Microscopic pores in brain cells may hold vital clues to Parkinson’s disease. Scientists have tracked these disruptions in real time, revealing how toxic protein clusters interact with membranes.



The findings point toward a new explanation for how Parkinson’s symptoms develop, beginning at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-can-detect-neurological-diseases-like-parkinsons-years-before-symptoms-appear/">molecular level</a> of cell membranes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-quiet-onset-of-parkinson-s">The quiet onset of Parkinson’s </h2>



Parkinson’s often begins quietly. A tremor in the hand, a stiffness in movement, or slowed responses mark the earliest signs. 



Beneath these symptoms lies a gradual loss of brain cells. For decades, the trigger behind this degeneration remained unclear. Now, the focus has shifted to α-synuclein, a protein abundant in nerve cells.



In its healthy state, α-synuclein supports communication between neurons. In Parkinson’s, it misfolds and forms clumps. 



Earlier studies focused on fibrils, the large clumps seen in brain tissue. The new research highlights oligomers, smaller assemblies that prove more toxic because of their ability to pierce cell membranes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proteins-create-shifting-pores">Proteins create shifting pores</h2>



“We are the first to directly observe how these oligomers form pores - and how the pores behave,” said Mette Galsgaard Malle, postdoctoral researcher at both <a href="https://international.au.dk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aarhus University</a> and Harvard University.



Oligomers do not create static damage. Instead, they attach to curved membrane regions, insert partly, and then complete pores that open and close like revolving doors.



“This dynamic behavior may help explain why the cells don’t die immediately,” said Bo Volf Brøchner, PhD student and first author of the study. 



“If the pores remained open, the cells would likely collapse very quickly. But because they open and close, the cell’s own pumps might be able to temporarily compensate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-molecules-move">Watching molecules move</h2>



To capture this activity, the researchers used a single-vesicle analysis platform. These vesicles, artificial bubbles resembling cell membranes, allowed scientists to record oligomer activity in real time. 



The team even watched fluorescent dyes move through pores, confirming that molecules can cross once pores form.



“It’s like watching a molecular movie in slow motion,” explained Galsgaard Malle. “Not only can we see what happens - we can also test how different molecules affect the process. That makes the platform a valuable tool for drug screening.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-steps-of-parkinson-s">Distinct steps of Parkinson's</h2>



The team proposes a three-stage model: initial recruitment to membranes, partial insertion, and full pore formation. 



Interestingly, recruitment occurs more often on curved membranes, while full pore creation favors flatter ones. This means the first and final steps are distinct processes shaped by membrane geometry and charge.



Negatively charged lipids, abundant in mitochondria and synaptic vesicles, seem particularly vulnerable. This supports the idea that energy-producing cell regions may be among the first harmed in Parkinson’s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pore-formation-and-cell-risk">Pore formation and cell risk</h2>



The studies also show that neutral membranes can recruit oligomers, but only negative charges activate pores. Recruitment is enhanced by curvature, likely because tightly bent membranes expose more defects that oligomers can latch onto. 



Yet, pore formation itself works best on flat, low-curvature membranes, which offer more stability for the pore to open fully.



This separation between binding and pore creation clarifies earlier contradictions in research. It suggests that cells might not be equally at risk, depending on membrane <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-increases-the-risk-of-parkinsons-disease/">composition</a> and shape.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanobodies-and-detection">Nanobodies and detection</h2>



The researchers also tested nanobodies, tiny antibody fragments that bind specifically to oligomers. These nanobodies did not block pore formation, but they helped reveal how pores change dynamics. 



One nanobody increased pore turnover, making oligomers more flexible and interactive, while another reduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cancer-immunotherapy-drug-also-works-to-slow-progression-of-parkinsons-disease/">activity</a>.



“The nanobodies did not block the pore formation,” said Volf Brøchner. “But they may still help detect oligomers at very early stages of the disease. That’s crucial, since Parkinson’s is typically diagnosed only after significant neuronal damage has occurred.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-beyond-parkinson-s">Implications beyond Parkinson’s</h2>



These findings may apply beyond Parkinson’s. The same methods could explore other protein aggregates, such as tau in Alzheimer’s disease, which may also damage membranes in subtle but progressive ways. 



The single-vesicle platform offers a high-resolution way to track protein-membrane interactions across different neurodegenerative conditions.



For now, these experiments remain in artificial models. Real brain cells are far more complex, with diverse lipids and interacting proteins. The next challenge is to confirm whether pores form in living tissue and how they contribute to cell death.



“We created a clean experimental setup where we can measure one thing at a time. That’s the strength of this platform,” said Galsgaard Malle. “But now we need to take the next step and investigate what happens in more complex biological systems.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsnano.5c04005" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Nano</a>.



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Tiny holes in brain cells may unlock the mystery of Parkinson’s

Microscopic pores in brain cells may hold vital clues to Parkinson’s disease. Scientists have tracked these disruptions in real time, revealing how toxic protein clusters interact with membranes. The findings point toward a new explanation for how Parkinson’s symptoms develop, beginning at the molecular level of cell membranes. The quiet onset of Parkinson’s Parkinson’s often begins quietly. A tremor in the hand, a stiffness in movement, or slowed responses mark the earliest signs. Beneath these symptoms lies a gradual loss of brain cells. For decades, the trigger...

Rainfall in Asia decides harvests, fills rivers, and supports billions of people. The monsoon is not just weather; it is crucial for survival. 



Scientists once thought the main monsoon drivers were located close by in the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. That picture is now incomplete. New research shows that distant North America also fuels Asia’s summer rains.



The finding changes how we see global weather. It shows that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-atmosphere-has-a-memory-that-affects-the-timing-of-monsoons/">climate</a> is not local, no matter how it feels. A hot summer in one part of the world can help shape storms and rainfall across an ocean.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-continents-for-monsoon">Testing continents for monsoon</h2>



Researchers from the University of Bristol and the <a href="https://english.cas.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> used powerful climate models to test how continents matter. They first created a “water world” without land. Then they added continents step by step.



Most additions made only small changes. Africa pushed more rain into the Indian Ocean. Australia had little effect. Antarctica barely registered. 



But when North America entered the picture, rainfall in Asia jumped. In some areas, the boost reached nearly a quarter more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-mud-reveals-what-may-supercharge-monsoons-in-australia/">rain</a> than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-as-a-monsoon-driver">Heat as a monsoon driver</h2>



Why would North America matter so much? Land heats faster than oceans. In summer, North America turns into a giant heat source.



That heating lowers pressure and strengthens the high-pressure system over the North Pacific. Winds push harder toward Asia, pulling ocean moisture westward. The result is stronger monsoon rains.



This matches the Rodwell-Hoskins theory: heat in one region creates waves that ripple through the atmosphere. Those waves can strengthen or weaken storms far away. In this case, North America’s summer heat pushes more water into Asia’s skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tibet-and-beyond">Tibet and beyond</h2>



The Tibetan Plateau remains the heavyweight in this story. Its height and heat lift huge columns of air, feeding the monsoon. But the new study shows Tibet is not alone. 



North America produces about half as much effect on East Asia’s rainfall as Tibet. And in India, the distant continent sometimes has more influence than the Tibetan Plateau.



“In the past few decades, when people talk about what <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-land-conditions-affect-the-asian-monsoon-climate/">factors</a> would drive such a strong monsoon in Asia, they always looked at the Eurasian and African continents, especially the Himalaya and Tibetan region,” said study lead author Linlin Chen from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>.



“These are indeed large influences. But we know Earth climate is closely connected, and now we have more evidence to show precisely how.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-north-america-and-monsoon-strength">North America and monsoon strength</h2>



The researchers also tested whether the ocean played a role. They fixed sea surface temperatures in the models and looked again. The rainfall increase faded. 



Next, the team isolated the role of land. The effect came roaring back. The land itself, not the surrounding water, drives the teleconnection.



This is significant because people change land faster than seas. Farming, urban growth, and deforestation in North America could all shape monsoon strength thousands of kilometers away. The connection is real, and it carries human fingerprints.



Geological history backs up the finding. Around 100 million years ago, parts of North America lay under a shallow seaway. Asia’s monsoon was weaker then. 



When the land rose back, heating returned and rainfall grew stronger. The story of continents moving and reshaping climate is written deep in Earth’s past. The same forces still operate today, though now amplified by human activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-deeply-connected-systems">Earth's deeply connected systems</h2>



“This study reveals how deeply connected the Earth’s climate systems are: local changes can trigger global effects. Everyone is responsible for both the local and global climate changes,” said study co-author Paul Valdes.



That responsibility is clear. The Asian monsoon feeds over a billion people. It also brings deadly floods when it swings too far. 



Knowing that summers in North America can tip the balance means climate policy cannot stay regional. What happens in one place spreads everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-risks-for-monsoon-season">Future risks for monsoon season</h2>



The study also shows why models must include both oceans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seasonal-timing-can-change-quickly-over-short-distances/">atmosphere</a> together. Past work sometimes used only atmospheric models, missing crucial feedbacks. 



By using fully coupled models, the team uncovered important connections that had remained hidden.



 As the planet warms and land use changes, the ties between continents will grow tighter. North America’s heat will not stay at home. It will ride the winds and help decide whether Asia sees bounty or disaster in the rains.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu8589" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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How North America boost Asia's monsoon season

Rainfall in Asia decides harvests, fills rivers, and supports billions...

Carrying a reusable water bottle is a smart habit. It saves money. It cuts down on single-use plastic. It keeps you hydrated. There’s a catch, though. 



Many of us don’t clean our bottles nearly as well or as often as we think we do, and the germs that hitch a ride on our hands, rims, and lids can stick around.



In 2024, the global market for reusable water bottles was valued at about $10 billion, with surveys of university students reporting usage rates ranging from 50% to 81%.



A study on the campus of <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> put everyday bottles under the microscope to see how clean they really are and which habits help or hurt. The takeaway is a reality check with simple fixes that anyone can put into practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-reusable-water-bottles">Studying reusable water bottles</h2>



The research team kept the question simple: "How clean are the bottles that students actually use all day?" 



To get real-world answers, they collected 90 bottles directly from students. They asked owners how they used and cleaned their bottles, then tested the bottles in two ways.



First, they swabbed the outer surfaces using a rapid hygiene test called ATP that lights up when organic residue remains. This signal is widely used in food safety as a quick screen for whether a surface is truly clean after washing. 



Second, they rinsed the insides and counted bacteria clinging to water-contact surfaces. They measured common water-loving bacteria and checked for coliforms, an indicator group that can signal when conditions could support more concerning contamination.



The study was led by Carl Behnke from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a> with a cohort of academics and scientists. Later in the process, Dr. Yuriko Fukuta, an assistant professor of medicine (infectious diseases) at <a href="https://www.bcm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor College of Medicine</a>, added clinical context.



Their goal wasn’t to name and shame anyone’s bottle. It was to map daily habits to measurable cleanliness, so people could tweak what they do and keep their bottles safer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-on-the-outside">What's on the outside</h2>



The outsides of bottles were dirtier than they looked. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ATP_test" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ATP readings</a> indicated that the exterior surfaces of all the water bottles collected (including two new bottles that were purchased from a local retailer as controls) were considered "dirty" and failed the ATP test.



That’s not surprising in daily life, where hands move from phones to doorknobs to laptop keyboards to bottle caps. Residue left behind gives microbes places to hang on to.



More frequent refills were associated with dirtier outer surfaces. Each refill adds touchpoints: your hands, the cap, counter edges, and faucet areas. The rim matters here because it is where hands and mouths meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-on-the-inside">What's on the inside</h2>



Scientists tested the inside of people’s reusable bottles to see how many live bacteria were inside. Think of the number they report - CFU per milliliter - as how many tiny bacterial “colonies” can grow from a small sip of liquid rinsed off the bottle’s inner walls. 



Many places set the bar for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-100-million-americans-exposed-to-contaminated-drinking-water/">drinking water</a> at below 100–500 CFU/mL. In this study, about 7 out of 10 bottles cleared 100, about 2 out of 3 topped 200, and 3 out of 5 exceeded 500. In plain English: most bottles carried more bacteria than you’d want in clean drinking water.



Researchers also checked for “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/coliform-bacteria">coliforms</a>,” the bacteria we use as a red flag for sanitation. For bottled water, the rule of thumb is basically “none detected” (no more than 1 per 100 mL). Here, roughly 1 in 4 bottles broke that limit, and a few were sky-high.



Bacteria need three things: moisture, nutrients, and time. A bottle provides moisture by design. Nutrients show up when anything other than water goes in, and time accumulates when a bottle sits in a warm car, on a desk, or by the bed overnight.



One clear pattern stood out. Bottles used strictly for water tended to have lower bacterial counts. Bottles that also held sports drinks, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bvo-highly-toxic-soda-ingredient-banned-by-the-fda-in-2024-still-being-used-today/">soda</a>, or sweetened tea or coffee with cream often had much higher counts. 



Sugars feed bacteria. Proteins and fats can leave a film that helps cells attach and form biofilms, which are much harder to remove than free-floating cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaning-reusable-water-bottles">Cleaning reusable water bottles</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-from-plastic-bottles-raises-your-blood-pressure/">Material</a> played a limited role. Glass tended to look cleaner on the quick outside test, likely because its surface is smoother and nonporous. But no material gets a free pass. 



Design features - narrow necks, flip tops, straws, bite valves, and silicone gaskets - create nooks where residue and biofilms hide. Those tucked-away spots are often the last to be disassembled and scrubbed.



People who cleaned more often generally had better results, but intentions didn’t always match outcomes. 



A quick rinse can leave sticky films intact. Dishwashers vary in heat and spray coverage; water may not reach beneath threads, seals, and straw assemblies.



Washing without separating the different parts of the bottle lets biofilms survive in hidden crevices.



“Do you wash your dishes after dinner?” Behnke asked. “Yes. But with water bottles, we often take them all over the place and don’t properly clean them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-health-concerns">Human health concerns</h2>



Fukuta suggested that bacteria might include <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/staph-infections/symptoms-causes/syc-20356221" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">staphylococcus bacteria</a> or <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/group-a-strep/about/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strep</a>. And there’s this, from the cohort study: “More than 20% of our samples had coliform bacteria, which is fecal matter,” says Behnke.



A bottle can act as a fomite - a surface that helps move microbes from place to place - when it isn’t kept clean. Hands touch the cap and rim. 



Mouths contact the same areas. If the outside is grimy, it can become the pathway for microbes to reach the drinking surfaces.



Dr. Yuriko Fukuta agrees. “We’re constantly touching our water bottles with our mouths and hands, so it’s easy to transmit bacteria to them, and then it just grows,” she says. “In some cases this can make you sick, especially if you have a weaker immune system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reusable-water-bottle-tips">Reusable water bottle tips</h2>



Treat a reusable bottle like a food-contact surface. Use hot water and dish soap. Scrub the walls with a bottle brush. 



Use a small brush, skewer, or toothpick for threads and tiny crevices. Take lids, straws, bite valves, and silicone rings apart and scrub them individually. 



Let everything dry completely with the cap off. Drying breaks the moisture part of the bacteria formula and prevents the musty smell that appears when water lingers.



If you use sweet or creamy drinks, wash the bottle the same day. If your current bottle has many small parts and you often skip steps, a simpler design with a wide mouth can help you stick with the routine. 



Avoid sharing bottles. Saliva adds new microbes that can seed later growth, even if nothing seems wrong at the time. 



If you often set your bottle on public surfaces, wipe the outside periodically, paying special attention to the rim and cap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-all-means">What it all means</h2>



Reusable bottles are still a smart, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-thousands-of-nanoplastics-found-in-bottled-water/">sustainable choice</a>. They just need real cleaning. 



The inside isn’t sterile, and the outside picks up residue fast. Pair frequent refilling with a consistent cleaning routine. 



That set of small steps turns your bottle back into what you intended it to be: a safe hydration tool, not a traveling microbiology project.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.foodprotection.org/files/food-protection-trends/nov-dec-17-sun.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food Protection</a>.



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Reusable water bottles are a breeding ground for strep and fecal bacteria, study warns

Carrying a reusable water bottle is a smart habit. It...

Artificial sweeteners have been sold as the “guilt-free” way to get your sweet fix without the sugar crash. They are found in diet sodas, protein drinks, low-sugar yogurts, energy boosters, and a lot of snacks that claim to be healthy. 



But a new study is raising red flags, especially for people who rely on these sugar substitutes daily.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-common-sweeteners-and-memory">Common sweeteners and memory</h2>



A team of researchers tracked over 12,000 adults in Brazil for nearly a decade. Their findings suggest that some of the most common low- and no-calorie sweeteners may be linked to faster decline in memory, thinking speed, and language skills. 



According to the researchers, the effects were more noticeable in middle-aged people and those with diabetes.



The participants were divided into three groups based on how much artificial sweetener they consumed. 



The lowest group averaged 20 milligrams per day. The highest group? About 191 milligrams per day - roughly the amount of aspartame in one can of diet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/controversial-soda-additive-has-been-banned-by-the-fda/">soda</a>. 



Over eight years, the researchers tested how well people remembered words, processed information, and spoke fluently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artificial-sweeteners-and-brain-aging">Artificial sweeteners and brain aging</h2>



After adjusting for factors like age, sex, blood pressure, and heart conditions, the team found something striking. Individuals who consumed the most artificial sweeteners experienced a 62% faster decline in thinking and memory skills compared to those who consumed the least.



That’s similar to adding about 1.6 years of aging to the brain. Even those in the middle range declined 35% faster - equivalent to about 1.3 years of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-25-years-of-research-revealed-about-brain-aging/">aging</a>.



The results were even more striking for people under 60. Those who consumed the highest levels of sweeteners in this age group had steeper declines in cognitive performance compared to light users. The connection was especially strong in people with diabetes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-sweeteners-matter-most">Which sweeteners matter most</h2>



The study looked at seven popular sugar substitutes: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/are-artificial-sweeteners-safe-the-debate-is-heating-up/">aspartame</a>, saccharin, acesulfame-K, erythritol, xylitol, sorbitol, and tagatose.



Most of them showed a connection to faster mental decline. Specifically, aspartame, saccharin, acesulfame-K, erythritol, xylitol, and sorbitol were all linked to poorer performance over time. Only one - tagatose - was not associated with any decline.



Sorbitol stood out as the most heavily consumed sweetener in the group, with people taking in an average of 64 mg/day. 



While this might not seem like much, these ingredients show up in places you might not expect: “zero sugar” drinks, low-calorie desserts, flavored water, gum, toothpaste, and packaged snacks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-diabetes-may-increase-risk">Why diabetes may increase risk</h2>



The study also revealed key differences among people with existing health conditions. One group stood out: those with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sugary-drinks-linked-to-millions-of-diabetes-and-heart-disease-cases/">diabetes</a> experienced the sharpest drops in cognitive performance when sweetener use was high.



“While we found links to cognitive decline for middle-aged people both with and without diabetes, people with diabetes are more likely to use artificial sweeteners as sugar substitutes,” said Dr. Claudia Kimie Suemoto, one of the lead researchers from the <a href="https://www5.usp.br/english/institutional/">University of São Paulo</a> in Brazil.



That doesn’t mean sweeteners directly cause memory loss. The study showed a link - not a cause-and-effect relationship. Still, the connection is enough to make some health experts call for a closer look at long-term safety.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweeteners-in-your-daily-diet">Sweeteners in your daily diet</h2>



You’ll find low- and no-calorie sweeteners in just about everything these days - diet drinks, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-sweetener-may-directly-damage-the-brain/">protein bars</a>, yogurts, even stuff marked “healthy” or “low-carb.” They’re meant to cut calories and keep blood sugar in check, but it turns out the tradeoff might not be so simple.



“Low- and no-calorie sweeteners are often seen as a healthy alternative to sugar; however our findings suggest certain sweeteners may have negative effects on brain health over time,” said Suemoto.



For people trying to eat better or manage conditions like diabetes, this kind of news makes things tricky. Cutting back on sugar is still a smart move - no one’s arguing that. But leaning too hard on artificial sweeteners might not be the harmless shortcut it’s made out to be. 



The point is that we need to pay attention. Just because a label says “sugar-free” doesn’t mean it’s a free pass.



Instead of chasing the next low-calorie hack, maybe it’s time to get back to basics. Whole foods, smaller portions, and adjusting to a little less sweetness in general - that might go a lot further than constantly trying to outsmart sugar. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.neurology.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0000000000214023" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>.



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Are artificial sweeteners messing with your memory? What a new study says

Artificial sweeteners have been sold as the “guilt-free” way to...

What we eat is not just about hunger. Meals carry culture, habits, and values. They shape how we see ourselves and how others see us. 



Our diets also shape the world we live in. Animal agriculture drives climate change, damages ecosystems, and raises questions about health and ethics.



Scientists agree that cutting down on meat and dairy is one of the fastest ways to reduce harm. Yet progress is uneven. 



Men, in particular, resist plant-based eating more than women. Why? A new study offers an answer, pointing to masculinity as a hidden driver of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-carb-or-low-fat-food-quality-is-more-important-for-heart-health/">food choices</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-men-resist-dietary-change">Why men resist dietary change</h2>



The research was conducted by teams at the University of Bath, Bryant Research, and the <a href="https://www.uzh.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Zurich</a>. 



The team examined links between gender norms and food. The researchers asked a tough question: how can plant-based diets be marketed to men without clashing with their sense of identity?



“Animal agriculture is key culprit of environmental degradation, public health risks, and animal suffering. Reducing meat and animal product <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-two-key-habits-for-losing-weight-without-dieting-meal-timing/">consumption</a> is widely recognized as an effective way to mitigate these harms," said Dr Annayah Prosser of the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bath</a> School of Management.



"However, men continue to consume more meat than women, are less likely to be vegetarian or vegan, and are more resistant to initiatives that promote reductions in meat consumption.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-masculinity-at-the-table">Masculinity at the table</h2>



The study surveyed over 1,000 men in the UK. The results showed a clear trend: the more men embraced traditional masculine traits, the more meat they ate.



This wasn’t only about taste. Men attached meaning to meat. For many, meat stood for strength, self-reliance, and even cultural pride. Vegetarianism, on the other hand, looked like a threat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traits-shaping-men-s-diet">Traits shaping men’s diet</h2>



The researchers measured six traits: avoidance of femininity, emotional restraint, aggression, achievement status, self-reliance, and attitudes toward sex. Not all carried the same weight. Two stood out as the biggest predictors of high meat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/popular-diet-restricting-calories-can-lead-to-mood-emotional-slumps-especially-in-men/">consumption</a>.



“Beyond the well-known link between masculinity and meat, our study identified two masculine norms that may drive this connection: ‘avoidance of femininity’ and ‘achievement status,'" said study lead author Elise Hankins of <a href="https://bryantresearch.co.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bryant Research</a>.



"Men endorsing these specific norms tended to eat more meat, were more attached to meat and dairy, viewed vegetarianism as a threat to British culture and found meat more masculine."



Hsnkins said that in order to shift men’s diets, the challenge is to address these norms and find ways to work with - not against - men’s identities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-men-s-contradictory-diet-views">Men’s contradictory diet views</h2>



Surveys showed numbers, but conversations told a more complicated story. In online focus groups, men often contradicted themselves.



 Many men insisted gender had nothing to do with their food choices. Minutes later, they described how friends, families, or peers influenced what ended up on their plates.



“Men in our focus groups were conflicted over the role masculinity played in their meat consumption. At first, many men wholly dismissed the role their gender had over their diet, but minutes later they would speak about the vast influences their social network and male peer group had on their menu choices,” said Dr Prosser.



“Researchers understand that eating is a fundamentally social activity, and our research shows that while men may not wish to recognise it overtly, masculinity has a major covert influence on dietary choices.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-problem-of-taste">The problem of taste</h2>



One issue kept coming up: flavor. Men doubted whether plant-based foods could match meat for taste. Many assumed alternatives were bland or unsatisfying.



The researchers argue that changing this perception is vital. If plant-based meals feel indulgent and rich, resistance will fade. Campaigns that spotlight flavor, cooking methods, and satisfaction could make a difference.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healthier-diet-could-boost-memory-delay-dementia/">Nutrition</a> also matters. The study showed that men respond strongly to arguments about health, protein, and physical performance.



Marketing that shows plant-based eating as fuel for strength and longevity may resonate more than environmental appeals alone. Fitness-focused stories could make men view plant-based diets as tools for improvement, not sacrifices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-messaging-that-works">Messaging that works</h2>



The researchers warn against directly labeling plant-based foods as “manly.” This tactic risks rejection. Subtler connections to performance, adventure, or resilience could work better.



Packaging and labeling also need care. Familiar words like “meaty” can reassure consumers while helping them see these foods as genuine replacements, not poor imitations.



Food choices don’t happen in isolation. Friends, partners, and families play huge roles. Campaigns that work within these networks might succeed where individual-focused messages fail. 



Price is another barrier. Many men feel plant-based products cost too much. Policies that reduce prices or offer incentives could make plant-based meals more competitive with meat and dairy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-culture-shaping-men-s-diet">Culture shaping men’s diet</h2>



The findings show that resistance to plant-based diets isn’t just about food. It’s about identity, culture, and belonging. 



Men’s connection to meat often hides beneath layers of social influence and masculine ideals. To change diets, campaigns must work with these realities, not ignore them.



This study reminds us that the road to sustainability is cultural as much as scientific. Changing habits requires more than statistics on climate or health. It requires understanding the values people attach to what they eat. Only then can a shift toward greener diets gain real momentum.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0272494425001768?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Environmental Psychology</a>.



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Men face a masculinity barrier to greener diets

What we eat is not just about hunger. Meals carry...

Four jet-black spheres clung to a rock on the Pacific seafloor at roughly 20,300 feet, stopping a research crew in its tracks. They looked like eggs, but their color, shape, and shine felt off-script for the deep ocean.



Back on deck the mystery held. These were not fish eggs at all but hard little capsules called cocoons, each sheltering several developing flatworms that would later crawl along the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-seafloor-holes-pockmarks-evenly-spaced-and-distributed-defy-explanation/">seafloor</a>. 



Their size was tiny, about 0.12 inches across, and the find came from a slope near a trench in the northwestern Pacific.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unmasking-the-seafloor-spheres">Unmasking the seafloor spheres</h2>



First author Keiichi Kakui of <a href="https://www.global.hokudai.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokkaido University</a> examined the samples after <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/focus/en/people/people001536.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tokyo</a> researcher Yasunori Kano recovered them with a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) at about 20,300 feet. 



The black spheres were actually egg capsules from free-living platyhelminths, a group of simple worms better known from coastal tide pools than from the abyss.



“I had never seen flatworm cocoons,” said Kakui, an invertebrate biologist who first opened one of the capsules and noticed a milky liquid and fragile white bodies inside. 



The observation set off genetic tests and careful microscopy after the field team delivered the intact material to his lab.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-deepest-flatworm-eggs">Deepest flatworm eggs</h2>



This site sits within the hadal zone, the trench environment that begins near 20,000 feet and drops to Earth’s deepest floors. It remains among the least explored places on the planet.



Very few free-living flatworms have been confirmed from such depths because they are delicate and easily destroyed during sampling.



Before this report, the deepest confirmed free-living flatworm came from about 10,600 feet in the North Pacific, when researchers described a species called Oligocladus voightae from Escanaba Trough in 2006. 



The new capsules reveal early life stages, not just adult anatomy - pushing research deeper.



The cocoons were collected on the abyssal slope of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-expedition-reveals-thriving-chemical-powered-life/">Kuril-Kamchatka Trench</a>, an area of the northwestern Pacific known to include sites far deeper than two miles.



The broader area ranges from roughly 11,300 feet to more than 31,000 feet across study stations, based on quantitative seafloor surveys in recent years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-embryos-inside-fragile-capsules">Embryos inside fragile capsules</h2>



Researchers report that each cocoon measured about 0.12 inches in diameter and contained three to seven embryos at the same stage of development. 



Some capsules held spherical early embryos, while others contained slender, worm-shaped late embryos.



This study provides the deepest record for free living flatworms and the first information on their early life stages in the abyssal zone. 



The authors noted that the embryos in these capsules looked much like those of relatives from shallow water.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/flatworms_egg-capsules_rocks_stages_credit-Biology-Letters_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/flatworms_egg-capsules_rocks_stages_credit-Biology-Letters_1s.webp" alt="Freshly collected egg capsules (or cocoons) and flatworms. (a) Egg capsules on rock fragment (arrowhead, one egg capsule). (b) Partly opened egg capsule containing three spherical-stage flatworms. (c) Spherical-stage flatworm extracted from egg capsule. (d) Cracked egg capsule containing seven vermiform-stage flatworms (arrow, empty egg capsule). (e) The same, half of egg capsule shell removed. (f) Vermiform-stage flatworm (ICHUM8616) extracted from egg capsule, in ventral view; anterior to the left. (g) Sagittal section of individual ICHUM8616, HE stained; an, anterior; do, dorsal; gd, gut diverticulum; mo, mouth opening; ph, pharynx; po, posterior; ve, ventral. Scale bars: 10 mm (a); 1 mm (b–g). Credit: Biology Letters" class="wp-image-1984745"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Freshly collected egg capsules (or cocoons) and flatworms. (a) Egg capsules on rock fragment (arrowhead, one egg capsule). (b) Partly opened egg capsule containing three spherical-stage flatworms. (c) Spherical-stage flatworm extracted from egg capsule. (d) Cracked egg capsule containing seven vermiform-stage flatworms (arrow, empty egg capsule). (e) The same, half of egg capsule shell removed. (f) Vermiform-stage flatworm (ICHUM8616) extracted from egg capsule, in ventral view; anterior to the left. (g) Sagittal section of individual ICHUM8616, HE stained; an, anterior; do, dorsal; gd, gut diverticulum; mo, mouth opening; ph, pharynx; po, posterior; ve, ventral. Scale bars: 10 mm (a); 1 mm (b–g). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Biology Letters</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flatworms-eggs-and-ancestry">Flatworms, eggs, and ancestry</h2>



DNA from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/embryo-formation-is-shaped-by-electric-fields/">embryos</a> placed them within Tricladida, a large order of free-living flatworms. More precisely, they fall in the suborder Maricola, a smaller marine group that includes species from coasts and estuaries.



That placement matters because it hints at a history of moving from shallow seas into the deep - not the other way around. 



The genetic tree, supported by ribosomal RNA sequences, points to coastal ancestry with later expansion downslope into the trenches.



Despite the crushing pressure at more than 20,000 feet, the early development seen inside these capsules looked ordinary for triclads. There were no odd larval forms or novel early body plans to explain.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-pollution-kills-ocean-embryos-during-development/">embryos</a> seemed to be following a path common to shallow-water relatives, from simple spheres to vermiform late stages, then hatching into bottom-living juveniles. 



For this group, the main challenges at depth may be physiology and ecology, not how to build a body in the first place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-piecing-together-flatworm-life-cycles">Piecing together flatworm life cycles</h2>



Deep-ocean research often pieces together life histories from scraps collected by trawls or grabs, which can wreck fragile animals before anyone sees them whole. 



Finding intact cocoons adds a missing chapter to the biology of free-living flatworms and fills a gap in how researchers think about life cycles at extreme depths.



It also provides context for how eggs and embryos survive where temperatures are near freezing and food can be scarce. 



Hard shells, clustered embryos, and attachment to rock suggest a strategy built on shelter and patience rather than speed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-for-future-deep-sea-studies">Clues for future deep-sea studies</h2>



Flatworms may be simple in outline, but many free living species <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/starfish-break-off-their-arms-to-evade-danger-and-regenerate-them-later/">regenerate</a> when injured or cut, an ability studied for decades and summarized in a classic review. 



That trait makes them useful for understanding how body plans assemble and repair themselves under stress.



The Kuril-Kamchatka region and other trenches remain difficult to sample often, which is why even basic facts like who lives there and how they reproduce are still being assembled. 



Every well documented find adds anchor points for future surveys, new genetic comparisons, and better designs for submersible work.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38263880/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



Photo credits: <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38263880/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



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No one knew what was inside the black eggs found at 20,000 feet underwater

Four jet-black spheres clung to a rock on the Pacific...

Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and molten outer core, lies a dense, solid sphere of iron and other elements like carbon. 



This inner core is Earth’s deepest secret, shaping the magnetic field that shields our planet. Yet, scientists still puzzle over how it first formed and what ingredients allowed it to crystallize.



A new study by researchers from the University of Leeds, University of Oxford, and <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> provides fresh insight. 



Their findings reveal that carbon may have been the key element that enabled the inner core to solidify billions of years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-core-composition-matters">Why Earth's core composition matters</h2>



The makeup of Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-proven-to-be-rapidly-changing-and-now-rotating-backwards/">core</a> determines not only its density but also its thermal and magnetic behavior. 



Seismology shows that the core is less dense than pure iron, meaning lighter elements must be present. Candidates like silicon, sulphur, oxygen, and carbon have all been considered.



The latest simulations show that carbon, in particular, may have been essential. Without it, the inner core’s crystallization would have required impossible conditions, making its very existence a mystery.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_hidden-chemistry_illustration_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984775"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Drawing of Earth with cutaway showing the mantle and inner and outer core. Magnetic field lines produced by the geodynamo extend into space and interact with the solar wind. The iron-rich core at Earth's center is slowly freezing from the inside out. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-supercooling-paradox">The supercooling paradox</h2>



Liquids rarely freeze solid the instant they cool past their <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/melting-point" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">melting point</a>. Instead, they must be supercooled, chilled further before crystals can form. 



For molten iron alone, estimates suggested that a massive 800 to 1000 °C (1472 to 1832 °F) of supercooling would be needed.



If that had occurred, the consequences for our planet would have been dramatic. 



The inner core would have grown far too quickly, disrupting the delicate balance of heat flow inside <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-is-not-solid-it-is-shape-shifting-time-for-textbooks-to-be-rewritten/">Earth</a> and destabilizing the magnetic field that protects life from harmful solar and cosmic radiation.



Scientists know this did not happen. Geophysical evidence points instead to a modest level of supercooling, limited to about 250 °C (482 °F). 



That small difference between theoretical predictions and observational reality has puzzled researchers for decades.



This contradiction, known as the inner core nucleation paradox, continues to inspire debate, experiments, and advanced simulations aimed at uncovering the true chemistry of Earth’s deepest layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-the-impossible">Simulating the impossible</h2>



To resolve the paradox, the research team ran atomic-scale simulations of iron mixed with different light elements. 



They tested silicon, sulfur, oxygen, and carbon, and watched how each affected the first step of freezing: nucleation.



“Each of these elements exists in the overlying <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-an-ocean-of-fire-shaped-early-earths-core-according-to-a-new-study/">mantle</a> and could therefore have been dissolved into the core during Earth’s history,” explained co-author Associate Professor Andrew Walker from the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



“As a result, these could explain why we have a solid inner core with relatively little supercooling at this depth. The presence of one or more of these elements could also rationalize why the core is less dense than pure iron, a key observation from seismology.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_cross-section_convection_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984773"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Cross section of the Earth showing the mantle, outer core and inner core. Convection in the outer core produces Earth's geomagnetic field. The properties of Earth's iron-rich core are key to understanding our planet's deep interior, from its temperature to the way it generates the global magnetic field. The core's exact chemistry remains unknown. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-drives-earth-s-core-freezing">Carbon drives Earth's core freezing</h2>



The simulations revealed that silicon and sulfur actually hindered freezing, which would have increased the supercooling requirement. Carbon, however, had the opposite effect.



With 2.4 % carbon, the required supercooling dropped to about 420 °C (788 °F). Still too high, but much closer to reality. 



Extrapolating further, a carbon content of 3.8 % reduced the figure to 266 °C (511 °F), which is consistent with geological evidence.



This makes carbon the only element so far shown to both enable nucleation and align with seismic observations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-seeds-needed">No seeds needed</h2>



Unlike hail forming around dust in clouds, Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-how-gold-reaches-earths-surface-from-the-mantle/">core</a> appears to have frozen without “nucleation seeds.” 



Tests of possible seed materials, like oxides or metals, show they would melt or dissolve before reaching the center. That leaves chemistry itself, specifically the presence of carbon, as the driver of solidification.



“It is exciting to see how atomic scale processes control the fundamental structure and dynamics of our planet," said lead author Dr. Alfred Wilson from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>. 



"By studying how Earth’s inner core formed, we are not just learning about our planet’s past. We’re getting a rare glimpse into the chemistry of a region we can never hope to reach directly and learning about how it could change in the future.”



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/earth-inner-core_iron-carbon-atoms-nucleating_credit-Alfred-Wilson_1s.webp" alt="Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson" class="wp-image-1984777"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Drawing of iron and carbon atoms nucleating to form solids which could initiate growth of Earth's solid inner core. The study used atomic scale simulations to identify solids nucleating in supercooled liquids. Carbon atoms can accelerate this process, perhaps enough to trigger the freezing of Earth's solid inner core. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Dr. Alfred Wilson</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-s-role-in-earth-s-core">Carbon's role in Earth’s core</h2>



The research also helps refine estimates of when the inner core formed. Some argue it began crystallizing over two billion years ago, while others suggest it happened less than half a billion years ago. 



By identifying carbon as the critical player, scientists can narrow down these timelines. 



This enables a better understanding of how Earth’s deep engine has evolved to influence the magnetic field, surface conditions, and even the long-term habitability of our planet.



The message is clear: carbon is more than a surface element of life. It may also be the hidden architect of Earth’s inner heart, shaping its stability across geological time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62841-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Scientists have changed their minds again about the composition of Earth's core

Far beneath our feet, beyond the Earth's rocky mantle and...

For more than a century, biologists have treated teeth as strictly oral equipment - no matter the animal. A new study of the spotted ratfish (a shark relative commonly found in Puget Sound) blows that assumption wide open.



Adult males of this shark species grow rows of hooked, barbed “teeth” on a cartilaginous forehead appendage called a tenaculum, which they flare to spar with rivals and grasp mates during underwater courtship.



“This absolutely spectacular feature flips the long-standing assumption in evolutionary biology that teeth are strictly oral structures,” said lead author Karly Cohen, a postdoctoral researcher at the <a href="https://fhl.uw.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



“The tenaculum is a developmental relic, not a bizarre one-off, and the first clear example of a toothed structure outside the jaw.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-s-cousin-has-tenaculum">Shark's cousin has tenaculum</h2>



<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotted_ratfish" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spotted ratfish</a> are chimaeras, a branch of cartilaginous fishes that split from sharks long ago. 



They’re compact - about two feet long - with a whip-like tail. In males, the unmistakable forehead “peanut” can extend into a spiny hook.



Like sharks and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-rays-were-more-diverse-than-previously-thought/">rays</a>, many chondrichthyan fishes are armored in tooth-like skin structures called denticles.



Ratfish are oddballs: aside from denticles on their pelvic claspers (another mating aid), their skin is mostly bare. 



That contrast made scientists wonder what, exactly, the tenaculum spines are. Are they denticles in disguise - or true teeth transplanted to the head?



“Sharks don’t have arms, but they need to mate underwater,” Cohen said. “So a lot of them have developed grasping structures to connect themselves to a mate during reproduction.” 



Ratfish have two: the forehead tenaculum and pelvic claspers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-competing-theories-on-tenaculum">Competing theories on tenaculum</h2>



The researchers laid out two competing hypotheses. If the tenaculum <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ghost-sharks-unraveling-the-mysteries-of-these-strange-and-elusive-sea-monsters/">spines were denticles</a>, they’d be skin-derived armor that just happens to look toothy. 



If they were genuine teeth, they would develop and regenerate using the same cellular machinery that makes jaw teeth.



To tease this apart, the team collected hundreds of ratfish in the shallows around the University of Washington's Friday Harbor Labs. 



The specimens were scanned with micro-CT, sampled tissues for gene expression, and compared the living fish to fossil relatives.



The researchers watched the tenaculum form in both sexes. 



In males, a tiny cell cluster between the eyes swelled into a white bump that anchored to jaw muscles, broke through the skin, and sprouted multiple rows of sharp elements. 



In females, the early cluster never mineralized, leaving only a developmental trace.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/tenaculum_ratfish_ct-scan_credit-Cohen-Nicklin_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/tenaculum_ratfish_ct-scan_credit-Cohen-Nicklin_1s.webp" alt="CT (computed tomography) scan of the adult male Spotted Ratfish frontal clasper (Tenaculum) covered in rows of teeth (rainbow colors). Credit: Karly Cohen and Ella Nicklin" class="wp-image-1984763"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">CT (computed tomography) scan of the adult male Spotted Ratfish frontal clasper (Tenaculum) covered in rows of teeth (rainbow colors). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Karly Cohen and Ella Nicklin</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stem-cells-prove-tooth-identity">Stem cells prove tooth identity</h2>



The clearest evidence came from histology. Each row of tenaculum spines sits atop a ribbon of tissue called the dental lamina - an epithelial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stem-cell-therapy-improves-brain-activity-after-stroke/">stem-cell</a> niche that seeds new teeth in a conveyor belt inside the jaws of many vertebrates.



“When we saw the dental lamina for the first time, our eyes popped,” Cohen said. “It was so exciting to see this crucial structure outside the jaw.”



Dermal denticles don’t have a dental lamina. The team also found the classic “tooth toolbox” of genes active in the tenaculum but absent in skin denticles. They spotted similar head-mounted teeth in the fossil record of related chimaeras.



“We have a combination of experimental data with paleontological evidence to show how these fishes co-opted a preexisting program for manufacturing teeth to make a new device that is essential for reproduction,” said co-author Michael Coates of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en">University of Chicago</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-teeth-for-reproduction">Flexible teeth for reproduction</h2>



An adult male ratfish can stack seven or eight rows of these forehead teeth. Unlike our rigid canines, they retract and flex - handy when you’re trying to latch onto a mate while swimming.



The tenaculum’s growth schedule follows the maturation of the pelvic claspers, not the animal’s overall length. 



This suggests that the “migrant” tooth-forming tissue is now controlled by reproductive hormonal cues and local gene networks. 



Functionally, the system behaves like mouth dentitions in sharks: a renewable lamina constantly seeds replacements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-where-teeth-can-grow"><a></a>Rethinking where teeth can grow</h2>



Sharks are often the go-to model for tooth evolution because they churn out endless oral teeth and wear a coat of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-denticles-reveal-human-impacts-over-centuries/">denticles.</a> This study widens the lens. 



The research shows that vertebrate “tooth programs” are modular and mobile. Under the right developmental signals, genuine teeth can be built well beyond the jaw margins.



Tissue samples from the tenaculum expressed the same core genetic toolkit seen across vertebrate teeth, demonstrating that these aren’t just spiky skin ornaments. "Vertebrate teeth are extremely well united by a genetic toolbox,” Cohen noted. 



“If these strange chimaeras are sticking teeth on the front of their head, it makes you think about the dynamism of tooth development more generally," said study senior author Gareth Fraser of the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-clues-from-ratfish-tenaculum">Ancient clues from ratfish tenaculum</h2>



Finding a working dental lamina outside the mouth suggests ancient flexibility in where and why teeth evolve - whether for feeding, defense, or, in this case, reproductive grip. 



The discovery also hints that evolution has repeatedly redeployed the same genetic circuitry to build similar hard parts in new places.



For paleontologists, the forehead teeth help reconcile decades-old fossils that hinted at non-oral dentitions in early jawed fishes. 



For developmental biologists, they invite a new question: What other “spiky structures” might secretly be teeth?



“Chimaeras offer a rare glimpse into the past,” Cohen said. “I think the more we look at spiky structures on vertebrates, the more teeth we are going to find outside the jaw.”



In other words, the next chapter in the story of teeth may not be written in the mouth at all, but on an unassuming little hook between a ratfish’s eyes - proof that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-evolution-not-random-can-be-predicted-pangenome-genetic-history/">evolution</a>’s dental toolkit travels farther than anyone imagined.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2508054122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Common fish found to have a very uncommon row of teeth on its forehead

For more than a century, biologists have treated teeth as...

Comfort and routine guide much of life, and new research reveals how they shape our social preferences and living patterns.



Researchers led by Kasimir Dederichs at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> found that, on average, people favor neighborhoods and clubs filled with others who share their age, ethnicity, or education.



The team ran three pre-registered conjoint experiments, a method that asks people to choose between realistic options that vary across several traits. 



Put simply, participants viewed pairs of neighborhoods or organizations that differed in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-your-friends-genes-can-alter-the-course-of-your-life/">social makeup</a>, cost, travel time, and other features, then selected the one they preferred.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clear-social-preferences-emerge">Clear social preferences emerge</h2>



Across nearly 30,000 choices made by thousands of Dutch adults, the pattern was consistent: people leaned toward settings with more neighbors or members similar to themselves in age, ethnicity, and education.



Two examples make the trade-offs concrete. Adults under 50 were willing to travel about five minutes farther to join a club where roughly one-quarter of the members were over 50 rather than one-half.



Dutch residents without a migration background accepted about 10 extra minutes of daily travel if it meant living where no neighbors had Turkish or Moroccan backgrounds rather than where one-quarter did.



One exception stood out. Respondents without a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/education-and-lifespan-college-graduates-live-an-average-of-11-years-longer/">college degree</a> did not show a preference for settings matched to their education level. Those with degrees did show that preference, and they showed it clearly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-preferences-big-consequences">Small preferences, big consequences </h2>



Tiny tilts can add up. Schelling’s classic model shows how mild desires for similar neighbors can produce sharp segregation once many people make the same kind of choice. 



The new results fit that logic: when people can sort across several steps - such as choosing both a club and a team within it - each small preference at each step compounds the overall separation.



The study also tracked the settings people already occupy. Those surrounded by similar others showed stronger ingroup preferences than peers who spent more time with different-age, different-education, or different-ethnicity neighbors or members. 



This pattern aligns with decades of work on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-lasting-friendships-are-hiding-in-the-brain/">homophily</a>, the well-replicated finding that social ties form more easily among similar people. Less exposure to difference makes even small preferences for similarity harder to soften.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impacts-on-daily-groups">Impacts on daily groups</h2>



Neighborhoods set the stage for long-term contact, while civic groups like sports clubs and cultural associations create regular routines. The study found similar preferences for similarity in both settings, which helps explain why bridging ties can be rare even when diversity increases.



There were a few nuances. In younger samples choosing sports clubs, ethnic preferences were weaker than in other civic groups or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neighborhoods-with-more-dogs-have-less-crime/">neighborhoods</a>, suggesting a narrow pocket where mixing may be easier.



Policy debates often circle back to contact. A large meta-analysis across more than 500 studies shows that real, repeated intergroup contact tends to reduce prejudice and that more rigorous studies find larger effects. So it is not only exposure that matters but the quality and stability of the interactions that follow.



“People prefer to associate with people who are very similar to themselves,” said Jochem Tolsma of <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en">Radboud University</a>.



That preference is not destiny. It is a starting point that smart design can address by lowering the friction of contact and raising the chances that cooperation feels normal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cycles-of-segregation">Cycles of segregation </h2>



When individuals act on small preferences, segregation does not just appear - it reinforces itself. Once people move into settings dominated by their own group, they become less likely to interact with outsiders, which in turn strengthens their preference for similarity.



The team saw this cycle in their data: respondents living in less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-power-of-diversity-in-friendships/">diverse</a> neighborhoods or clubs reported stronger ingroup preferences, showing how social environments and personal choices feed each other in a loop that is hard to break.



This research was conducted in the Netherlands, and context matters. In the United States, for example, a video experiment found that neighborhood racial composition strongly affected white respondents’ choices even when social class was held constant. 



Cultures, histories, and policy environments shift the details. Still, the core finding here is about everyday choices rather than national policy - making it more likely to travel across borders than one might expect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-for-small-preferences">Designing for small preferences</h2>



If people act on small preferences for similarity, then interventions need to work with that grain rather than against it. 



Reducing practical costs of mixed settings, building routines that create shared goals, and highlighting common identity within groups can help.



Clubs and associations can play an outsized role because entry barriers are lower than for moving house. When organizations set norms that reward cooperation and keep participation stable, they give contact time to do its work.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/pnasnexus/article/4/9/pgaf256/8245252?login=false" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PNAS Nexus</a>.



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Comfort and routine quietly shape our social preferences

Comfort and routine guide much of life, and new research...

When we think of pollinators, bees, butterflies, and hoverflies usually spring to mind. Rarely do we imagine true bugs dusted in pollen. Yet a stunning 99-million-year-old fossil of a bug, Shaykayatcoris michalskii, suggests our mental picture of who carried pollen through ancient flowers needs an update.



Hungarian researchers studying a pristine inclusion in Burmese amber identified a flat <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-bugs-bug-humans-more-than-humans-bug-bugs/">bug</a>, preserved with plant fragments and a halo of pollen grains. The specimen comes from Late Cretaceous amber formed on the West Burma terrane. 



This fragment of crust split from Gondwana more than 100 million years earlier and drifted in the tropical Tethys. 



Isolated for eons, life on the terrane evolved along a distinctive path, and its amber famously preserved delicate organisms in extraordinary detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-bug-pollinator">Unexpected bug pollinator</h2>



Shaykayatcoris michalskii belongs to the flat bug family Aradidae, best known today as cryptic, bark-hugging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/underground-fungi-networks-that-sustain-all-life-on-earth-are-in-danger/">fungi</a> feeders. 



Yet this individual, assigned to the subfamily Prosympiestinae, breaks the mold in multiple ways.



The species is the first representative of that ancient lineage ever reported from Burmese amber. Previously, all aradids from this deposit came from more derived branches of the family.



Even more striking is its appearance: the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-fossils-reveal-new-clues-about-arthropod-evolution/">exoskeleton</a> is iridescent, flashing a metallic sheen never before documented in flat bugs.



Prosympiestinae differ in lifestyle and form from their pancake-flat, bark-dwelling relatives. 



Rather than being pressed thin to slip beneath tree bark, they tend to have more cylindrical bodies and inhabit leaf litter or the undersides of fallen logs and branches.



That departure from a strictly subcortical existence may have opened opportunities - like venturing onto flowers - that typical flat bugs rarely seize today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaykayatcoris-michalskii-was-shiny">Shaykayatcoris michalskii was shiny</h2>



Iridescence in insects can serve several functions. Brilliant warning colors can advertise toxicity. 



Shaykayatcoris, however, shows a brownish base tone with a subtle shimmer, not the bold reds and oranges linked to aposematism.



Camouflage is the more likely explanation here. On petals, an iridescent gloss can fracture outlines and mimic the shifting play of light on floral surfaces.



It helps an insect like Shaykayatcoris michalskii blend in among gleaming pollen and reflective nectar guides. In that context, shimmering armor would be less a billboard than a cloak.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dust-points-to-flowers">Dust points to flowers</h2>



The most persuasive clue to this bug’s floral life comes from its microscopic companions. Alongside plant fragments, abundant pollen surrounds the insect inside the amber, with grains even adhering to the body.



Because resin entombs scenes in mid-action, the association is unlikely to be accidental. 



Coupled with the iridescent finish, the pollen dusting points to regular flower visits and, by extension, a role - perhaps incidental, perhaps important - in pollination.



That inference matters because modern true bugs rarely rank among primary pollinators. 



Today’s flowering plants largely rely on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-identify-the-parasite-thats-driving-bees-into-a-death-spiral/">bees</a>, butterflies, moths, and flies, whose mouthparts and foraging habits are specialized for nectar and pollen.



This fossil suggests that, earlier in Earth’s history, some bugs occupied that niche more frequently than they do now. Competition and coevolution later favored the classic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-face-extinction-risk-due-to-climate-change/">pollinator</a> guilds we recognize today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bug-fossil-fills-missing-gap">Bug fossil fills missing gap</h2>



Flat bugs are typically masters of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-larvae-had-sophisticated-defense-strategies-100-million-years-ago/">concealment</a>. They live under bark, graze fungal hyphae with elongated stylets coiled inside their heads, and wear muted colors that melt into wood grain.



Finding an aradid with a reflective finish is startling on its own; finding it in a lineage that retains ancestral traits and in one of the world’s most storied amber deposits magnifies the surprise.



The discovery fills a conspicuous gap in the Burmese amber fauna by documenting an older aradid lineage where only more derived ones had been seen.



Burmese amber is a magnet for paleobiologists precisely because it preserves what rock often erases: hairs on fly legs, pollen clumps, and the fine sculpturing of exoskeletons.



Arthropods, with their delicate cuticles and appendages, are especially prone to being flattened or fragmented in sedimentary fossils. 



Resin captures them mid-gesture, with spores, dust, and pollen revealing behaviors that bones and impressions cannot.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-bug-pollinators">Rethinking bug pollinators </h2>



If true bugs frequented flowers in the Cretaceous, the implications ripple through our view of angiosperm evolution. 



Early flowering plants diversified at the same time as many insect groups, and their mutual influences shaped floral structures and insect mouthparts.



A broader cast of pollinators - one that included iridescent aradids - could help explain certain floral traits that don’t neatly match bee or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-can-adapt-quickly-but-evolution-has-its-limits/">butterfly</a> syndromes. 



It suggests that as bees rose, many bug lineages abandoned flowers to better-equipped pollinators.



The study, led by <a href="https://www.elte.hu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eötvös Loránd University</a>, demonstrates how competition and environmental change filter ecosystems over deep time. 



What looks “typical” today - bees buzzing between blossoms while true bugs skulk under bark - might be a late chapter rather than the opening scene.



By showing that bugs once mingled more often with flowers, the fossil nudges us to see present-day patterns as the outcome of shifting pressures rather than fixed rules.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-shaykayatcoris-michalskii">Lessons from Shaykayatcoris michalskii</h2>



Beyond rewriting a small piece of floral history, the find has contemporary resonance. 



Global pollinator declines threaten crop yields and wild plant reproduction, prompting urgent searches for overlooked or understudied pollinators across landscapes.



Fossils like Shaykayatcoris michalskii remind us that pollination networks can be more diverse and flexible than we assume, and that marginal or rare visitors might become important under different conditions.



Understanding how ancient communities shared pollination helps refine our expectations and conservation priorities as today’s ecosystems are reshaped.



In a single shard of amber, a shimmering bug and its cloud of pollen grains expand our imagination of who carried Cretaceous pollen. 



They also invite us to look more closely at the quiet, easily missed participants in the modern pollination story.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-15559-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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99-million-year-old bug hints that flowers once had very different pollinators

When we think of pollinators, bees, butterflies, and hoverflies usually...

Wood looks simple, but it’s a tricky material. Inside every tree are long cellulose fibers, helper sugars called hemicellulose, and a stiff, brown binder known as lignin. 



That mix lets trees grow tall and stay standing through wind and weather. It also makes wood tough to reshape into high-performance beams and panels.



Factories usually force wood into shape with chemicals and heat. They strip out some lignin first, then compress what remains into a dense, strong material. 



That step consumes energy, costs money, and generates waste. A team of researchers set out to avoid it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineered-wood-and-lignin">Engineered wood and lignin</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poplar-trees-changed-their-chemistry-to-survive/">Lignin</a> is great for trees and a challenge for manufacturers. It’s the glue that stiffens cell walls and blocks pests. It resists many industrial treatments. 



Take out some lignin and you can pack <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/cellulose-fiber" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellulose fibers</a> closer, which boosts strength. The usual methods require harsh chemicals and high temperatures.



Engineered wood has become a cleaner alternative to steel and concrete in many projects. It’s lighter and can carry serious loads when densified. 



To keep that promise, the industry needs cleaner steps from the forest to the factory floor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-and-wood-engineering">Genetics and wood engineering</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> genetically modified poplar trees to produce high-performance structural wood with fewer chemicals and less energy-intensive processing.



“We are very excited to demonstrate an innovative approach that combines genetic engineering and wood engineering, to sustainably sequester and store carbon in a resilient super wood form,” explained <a href="https://agnr.umd.edu/about/directory/yiping-qi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yiping Qi</a>, a professor in the Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture (<a href="https://psla.umd.edu/node/1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PSLA</a>) at the University of Maryland.



Instead of modifying wood after the tree grows, the team asked a simple question: could the tree grow wood that’s easier to densify from the start? 



They chose poplar, a fast-growing research workhorse that also shows up in real products. Using precise gene editing, they adjusted the tree’s lignin pathway without undermining growth.



They targeted one gene - <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26491147/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">4CL1</a> - within the pathway cells use to make lignin. By switching off 4CL1, the trees produced slightly less lignin, but maintained normal development under controlled conditions. 



That small change opened a new option in the factory: skipping the chemical delignification step.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-gene-edit-works">How the gene edit works</h2>



The tool was base editing, a form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-gene-edited-spiders-spin-red-silk/">CRISPR</a> that swaps one DNA letter for another at a chosen spot. It doesn’t slice the genome; it rewrites a letter with precision. 



In this case, the edit focused on 4CL1 while minimizing changes elsewhere in the genome.



With the wood in hand, the team soaked it in water and then applied heat and pressure to densify it. 



When cellulose fibers line up and move closer together, mechanical strength climbs. The process relies less on solvents and more on physical compaction.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/engineered-trees_wood_lignin_construction-revolution_UMaryland_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/engineered-trees_wood_lignin_construction-revolution_UMaryland_1s.webp" alt="This method for producing genetically modified wood eliminates chemical delignification, offering a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative for producing densified wood. This success highlights genome editing’s potential to create other engineered wood materials with enhanced properties, contributing to a CO2-negative bioeconomy by providing renewable alternatives to traditional materials. Credit: Matter Journal" class="wp-image-1984732"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This method for producing genetically modified wood eliminates chemical delignification, offering a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative for producing densified wood. This success highlights genome editing’s potential to create other engineered wood materials with enhanced properties, contributing to a CO2-negative bioeconomy by providing renewable alternatives to traditional materials. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matter Journal</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-it-to-the-test">Putting it to the test</h2>



The densified wood from the edited poplars reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/booster-plant-gene-discovery-amplifies-plant-growth-up-to-200-percent/">strength levels</a> comparable to those of panels made with conventional chemical treatments. 



The researchers measured lignin levels approximately one-eighth lower than in unedited controls. Growth remained healthy in greenhouse tests, which matters because factory gains aren’t worth much if the tree can’t thrive.



Skipping the chemical bath meant fewer inputs and less waste while still yielding structural-grade material. 



The balance was key: reduce lignin just enough to ease processing, not so much that the tree loses toughness in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-and-engineered-wood">CO2 and engineered wood</h2>



Buildings are a major source of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-just-created-concrete-that-could-reverse-climate-damage/">carbon emissions</a>, driven by materials like steel and concrete. 



Engineered wood can help by replacing part of that footprint with lighter structural components that store carbon for decades. Cleaner processing tightens the loop further, cutting energy use and reducing waste streams.



“Carbon sequestration is critical in our fight against climate change, and such engineered wood may find many uses in the future bioeconomy,” Qi added.



If mills can avoid harsh solvents and still press wood into high-strength beams and panels, the path to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/construction-materials-could-store-carbon-in-homes-and-buildings-helping-the-climate/">lower-carbon construction</a> gets wider. 



The approach starts upstream in the forest, not just on the factory line. It tunes the raw material so it cooperates when densified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-underway">Next steps underway</h2>



Greenhouse results look good, but forests are tougher proving grounds. Wind, pests, and seasons test wood in ways a lab cannot. 



Longer field trials will show whether reduced-lignin trees keep their strength and resilience outdoors. Another step is to try similar edits in pine, spruce, or eucalyptus, which dominate many timber markets.



Policy will shape the path. Base-edited trees do not carry added foreign genes; they contain single-letter changes to DNA already present. 



Many regulators treat that differently from classic GMOs, but rules vary by country. Because forestry spans long life cycles and open landscapes, regulators will likely require careful, staged reviews before any commercial rollout.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-super-wood-and-earth-s-future">"Super wood" and Earth's future</h2>



This study shows that small genetic changes can simplify manufacturing while maintaining performance. The edit doesn’t erase lignin; it tunes it. 



The result is densified “super wood” that matches the strength of chemically treated material while avoiding the delignification step.



This is a careful blend of biology and materials science aimed at a practical target: strong, reliable wood that stores carbon and reduces the mess of production. 



If future field tests and policy steps go well, smarter forests could feed cleaner factories - and sturdier buildings - for years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/abstract/S2590-2385(24)00396-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



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Scientists create 'super wood' from gene-edited trees and claim it will change everything

Wood looks simple, but it’s a tricky material. Inside every...

A new study reports microbial DNA preserved inside woolly and steppe mammoth remains that are older than one million years. The team shows that some bacteria were living with these animals while they were alive, not just invading after death.



Researchers analyzed DNA from 483 specimens and sequenced 440 of them for the first time. From a steppe mammoth that lived about 1.1 million years ago, they even pieced together parts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-buried-for-millions-of-years-may-guide-search-for-alien-life/">bacterial</a> genomes that once infected or inhabited the animal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-microbes-in-mammoths">Ancient microbes in mammoths</h2>



The work was led by Benjamin Guinet, a postdoctoral fellow at the Centre for Palaeogenetics in Stockholm (<a href="https://palaeogenetics.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CPG</a>). The Centre is a collaboration between Stockholm University and the Swedish Museum of Natural History (<a href="https://www.nrm.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NRM</a>).



"Our results push the study of microbial DNA back beyond a million years, opening up new possibilities to explore how host-associated microbes evolved in parallel with their hosts," said Guinet. 



The project involved an international team of experts working across multiple collections and labs.



The researchers used strict lab protocols, computational filters, and DNA damage checks to separate life stage <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-found-alive-sealed-inside-rock-after-2-billion-years/">microbes</a> from postmortem contaminants. That approach helped them focus on organisms that were likely part of the mammoth’s own internal community.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-mammoth-dna">Inside mammoth DNA</h2>



The scientists kept finding the same six types of bacteria in mammoth remains from different times and places, including close relatives of Actinobacillus, Pasteurella, Streptococcus, and Erysipelothrix. 



This pattern suggests that these microbes had a long history with mammoths, sticking with them through environmental changes and population shifts.



The scientists distinguished host-associated microbes, meaning those living in or on a host while it was alive, from environmental bacteria that entered after burial. 



They used metagenomics, a method that reads all DNA in a sample at once, then identified ancient damage patterns to authenticate the oldest material.



From the 1.1 million year steppe mammoth, the team reconstructed partial genomes of Erysipelothrix that likely came from an infection during life. This is the oldest authenticated host-associated microbial DNA ever reported, and it extends the range for studying ancient host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-aquificales-discovered-in-hot-springs-breathe-oxygen-and-sulfur-at-same-time/">microbe</a> interactions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-ancient-microbes-matter">Why ancient microbes matter</h2>



This result builds on earlier work that recovered genome scale data from mammoth teeth more than one million years old, demonstrating that DNA can survive when conditions are right. 



The previous <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03224-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> established methods and expectations for data quality at this extreme age.



Ancient DNA is fragile and breaks into tiny pieces, and chemical changes accumulate over time. By tracking these signatures, scientists can tell ancient sequences from modern contamination and avoid false signals.



"As microbes evolve fast, obtaining reliable DNA data across more than a million years was like following a trail that kept rewriting itself," said study senior author Tom van der Valk.



"Our findings show that ancient remains can preserve biological insights far beyond the host genome, offering us perspectives on how microbes influenced adaptation, disease, and extinction in Pleistocene ecosystems."



The Pleistocene was a period from about 2.6 million years ago to 11,700 years ago that included repeated ice ages.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbes-linked-to-mammoth-health">Microbes linked to mammoth health</h2>



One bacterium in the dataset is closely related to a Pasteurella species implicated in lethal outbreaks among African elephants. That connection is supported by a 2023 <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37880229/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a> that identified a Pasteurella relative as the likely cause of fatal septicemia in elephants in Zimbabwe.



The new study reports several putative <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2646308/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">virulence factors</a>, which are gene features tied to disease-causing ability, in some clades. The authors are careful about cause and effect because ancient DNA is incomplete and infections leave mixed traces.



Erysipelothrix is also known to sicken Arctic wildlife today, including muskoxen during unusual mortality events. That pattern has been documented in a Canadian Veterinary <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4431149/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal</a> that found Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae associated with widespread deaths in the Canadian Arctic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mammoth-survival-and-microbes">Mammoth survival and microbes</h2>



Microbes that stayed with mammoths for hundreds of thousands of years hint at stable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-without-oxygen-how-ancient-microbes-powered-early-life/">relationships</a> shaped by diet, climate, and social behavior. The persistence of these lineages across far flung regions points to deep coevolution.



The last woolly mammoths survived on Wrangel Island until about 4,000 years ago, long after mainland populations vanished. Genetic work on that relict group links their late survival to small population size and accumulating harmful mutations.



"This work opens a new chapter in understanding the biology of extinct species. Not only can we study the genomes of mammoths themselves, but we can now begin to explore the microbial communities that lived inside them," said Love Dalén, professor of evolutionary genomics at the CPG. 



Ultimately, the data help connect health, ecology, and extinction risks in a single picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-this-research-can-go-next">Where this research can go next</h2>



Reconstructing ancient microbiomes can help set baselines for living elephant microbiomes. That matters because health, diet, and stress are all reflected in the microbiome, the community of microbes that live in and on an organism.



Ancient pathogen signals can also clarify whether outbreaks played a role in population declines. Learning which bacteria carried disease associated genes in the past could inform surveillance and treatment strategies for modern elephants.



Finally, the same tools can be applied to other Ice Age species to test whether long-lived microbial partners were the rule rather than the exception. Careful sampling, clean labs, and independent checks will keep new claims on firm ground.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/abstract/S0092-8674(25)00917-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell</a>.



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Million year-old mammoth microbes reveal new clues about disease

A new study reports microbial DNA preserved inside woolly and...

Spaceflight isn’t just tough on muscles and bones. It appears to age the very cells that keep blood and the immune system functioning.



Researchers at the University of California San Diego’s <a href="https://stemcellprogram.ucsd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sanford Stem Cell Institute</a> report that human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) show clear signs of accelerated aging after weeks aboard the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-20-years-of-space-station-research-means-for-life-on-earth/">International Space Station</a>.



The cells lost some of their capacity to produce healthy new blood cells, accumulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-dna-damage-requires-constant-repair-by-cells-to-prevent-disease/">DNA damage</a>, and displayed shortening at the ends of their chromosomes - classic markers of cellular aging.



“Space is the ultimate stress test for the human body,” said senior author Catriona Jamieson, the institute’s director. “These findings are critically important because they show that the stressors of space - like microgravity and cosmic galactic radiation - can accelerate the molecular aging of blood stem cells.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-focus-on-stem-cells">New focus on stem cells</h2>



NASA’s landmark Twins Study, which followed astronaut Scott Kelly during his year in orbit while his twin, Mark, remained on Earth, hinted that spaceflight can alter immune function and telomere length. 



Many changes reversed after landing, but some persisted, raising concerns for longer missions. The scientists took that story deeper, homing in on the cells that seed the blood and<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/space-travel-weakens-astronauts-immune-system-similar-aging/"> immune systems</a>. 



The research dovetails with the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/general/space-omice-and-medical-atlas-soma-package/">Space Omics and Medical Atlas</a> effort, which mapped wide-ranging biological changes in space, but goes further by uncovering the mechanisms of stem cell aging at the cellular and molecular levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-space-labs-track-cellular-aging">Space labs track cellular aging</h2>



To watch HSPCs respond in real time, the team flew automated, AI-guided “nanobioreactor” systems on four SpaceX resupply missions.



These miniaturized platforms - developed with <a href="https://spacetango.com/">Space Tango</a> - kept human stem cells alive and dividing in microgravity while persistent microscopy and onboard analytics tracked their behavior.



In some cases, cells spent 32 to 45 days in orbit, long enough to reveal how space conditions reshape their biology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microgravity-accelerates-cellular-stress">Microgravity accelerates cellular stress</h2>



The picture that emerged is one of overdrive and wear. Blood-forming stem and progenitor cells typically cycle between bursts of work and periods of rest that protect their long-term potential.



In microgravity, the cells became hyperactive, burning through their reserves and losing that restful “quiescent” state that preserves regenerative capacity. 



Their ability to generate healthy progeny declined. Molecular scars piled up in several ways: DNA damage increased, telomeres trended shorter, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-map-of-the-brains-mitochondria-may-explain-cognitive-decline/">mitochondria</a> sent stress signals. Together, these signs suggested the cells' energy systems were under strain.



The team also saw signs that normally silent stretches of the genome flickered on under stress - a loss of stability that can disrupt immune function and raise the risk of disease. 



As Jamieson put it, understanding these changes “not only informs how we protect astronauts during long-duration missions but also helps us model human aging and diseases like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-each-day-at-any-speed-lowers-the-risk-of-cancer/">cancer</a> here on Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-of-space-cellular-aging-on-earth">Echoes of space cellular aging on Earth</h2>



HSPCs sit at the root of the blood and immune tree. If they falter, the branches above - red cells, platelets, multiple layers of immune defenders - grow weaker. 



For crews headed to the Moon, Mars, or extended stays in commercial space stations, the risks include greater vulnerability to infection. They may also face slower wound healing and long-term health problems after returning home.



The findings also feed a broader scientific question: what exactly pushes cells to age? <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microgravity-causes-big-problems-with-human-gene-expression/">Microgravity,</a> radiation, circadian disruption, and isolation are an extreme blend of stressors not easily reproduced on Earth.



As a result, space becomes a powerful testbed for uncovering which stress pathways push stem cells toward decline. The insights gained could guide therapies for age-related disorders and cancers linked to malfunctioning stem and progenitor cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-damage-can-be-undone">Some damage can be undone</h2>



One encouraging result stands out. When space-exposed HSPCs were returned to a young, healthy environment on Earth, some of the damage began to unwind. 



Telomere dynamics stabilized, stress markers ebbed, and functional capacity improved.



That rebound suggests the changes aren’t a one-way street. With the right countermeasures - drugs, gene-based strategies, metabolic supports, or tailored exercise and sleep regimens - stem cells might stay healthier during flight and recover more effectively afterward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aging-linked-to-stress-signals">Aging linked to stress signals</h2>



The team’s real-time imaging and biosensing pointed to a chain reaction familiar in aging biology. Mitochondrial distress can flood cells with reactive molecules, which in turn damage DNA and trigger repair responses.



To compensate, cells sometimes activate normally quiet genomic elements and pivot into pro-inflammatory states that accelerate wear and tear. 



In the confined world of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stem-cell-therapy-improves-brain-activity-after-stroke/">stem cell</a>, where balance is everything, that cascade appears to push HSPCs to churn rather than conserve - a costly strategy if it continues for months.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-stem-cell-research">Scaling up stem cell research</h2>



Space Tango’s CubeLab hardware made the experiments possible by pairing persistent microscopy with a controlled microenvironment in orbit.



“Coupling Space Tango's CubeLab capabilities, specifically the persistent microscopy, has enabled this work and will continue to do so in the future,” said company co-founder Twyman Clements.



The Sanford Stem Cell Institute has already flown 17 missions to the ISS and plans more, including astronaut-based studies that can align cellular readouts with clinical changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-research-benefits-from-orbit">Earth research benefits from orbit</h2>



“Space experiments are so complex that they force you to do better science on the ground,” Jamieson said.



Paradoxically, the hard constraints of orbital research - limited sample sizes, no second chances, strict automation - drive innovations in imaging, analytics, and experimental design that later simplify Earth-bound studies.



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-nasa-plans-to-keep-people-in-space-after-the-iss-is-gone/">commercial spaceflight</a> expands and long-duration missions move from concept to countdown, this kind of precision biology will be essential. If we want humanity to go farther, we’ll need our stem cells to stay younger, longer - and studies like this one are showing how.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-stem-cell/fulltext/S1934-5909(25)00270-X">Cell Stem Cell.</a>



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Space accelerates cellular aging in astronauts

Spaceflight isn’t just tough on muscles and bones. It appears...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.



The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.



The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.



The full study was recently published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.



Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.



Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents". In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively. MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.



MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization. The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.



Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.



A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.



This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.



PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.



In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.



As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.



The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.



For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.



The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.



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MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a>



Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.



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Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.



However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.



Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.



Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.



The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.



The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.



The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>. This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.



Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."



The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.



"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.



The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.



Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.



Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.



Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.



Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.



The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.



As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal Neuron</a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.



When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.



"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.



Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.



When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.



Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.



Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.



"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.



Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.



People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.



This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.



New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.



Recent findings published in Science Advances show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.



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Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.



That solace came through H.G. Wells' The Time Machine. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.



In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.



Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."



"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."



In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.



This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



His work, published in respected journals including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.



Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's This American Life</a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's Today Show</a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.



There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.



The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.



Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."



His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.



More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.







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Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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