter in rapidly shifting habitats. </p>



<p>Food sources may be limited, but the fish’s slow pace lessens its caloric needs.</p>



<p>Its specialized niche also guards it from fierce competition. Other oceanic predators seldom patrol these dark, quiet zones, giving the coelacanth space to endure without altering the basic features that first appeared centuries ago. </p>



<p>This alignment between organism and setting reveals a powerful strategy: remain where the external world barely intrudes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inspiring-story-of-adaptation-and-survival">Inspiring story of adaptation and survival</h2>



<p>Many living forms adapt constantly to survive. By contrast, this fish’s story underscores how a creature can persist if external demands remain light and internal physiology fits the available conditions. </p>



<p>Though it caused surprise among zoologists, the coelacanth itself quietly continued in an environment well-suited to its capabilities.</p>



<p>To many observers, it sparks discussions on biodiversity and the surprising ways life endures. While others might call it a relic, it is very much a survivor. </p>



<p>Each sighting encourages experts to keep watching the deep sea, a region that may hold additional beings we once wrote off as extinct.</p>



<p>Scientists continue to investigate whether this fish harbors undiscovered traits. Each observation can add to our understanding of marine evolution. </p>



<p>Observers hope that further study might shed new light on adaptations that remain hidden in dark, remote corners of the ocean.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-37849-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a></em>.</p>



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World’s oldest fish was presumed extinct for 60 million years before being rediscovered

Among the many wonders and ancient tales about marine life...

<p>Imagine taking a leisurely Sunday drive, and you accidentally smash something on the road that turns out to be an unprecedented scientific revelation. Well, that's exactly what happened to NASA's Curiosity Mars rover when it struck yellow sulfur on the Red Planet.</p>



<p>While working its usual Martian shift, the rover stumbled upon, rather drove over, a rock and cracked it wide open, revealing a sight never before seen on Mars - a dazzling display of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_yellow-sulfur-crystals_gediz-vallis_curiosity-rover_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">yellow sulfur crystals</a>.</p>



<p>This unexpected discovery was relayed to a team of astounded scientists, including Ashwin Vasavada, the Curiosity’s project scientist from NASA’s <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California.</p>



<p>“Finding a field of stones made of pure sulfur is like finding an oasis in the desert. It shouldn’t be there, so now we have to explain it. Discovering strange and unexpected things is what makes planetary exploration so exciting," Vasavada enthused. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-sulfur-surprise-on-mars">Sweet sulfur surprise on Mars</h2>



<p>The bright, odorless crystals found by Curiosity open a window into a new chapter of study. </p>



<p>Researchers want to know what factors created this elemental form and how it can exist alongside other deposits that speak to the planet’s watery past.</p>



<p>Since October 2023, Curiosity has been rambling about in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-surface-contains-more-organic-matter-than-previously-believed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sulfate-rich region</a> of Mars. Now, sulfates aren't exactly Martian novelties. </p>



<p>These salts, formed as water evaporates, had been detected before, but only as constituents of sulfur-based minerals - mixtures of sulfur and other stuff. But this time, it was pure, elemental sulfur, a first of its kind.</p>



<p>What's so peculiar about this elemental sulfur? Well, contrary to the stinkiness associated with hydrogen sulfide gas, elemental sulfur is odorless. </p>



<p>Its formation requires specific conditions not previously linked to this Martian location. Hence, the revelation of an entire field of bright, sulfur-laden rocks is indeed something to marvel at.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sulfur-as-a-signal-for-life-on-mars">Sulfur as a signal for life on Mars</h2>



<p>Sulfur is an important element for understanding the potential for life, both on Earth and beyond. Certain microorganisms on our planet depend on sulfur compounds as an energy source. </p>



<p>The presence of sulfur on Mars, even in forms discovered in earlier missions, has always raised questions about ancient habitats. </p>



<p>Water influences the formation of sulfates, and water stands out as a critical ingredient for biology. </p>



<p>Finding pure sulfur, though, points to specialized conditions that could expand possible scenarios for past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-mars-rover-finds-more-compelling-evidence-for-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial life on the Red Planet</a>.</p>



<p>Sulfur compounds also reveal information about Mars’s potential hydrothermal systems, volcanic activities, or ancient lakes and seas - habitats that might have supported life.</p>



<p>They are involved in chemical reactions that produce energy, a survival mechanism for some Earth microbes in extreme environments like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-giant-riftia-tubeworms-survive-on-deep-sea-hydrothermal-vents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep-sea hydrothermal vents</a>.</p>



<p>The identification of sulfur on Mars raises questions about the planet's historical habitability. It suggests a range of chemical environments that could have supported microbial life. </p>



<p>While sulfur alone doesn't confirm the existence of life, its presence alongside other life-sustaining elements like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus strengthens the case for past life on Mars.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-mount-sharp">Scaling Mount Sharp</h2>



<p>Curiosity has climbed Mount Sharp for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasas-curiosity-rover-records-a-martian-day-from-dawn-to-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than seven years</a>, examining its layered formations. </p>



<p>Each layer represents a separate phase of the planet’s development, offering glimpses of ancient river networks, lake sediments, and shifting climates. </p>



<p>Data show that different types of minerals, including sulfates, appear in these layers, hinting at cycles of evaporation and chemical alteration that occurred when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-vanishing-water-mystery-new-insights-curiosity-rover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water was likely more plentiful</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-gediz-vallis-and-sulfur-crystals">Mars' Gediz Vallis and sulfur crystals</h2>



<p>A site drawing particular interest is the Gediz Vallis channel. Researchers suspect it was shaped by water-driven events and landslides that left a jumble of rocks at the bottom. </p>



<p>Findings suggest that both factors had a hand in the formation of these Martian landscapes.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gediz-vallis_panorama_yellow-sulfur-crystals_rock_curiosity-rover_NASA_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gediz-vallis_panorama_yellow-sulfur-crystals_rock_curiosity-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Panorama of Gediz Vallis region of Mars taken by Curiosity rover. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939362"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Panorama of Gediz Vallis region of Mars taken by Curiosity rover. Credit: NASA</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Becky Williams, a scientist with the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> in Tucson, Arizona, and deputy principal investigator of Curiosity’s Mast Camera, has studied these processes. </p>



<p>“This was not a quiet period on Mars. There was an exciting amount of activity here. We’re looking at multiple flows down the channel, including energetic floods and boulder-rich flows," she explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drilling-for-more-sulfur-clues-on-mars">Drilling for more sulfur clues on Mars</h2>



<p>Curiosity’s drill has stayed busy near the newly found sulfur field. On June 18, the rover created its 41st borehole in a rock called “Mammoth Lakes.” </p>



<p>That powdered sample is now under scrutiny. Researchers hope to see if the elemental sulfur sits alongside compounds that might reveal the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-is-letting-out-mysterious-methane-burps-but-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical history of Mars</a>. </p>



<p>Identifying the mixture of ingredients in the soil can shed light on previous hydrothermal processes, environmental conditions, or even the faint possibility of microbial life.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/mars-rock_yellow-sulfur-crystals_gediz-valles_wide-view_curiosity-rover_NASA_1s.jpg" alt="Rock in Gediz Vallis on Mars where Curiosity Rover found yellow sulfur crystal. Credit: NASA" class="wp-image-1939365"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>Rock in Gediz Vallis on Mars where Curiosity Rover found yellow sulfur crystal. Credit: NASA</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>The journey so far has been an adventurous one, with unexpected discoveries and valuable scientific data turning up at every corner. The team eagerly awaits what other surprises lay within the channel. </p>



<p>Each new finding brings us a step closer to understanding the Martian history and whether the planet once harbored conditions <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-perseverance-rover-now-uses-ai-search-minerals-life-on-mars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">favorable for life</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



<p>No single discovery confirms ancient life on Mars. Yet each sample broadens the view of what might have occurred on this neighbor world. </p>



<p>The discovery of elemental sulfur on Mars enhances our understanding of our neighboring planet while stoking our curiosity about what else lies out there in the cosmos. </p>



<p>The rover’s path offers new perspectives each time it rolls across unfamiliar terrain, revealing minerals that shouldn’t be there and sites that demand fresh explanation.</p>



<p>With every turn of its wheels, Curiosity encourages scientists to rethink prior assumptions and look forward to whatever else might be waiting in this dusty frontier.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Curiosity rover cracked open a rock and may have settled the 'life on Mars' debate

Imagine taking a leisurely Sunday drive, and you accidentally smash...

<p>Friendships matter deeply, especially during adolescence. In today’s digital world, staying in touch through social media has become the norm. Many teens feel the need to be constantly available online.</p>



<p>This availability, while helpful in some ways, can become exhausting. When friends don't reply or engage, it often leads to frustration and misunderstandings.</p>



<p>New research conducted by scientists in Italy has uncovered the hidden strain social media puts on teenage friendships. The team tracked how young people navigate expectations <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/teens-with-problematic-smartphone-use-suffer-from-depression/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">online</a> and how those expectations impact real friendships.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teen-friendships-and-digital-stress">Teen friendships and digital stress</h2>



<p>"We show that adolescents' perceptions of social media norms and perceptions of unique features of social media contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/taking-a-smartphone-break-can-improve-your-life-in-surprising-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital stress</a>, which in turn increases friendship conflicts," said Federica Angelini, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.unipd.it" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Padua</a> and first author of the study.</p>



<p>Angelini and her team surveyed over 1,100 teenagers aged 13 to 18. They studied how teens' emotions shifted depending on whether friends replied, engaged, or seemed distant online. </p>



<p>Two key emotions stood out - feeling trapped by the need to always be available (entrapment) and feeling hurt when friends didn’t respond (disappointment).</p>



<p>"Disappointment from unmet expectations on social media - such as when friends do not respond or engage as expected - is a stronger predictor of friendship conflict than the pressure to be constantly available."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visual-clues-and-social-media">Visual clues and social media</h2>



<p>Over time, disappointment proved more damaging than entrapment. Six months after the first round of data collection, teens who felt disappointed by their friends were more likely to experience conflict. </p>



<p>Constant availability, surprisingly, had less impact. It may be that always being online is now just a part of teenage culture.</p>



<p>"Individuals feel let down by their friends' availability or responsiveness online. This disappointment arises from unmet expectations and leads to negative emotions which can spill over into friendship conflicts," Angelini said.</p>



<p>Visual content - images and videos - adds another layer. Teens often see their friends active online or socializing without them. This creates feelings of exclusion and jealousy.</p>



<p>"Visual content makes it easier for teens to see what their friends are doing at any given time. If teens notice that their friends are active online or spend time with others while ignoring their messages, they may feel excluded, jealous, or rejected," Angelini explained. </p>



<p>"This heightened awareness can intensify negative emotions and contribute to friendship tension."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-boundaries-for-teen-friendships">Better boundaries for teen friendships </h2>



<p>The findings offer a roadmap to help teens build stronger friendships. Awareness is the first step. By recognizing how online behavior affects real emotions, teens can begin to make small changes.</p>



<p>"Identifying key stressors, for example, visual content and availability expectations, and understanding dynamics of online interactions among friends can help educators, parents, and teens develop healthier online habits," Angelini said.</p>



<p>Setting boundaries may help. Teens could try turning off notifications or agreeing on break times from social media with their friends. These steps reduce the pressure of instant replies.</p>



<p>"Learning to accept that not every message requires an immediate reply can ease digital stress while maintaining healthy friendships."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-on-teens-online-behavior">Future research on teens' online behavior</h2>



<p>While the study provides useful insights, it has its limits. The analysis was based on teens' own reports of their online use, which may not tell the full story. Also, the six-month timeframe might not capture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/internet-addiction-impairs-brain-function-in-teenagers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">long-term patterns</a>.</p>



<p>"Future research could use objective measures of social media activity and extend the timeline to better understand how digital stress and friendship conflicts evolve over time," noted Angelini.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-to-find-balance">Learning to find balance</h2>



<p>Friendship is one of the most meaningful parts of growing up. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-is-helping-save-wild-animals-like-caracals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Social media</a> has changed how these relationships form, grow, and sometimes falter. </p>



<p>Understanding the emotional landscape of teen interactions online can guide better communication, deeper empathy, and more stable friendships.</p>



<p>This research doesn’t ask teens to step away from technology. Instead, it invites them to be more aware of their habits and reactions. When disappointment or stress rises, a small shift - like talking openly or logging off for a while - can make a big difference.</p>



<p>In the end, what teens need most is not constant digital presence, but consistent emotional support - on screen or off.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/digital-health/articles/10.3389/fdgth.2025.1497222/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Digital Health</a></em>.</p>



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Social media pressure is straining teen friendships

Friendships matter deeply, especially during adolescence. In today’s digital world,...

<p>The past is full of hidden secrets, and fossils offer valuable glimpses into ancient worlds. Each discovery reveals new insights into evolution, extinction, and the environmental shifts that shaped life long ago.</p>



<p>A recent study on a 30,000-year-old vulture fossil from Central Italy has revealed an extraordinary process of preservation. </p>



<p>The researchers discovered that volcanic rock can capture microscopic details of feathers - a phenomenon that has never been documented before.</p>



<p>Fossilization usually occurs in sediments like mud or sand, where minerals replace organic materials over time. </p>



<p>However, the vulture <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-molecules-collagen-discovered-in-66-million-year-old-dinosaur-bones/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> challenges conventional beliefs by showing how volcanic deposits can preserve soft tissues in stunning detail.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-30-000-year-old-vulture-fossil">30,000-year-old vulture fossil</h2>



<p>The fossilized vulture was discovered in 1889 near Rome by a local landowner. Its exceptional state of preservation made it a rare find at the time.</p>



<p>Unlike many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> that are flattened by geological pressure, this specimen retained a three-dimensional structure. Even features like eyelids and wing feathers remained intact.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/vulture-fossil-feather_volcanic-rock_credit-Edoardo-Terranova_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/vulture-fossil-feather_volcanic-rock_credit-Edoardo-Terranova_1s.webp" alt="A Fossilized feather preserved with the volcanic rock. Credit: Edoardo Terranova" class="wp-image-1963155"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>A Fossilized feather preserved with the volcanic rock. Credit: Edoardo Terranova</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>Despite its discovery more than a century ago, the fossil has continued to fascinate researchers. Recent advances in microscopic and chemical analysis provided scientists with tools to examine it anew, this time in unprecedented detail.</p>



<p>The findings have opened new doors in the study of fossilization and volcanic environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feathers-preserved-at-the-microscopic-level">Feathers preserved at the microscopic level</h2>



<p>Dr. Valentina Rossi from University College Cork led the research team that conducted a detailed examination of the vulture fossil. </p>



<p>The results, published recently in <em>Geology</em>, reveal that the feathers are preserved down to the microscopic level.</p>



<p>“Fossil feathers are usually preserved in ancient mudrocks laid down in lakes or lagoons,” noted Dr. Rossi.</p>



<p>“The fossil vulture is preserved in ash deposits, which is extremely unusual. When analyzing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthal-fossils-reveal-signs-of-a-population-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> vulture plumage, we found ourselves in uncharted territory. These feathers are nothing like what we usually see in other fossils.”</p>



<p>Traditional fossilization often occurs in water-rich environments, where sediments gradually cover an animal’s remains. </p>



<p>However, the vulture’s feathers survived in volcanic ash - a setting not previously recognized for preserving such delicate structures.</p>



<p>This raises new questions about the role of volcanic environments in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-discovery-anadoluvius-turkae-suggests-humans-originated-in-europe-not-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil</a> preservation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-zeolite-in-preservation">Role of zeolite in preservation</h2>



<p>By analyzing tiny samples of the fossil feathers using electron microscopes and chemical tests, the researchers uncovered an unexpected preservation mechanism. </p>



<p>The feathers were found to be encased in zeolite, a mineral composed of silicon and aluminum.</p>



<p>“Zeolites are minerals rich in silicon and aluminum and are common in volcanic and hydrothermal geological settings," Dr. Rossi explained.</p>



<p>"They can form as primary minerals (with pretty crystals) or can form secondarily, during the natural alteration of volcanic glass and ash, giving the rock a ‘mudrock-like’ aspect."</p>



<p>The team determined that water flowing through the ash layers triggered chemical changes that led to the formation of zeolite nanocrystals. These crystals replicated the feathers’ microscopic details, thus preserving them at a cellular level.</p>



<p>This process had never been reported before in soft tissue fossilization, making the vulture fossil a groundbreaking discovery.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preserved-soft-tissues-in-a-vulture-fossil">Preserved soft tissues in a vulture fossil</h2>



<p>Volcanic activity is usually associated with destruction, not <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-did-dinosaurs-come-from-missing-fossils-hold-the-secret/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preservation</a>. Pyroclastic flows, known for their extreme heat and rapid movement, often obliterate organic material. </p>



<p>Yet, this study demonstrates that, under certain conditions, volcanic ash can encase and protect soft tissues.</p>



<p>“We are used to thinking that volcanic deposits are associated with hot, fast-moving pyroclastic currents that will destroy soft tissues," noted Professor Dawid A. Iurino from the University of Milan.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/vulture-fossil-feather_volcanic-rock_illustration_credit-Dawid-Iurino_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/03/vulture-fossil-feather_volcanic-rock_illustration_credit-Dawid-Iurino_1s.webp" alt="'The Doom of the Alban Hills' a digital painting representing a possible scenario of the moments before the vulture carcass was entombed in the pyroclastic current. Credit: Dawid A. Iurino" class="wp-image-1963158"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption"><em>'The Doom of the Alban Hills' a digital painting representing a possible scenario of the moments before the vulture carcass was entombed in the pyroclastic current. Credit: Dawid A. Iurino</em></figcaption></figure>



<p>"However, these geological settings are complex and can include low temperature deposits that can preserve soft tissues at the cellular level.” </p>



<p>This discovery challenges the assumption that volcanic environments are unsuitable for preserving fossils. </p>



<p>It suggests that low-temperature ash deposits can serve as protective enclosures for biological remains, and that this may allow scientists to study ancient creatures in ways never before possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-the-search-for-fossils">Expanding the search for fossils </h2>



<p>The findings have significant implications for paleontology. Scientists have long focused on sedimentary rocks when searching for well-preserved fossils, and may have overlooked volcanic deposits. This research suggests that volcanic rock may hold a hidden wealth of fossils with preserved soft tissues.</p>



<p>“The fossil record is continually surprising us, be it new fossil species, strange new body shapes, or in this case, new styles of fossil preservation. We never expected to find delicate tissues such as feathers preserved in a volcanic rock," stated Professor Maria McNamara from University College Cork.</p>



<p>"Discoveries such as these broaden the range of potential rock types where we can find fossils, even those preserving fragile soft tissues."</p>



<p>This revelation encourages researchers to revisit volcanic fossil sites with fresh eyes. It also raises the possibility that more fossils with soft tissue preservation are waiting to be uncovered in ash-rich environments.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-chapter-in-paleontology">A new chapter in paleontology</h2>



<p>Scientific discoveries constantly reshape our understanding of the past. </p>



<p>The vulture fossil provides a glimpse into an ancient world and introduces a previously unknown pathway of fossilization. </p>



<p>Its preservation within volcanic rock suggests that nature’s processes are sometimes more complex than previously thought.</p>



<p>As researchers continue to explore this phenomenon, future studies may uncover additional cases of soft tissue preservation in volcanic deposits. </p>



<p>This could revolutionize the study of fossils and expand the possibilities for finding well-preserved specimens in unexpected places.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/doi/10.1130/G52971.1/653118/Fossil-feathers-from-the-Colli-Albani-volcanic?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Geology</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Vulture fossil reveals that volcanic rock can preserve feathers

The past is full of hidden secrets, and fossils offer...

<p>When it comes to agility, squirrels are in a league of their own. These small animals can leap between branches, stick impossible landings, and move effortlessly through trees. </p>



<p>While robots have been designed to mimic the motion of snakes, birds, and fish, none has come close to matching a squirrel's mastery of dynamic movement - until now.</p>



<p>A team of biologists and engineers from the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a> has designed a hopping robot that can replicate one of the squirrel's most impressive skills: landing precisely on a narrow perch.</p>



<p>Their inspiration came from studying how squirrels leap, land, and adjust their bodies in mid-air to maintain balance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squirrel-skills-robotic-goals">Squirrel skills, robotic goals</h2>



<p>“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-can-now-learn-like-humans-using-self-awareness/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">robots</a> we have now are OK, but how do you take it to the next level? How do you get robots to navigate a challenging environment in a disaster where you have pipes and beams and wires? Squirrels could do that, no problem. Robots can't do that," said Robert Full, co-senior author of the study. </p>



<p>“Squirrels are nature's best athletes. The way that they can maneuver and escape is unbelievable. The idea is to try to define the control strategies that give the animals a wide range of behavioral options to perform extraordinary feats, and use that information to build more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/robots-cannot-outrun-animals-but-theyre-evolving-faster/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agile robots</a>.”</p>



<p>The team’s answer to this challenge is Salto - a small, one-legged robot originally developed at UC Berkeley in 2016. </p>



<p>Salto was already capable of hopping and landing on flat surfaces, but researchers wanted to see if it could do something much trickier: land accurately on a narrow rod.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teaching-robots-to-think-like-squirrels">Teaching robots to think like squirrels</h2>



<p>Justin Yim, a former UC Berkeley graduate student and now an assistant professor at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, worked to translate what the biology team observed in squirrels into movement strategies for Salto.</p>



<p>“If you think about trying to jump to a point - maybe you're doing something like playing hopscotch and you want to land your feet in a certain spot - you want to stick that landing and not take a step,” Yim explained.</p>



<p>The behaviors that we carry out in order not to fall over when landing on our feet are familiar to us all. For example, we may pinwheel our arms and stand up straighter to stop ourselves from falling forwards. Similarly, we may pinwheel our arms backwards and sit down to prevent ourselves from falling backwards. </p>



<p>“That is the same behavior that we programmed into the robot. If it's going to be swinging under, it should crouch. If it's going to swing over, it should extend out and stand tall,” explained Yim.</p>



<p>The physics-based body adjustments that squirrels make to recover from a misjudged jump are now helping robots make smarter mid-air decisions.</p>



<p>Yim is currently using these strategies in a NASA-funded project that is aimed at building a one-legged robot capable of hopping across the low-gravity surface of Enceladus, Saturn’s icy moon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-squirrels-teach-us-about-balance">What squirrels teach us about balance</h2>



<p>The robot’s improved performance is built on detailed biomechanical research. UC Berkeley scientists equipped branches with sensors and captured high-speed video to analyze just how squirrels land. </p>



<p>They found that when a squirrel lands after a long <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/squirrels-can-adjust-to-new-launching-conditions-mid-flight/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leap</a>, it essentially performs a front-legged handstand. Most of the energy - about 86% - is absorbed by the front legs.</p>



<p>“They're really doing front handstands onto the branch, and then the rest of it follows,” Full said. “Then their feet generate a pull-up torque, if they're going under; if they are going to go over the top - they're overshooting, potentially - they generate a braking torque.”</p>



<p>But the key to a squirrel’s success isn’t just muscle strength. It's the ability to fine-tune that force depending on whether the jump was too short or too long.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-upgrades-for-salto">Upgrades for Salto</h2>



<p>To replicate these subtle adjustments, Yim and UC Berkeley undergraduate Eric Wang modified Salto’s design. </p>



<p>They gave it the ability to adjust its leg forces during landing and combined this with the robot’s existing reaction wheel, which helps with balance. </p>



<p>Despite not having grippers or any way to hold onto the perch, Salto was able to land on narrow branches several times.</p>



<p>“We decided to take the most difficult path and give the robot no ability to apply any torque on the branch with its feet. We specifically designed a passive gripper that even had very low friction to minimize that torque,” Yim said. </p>



<p>“In future work, I think it would be interesting to explore other, more capable grippers that could drastically expand the robot's ability to control the torque it applies to the branch and expand its ability to land. Maybe not just on branches, but on complex flat ground, too.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-advantage-of-no-thumbs">The advantage of no thumbs</h2>



<p>The team also discovered that squirrels, unlike <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-monkeys-are-much-smarter-than-we-thought-they-were/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monkeys</a>, do not rely on thumbs to grab branches. Instead, they use the entire palm of the foot to apply torque. Surprisingly, this might offer an advantage.</p>



<p>“If you're a squirrel being chased by a predator like a hawk, or [by] another squirrel, you want to have a sufficiently stable grasp, where you can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anymal-the-quadrupedal-robot-that-has-mastered-parkour/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parkour</a> off a branch quickly, but not too firm a grasp,” Full said. “They don't have to worry about letting go, they just bounce off.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-one-leg-works">Why one leg works</h2>



<p>Although one-legged robots may seem unstable, Yim believes this design is the most efficient for high jumps.</p>



<p>“One leg is the best number for jumping; you can put the most power into that one leg if you don't distribute that power among multiple different devices. And the drawbacks you get from having only one leg lessen as you jump higher,” Yim said. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-combining-biology-and-engineering">Combining biology and engineering </h2>



<p>With inspiration from nature, specifically squirrels, Salto is now better equipped to take on challenging terrains. The research shows that, by combining biology and engineering, robots can be taught to land with the finesse of an agile animal.</p>



<p>As this work continues, it may lead to the development of robots that are capable of exploring unstable buildings, treetops, and even alien worlds - one hop at a time.</p>



<p><a href="https://youtu.be/N9FuMj74aNg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Click here to watch the robot squirrel video...</a></p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/doi/10.1242/jeb.249934/367220/Free-ranging-squirrels-perform-stable-above-branch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Squirrel-inspired robot masters the art of precision landing

When it comes to agility, squirrels are in a league...

<p>Singapore has made history as the first country to install an art gallery 7,000 meters (22,965 feet) underwater.</p>



<p>This underwater installation consists of three stainless steel cubes created by artist and architect Lakshmi Mohanbabu, who previously sent her artwork into space aboard the International Space Station in 2022.</p>



<p>In December, the artworks were deployed by NuStar Technologies off the coast of Japan near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-virus-discovered-in-the-deepest-part-of-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mariana Trench</a>.</p>



<p>The installation is more than a symbolic gesture. It’s part of a collaborative project with Japan’s Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (<a href="https://www.jamstec.go.jp/e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMSTEC</a>), which aims to enhance early warning systems for undersea earthquakes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-blend-of-science-art-and-engineering">A blend of science, art, and engineering</h2>



<p>One of the three cubes was created using a novel hybrid manufacturing technique developed by researchers from Nanyang Technological University, Singapore (NTU Singapore).</p>



<p>The installation coincides with Singapore’s SG60 celebrations and was recognized in a ceremony held at&nbsp;Gallery ART NOW, attended by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ntu.edu.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NTU</a>&nbsp;Board Chair Goh Swee Chen, who also chairs the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nac.gov.sg/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Arts Council</a>.</p>



<p>Each cube is 10 centimeters (3.94 inches) wide, made of corrosion-resistant stainless steel, and showcases five symbols from Mohanbabu’s “Universal Language of Symbols.”</p>



<p>The five featured designs - Nautilus, Primary, Secondary, Windmill, and Dromenon - represent shared elements of human experience, such as movement, direction, and time.</p>



<p>These symbols are displayed on five of the six faces of each hollow cube, each with a unique top-facing design. For instance, the cube made using NTU’s 3D printing method features Dromenon on its top, while the others display Primary and Nautilus.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-art-gallery-in-the-deep-ocean">Art gallery in the deep ocean</h2>



<p>This project is a tribute to all those impacted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-disasters-are-on-the-rise-but-hazard-plans-are-inadequate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural disasters</a>. According to Mohanbabu, art has the unique ability to connect humanity across physical and metaphorical depths. </p>



<p>"With the Deep Ocean Interactions Project, we aim to inspire meaningful change highlighting our interconnected existence by bringing people together through a shared journey and purpose," said Mohanbabu.</p>



<p>"The earlier interactions cubes that had orbited around Earth in space will also be sent to the moon as part of a permanent art installation. With these two art installations, Singapore is the first nation to have artworks on the moon and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noaa-finds-golden-orb-unknown-object-cannot-identify-seascape-alaska-5-deep-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep ocean</a>."</p>



<p>"This milestone is also a testament to Singapore’s pioneering spirit and tenacity as we celebrate SG60 this year."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-discovery-and-cultural-expression">Scientific discovery and cultural expression </h2>



<p>The cubes were incorporated into the Long-Term Borehole Monitoring System (LTBMS), originally developed to track <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/co2-fracking-linked-to-mysterious-gentle-tremors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seismic activity</a> around tectonic plate boundaries. </p>



<p>To include the artwork,&nbsp;<a href="https://nustartech.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NuStar Technologies</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;JAMSTEC&nbsp;modified the LTBMS to add custom cavities and holders.</p>



<p>An ultra-deep-sea camera system was also deployed to capture images and footage of the installation at these record depths.</p>



<p>The cubes were officially installed on December 12, 2024, becoming part of the Dense Ocean Network System for Earthquakes and Tsunamis (DONET), Japan’s early-warning system.</p>



<p>“Together with Lakshmi and our partners at JAMSTEC, we have demonstrated that the deep ocean can be a platform for both scientific discovery and cultural expression," said Goi Kim Kok, managing director of NuStar Technologies.</p>



<p>"It is also timely that next year will mark the 60th anniversary of Singapore-Japan diplomatic relations.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-structures-for-extreme-environments">Stronger structures for extreme environments</h2>



<p>NTU Singapore played a critical role in the creation of one of the cubes, using a technique called LAPIS (Laser Patterning and Incorporation of Sheets).</p>



<p>The method combines 3D printing with laser cutting to stack 80 ultra-thin layers of stainless steel, creating a wall just 4mm thick. </p>



<p>The result is a structure over 70 percent stronger than conventional steel and capable of withstanding the crushing pressure and corrosive nature of the deep sea.</p>



<p>Professor Lai Changquan developed LAPIS with his team at NTU’s Singapore Centre for 3D Printing.</p>



<p>"This project demonstrates the potential of interdisciplinary research to push the boundaries of what is possible. Creating a piece of art capable of withstanding the immense pressures of the deep ocean is a testament to the versatility and durability of our technology," said Professor Changquan.</p>



<p>Following the success of this project, Professor Lai and his students launched a start-up with support from NTU's Innovation and Entrepreneurship initiative. Their goal is to expand the use of this technology in aerospace, maritime, and energy sectors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-art-across-land-sea-and-space">Art across land, sea, and space</h2>



<p>This is the third time Mohanbabu has worked with NTU SC3DP. Previous collaborations included prototyping and 3D printing miniature Interactions artworks.</p>



<p>In 2022, two of her cubes were sent to space as part of the Moon Gallery project, with plans for them to be placed on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-to-build-house-on-the-moon-by-2040/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> in 2025.</p>



<p>Now, with installations in outer space and the ocean floor, the Deep Ocean Interactions Project stands as a reflection of Singapore’s spirit of innovation and unity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-art-gallery-connecting-cultures">Art gallery connecting cultures</h2>



<p>Mohanbabu sees this project as a symbol of what is possible when creativity and science meet. She hopes it inspires others to push past limits - whether that’s aiming for the stars or reaching the bottom of the sea.</p>



<p>The colors of the three cubes - red and white, ocean blue and orange, and purple and aquamarine blue - represent Earth, change, and cosmic mystery.</p>



<p>The red and white cube celebrates the relationship between Singapore and Japan, drawing from shared flag symbolism of the sun, stars, and moon.</p>



<p>More than a statement piece, this project is a working model of how design, science, and purpose can come together to spark global connections - and maybe even save lives through its earthquake monitoring mission.</p>



<p>Image Credit: NTU Singapore</p>



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Singapore has installed an art gallery deep in the ocean

Singapore has made history as the first country to install...

<p>For centuries, farmers have struggled to keep their crops safe. Droughts, pests, and poor soil are common challenges. But among the most silent and destructive enemies are parasitic weeds. </p>



<p>These plants do not grow on their own. Instead, they cling to healthy crops and steal vital nutrients. In regions already battling food insecurity, the damage can be catastrophic.</p>



<p>Now, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> may have found a unique solution. Their work focuses on a curious plant hormone and a clever trick: make the weeds destroy themselves. This breakthrough opens a new chapter in how we think about weeds, crops, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survival</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitic-weeds-cause-major-crop-losses">Parasitic weeds cause major crop losses</h2>



<p>In sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia, fields of rice, sorghum, and other staples often fall victim to parasitic weeds. These aren’t just nuisances. They can wipe out entire harvests. For farmers depending on a single crop to feed their families and communities, the loss is devastating.</p>



<p>Unlike typical weeds, these invaders don’t grow alongside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-changing-skies-alter-plant-growth-patterns/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a>. They embed themselves into the host’s root system. Once attached, they steal water and nutrients directly. Crops weaken before they can fully develop. The result is lower yields, hunger, and economic hardship.</p>



<p>Farmers in these regions often lack access to strong herbicides or expensive biotechnology. That leaves them with limited tools to stop the spread. This is where UCR’s research offers new hope - by using the weeds’ own instincts against them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-parasitic-weeds-sense-plant-signals">How parasitic weeds sense plant signals</h2>



<p>At the heart of this discovery lies a class of plant hormones called strigolactones. These chemicals, though not widely known outside of plant science, are extremely powerful. </p>



<p>Inside the plant, the hormones help regulate growth, root development, and responses to stress. But their external role is even more fascinating.</p>



<p>“Most of the time, plant hormones do not radiate externally - they aren’t exuded. But these do,” said UCR plant biologist and study co-author David Nelson. “Plants use strigolactones to attract fungi in the soil that have a beneficial relationship with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-may-stop-absorbing-carbon-if-temperatures-continue-to-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> roots.”</p>



<p>This natural relationship between fungi and plants benefits both sides. The fungi help gather nutrients from the soil, while the plant offers carbohydrates. It’s an elegant system - until parasitic weeds enter the picture.</p>



<p>The weeds have evolved to recognize strigolactones. To them, the hormone is a green light. When they detect it, they germinate and prepare to attack. That’s where the researchers saw their opportunity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tricking-parasitic-weeds">Tricking parasitic weeds</h2>



<p>What if the weeds could be triggered to germinate when no host is present? Without a host, the weeds would sprout, fail to attach to anything, and die. This is the approach UCR’s scientists are testing.</p>



<p>“These weeds are waiting for a signal to wake up. We can give them that signal at the wrong time - when there’s no food for them - so they sprout and die,” Nelson said. “It’s like flipping their own switch against them, essentially encouraging them to commit suicide.”</p>



<p>This concept isn’t just theoretical. One parasitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predicting-how-climate-change-will-alter-plant-growth-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>, broomrape, produces thousands of seeds on a single stalk. Those seeds lie dormant in the soil for years. But once they detect strigolactones, they awaken. </p>



<p>By releasing synthetic versions of the hormone at the wrong time, researchers aim to reduce their numbers before they can cause damage.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-synthetic-hormones-in-the-lab">Building synthetic hormones in the lab</h2>



<p>To control this process, scientists need a way to produce strigolactones outside the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-understanding-of-light-detection-in-plants-may-revolutionize-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>. That’s where microbial engineering comes in. Led by Yanran Li, formerly at UCR and now at UC San Diego, the team created a novel system using bacteria and yeast.</p>



<p>The researchers engineered E. coli and yeast cells to mimic the chemical pathways found in plants. These microbes became tiny hormone factories. With them, the team could study each step of strigolactone production in a clean, controlled setting.</p>



<p>“This is a powerful system for investigating plant enzymes,” Nelson said. “It enables us to characterize genes that have never been studied before and manipulate them to see how they affect the type of strigolactones being made.”</p>



<p>Beyond research, this method may allow large-scale production of synthetic strigolactones. That could mean practical, affordable tools for farmers in the future.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-enzymes-and-possibilities">Evolution, enzymes, and possibilities</h2>



<p>The team’s work also sheds light on how these hormones evolved. They identified a key metabolic branch point — an internal decision made by the plant to direct its chemicals either inward or outward. This may explain how strigolactones took on their unique role outside the plant body.</p>



<p>Understanding this evolution opens more doors. It helps scientists design more precise synthetic versions. They can fine-tune the signals to work in different environments or target specific weeds.</p>



<p>Researchers are continuing to test the strategy in more realistic settings. The idea sounds promising, but real fields are unpredictable. Soil types, weather, and local plant life all affect the outcome.</p>



<p>“We’re testing whether we can fine-tune the chemical signal to be even more effective,” Nelson said. “If we can, this could be a game-changer for farmers battling these weeds.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitic-weeds-reveal-wider-hormone-uses">Parasitic weeds reveal wider hormone uses</h2>



<p>Though the research began with crop protection in mind, strigolactones may offer broader benefits. Studies suggest they might have anti-cancer or anti-viral properties. </p>



<p>There is also interest in using them to fight citrus greening disease, which has devastated Florida's citrus industry.</p>



<p>Because they affect how cells grow and communicate, these hormones are catching the attention of scientists in medicine and environmental science. What started as a way to help plants may one day help people, too.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clever-solution-to-a-growing-problem">Clever solution to a growing problem</h2>



<p>Parasitic weeds are a quiet threat to global food supplies. But this new approach offers a clever counterattack. By understanding and manipulating natural plant signals, researchers may have found a way to protect crops without harming the environment.</p>



<p>This work is still developing, but its promise is clear. With careful research, dedicated teams, and innovative tools, science may help turn one of nature’s sneakiest tricks into an advantage for farmers everywhere.</p>



<p>The study was made possible in part by the NSF-funded <a href="https://plants3d.ucr.edu/training/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants3D</a> traineeship program at UCR. Led by Professor Julia Bailey-Serres, the program brings together biology, engineering, and creativity. Its goal is to prepare students for a future where food insecurity grows alongside climate change.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp0779" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a>.</p>



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Can parasitic weeds be tricked into dying? Scientists think so

For centuries, farmers have struggled to keep their crops safe....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air"><strong>Invisible threat in urban air</strong></h2>



<p>City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge"><strong>Disturbing connections emerge</strong></h2>



<p>Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters"><strong>Timing matters</strong></h2>



<p>The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns"><strong>Genetic vulnerability patterns</strong></h2>



<p>Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications"><strong>Public health implications</strong></h2>



<p>These findings, published in <em><a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a></em>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.</p>



<p>As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.</p>



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Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



<p>Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



<p>Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.</p>



<p>Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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