Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long timeline. Every chip of flint or shard of bone builds a narrative of how early humans used tools to feed themselves, cooperated, and thought about the places they called home. 



Fresh finds from two sites just northeast of today’s Tel Aviv - Jaljulia and Qesem Cave - add an eye-opening chapter to that story. 



They point to a moment, roughly 400,000 years ago, when hunters in the Levant not only pivoted to new prey but also <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tools-in-south-africa-reveal-early-human-communication/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">redesigned their tools</a> and, perhaps, their beliefs.



The discoveries revolve around a specialized flint implement known as a Quina scraper. 



At first glance the artifact looks modest - smaller than a modern smartphone. Its scalloped edge, though, is razor-sharp, built for slicing through muscle and hide with an efficiency that would have impressed any butcher.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flint-tools-and-shifting-appetites">Flint tools and shifting appetites</h2>



For nearly a million years, large game dominated dinner menus here - especially elephants that roamed plains stretching from Africa into Eurasia. 



When those giants dwindled, hunting parties had to recalibrate. 



The speedier, leaner fallow deer offered far less meat per kill, so hunters needed to process many more carcasses to match the calories once supplied by a single elephant. That change forced a rethink of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-discovery-challenges-entire-theory-of-human-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strategy and gear</a>.



Fallow deer thrived in mixed woodlands along what are now the Samarian highlands. Their bones fill layers in Jaljulia and Qesem Cave, signaling a dietary shift that mirrors broader environmental turnover during the late Lower Paleolithic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-carved-with-flint-for-venison">Tools carved with flint for venison</h2>



Enter the Quina scraper. Unlike earlier, more rudimentary scrapers, this one features a stepped, scale-like working edge that holds a keen bevel. 



Microscopic wear marks reveal repeated motions suited to neatly removing skin and sinew. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-homo-sapiens-stone-tools-preserved-volcanic-ash-grotta-di-castelcivita/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tool design</a> likely spared hunters valuable time at the kill site, reducing exposure to scavengers and rival predators that could steal a hard-won carcass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_2s.webp" alt="A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020)" class="wp-image-1970089"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A Quina scraper from Qesem Cave. Residue and use-wear analyses showed that the scraper was wrapped with organic material and used for scraping a dry hide (after Zupancich 2020). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Modern experiments with replicas confirm that the tool excels at producing long, clean strips of hide - ideal for lashing shelters, wrapping meat, or even tailoring early garments. 



A single scraper could be resharpened several times, making it a portable workhorse on multi-day forays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stone-from-sacred-hills">Stone from sacred hills</h2>



The most unexpected twist lies not in the tool’s shape but in its raw material. Quina scrapers at both sites were made of flint hauled roughly 12.4 miles from the western slopes of the Samarian mountains, bypassing closer outcrops. 



That same upland served as a calving ground for fallow deer. Hunters, then, were linking an essential resource - flint - to the very landscape that provided their new staple food.



The study’s lead authors - Vlad Litov and Prof. Ran Barkai of <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> - spell out what that pairing means. 



"In this study we tried to understand why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-tool-flint-discovery-challenges-theory-of-human-cultural-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stone tools changed</a> during prehistoric times, with a focus on a technological change in scrapers in the Lower Paleolithic, about 400,000 years ago," Litov explained. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forced-to-hunt-smaller-animals">Forced to hunt smaller animals</h2>



We found a dramatic change in the human diet during this period, probably resulting from a change in the available fauna: the large game, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ancient-humans-hunted-elephants-with-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particularly elephants</a>, had disappeared, and humans were forced to hunt smaller animals, especially fallow deer.



Clearly, butchering a large elephant is one thing, and processing a much smaller and more delicate fallow deer is quite a different challenge. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_1s.webp" alt="Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e)" class="wp-image-1970087"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Examples of scrapers shaped by Quina-like retouch from the Late Acheulian Jaljulia: Déjeté scraper (a); transverse scraper (b); Single scrapers (c, d); Convergent scraper fragment (e). Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



Systematic processing of numerous fallow deer to compensate for a single elephant was a complex and demanding task that required the development of new implements. 



"Consequently, we see the emergence of the new Quina scrapers, with a better-shaped, sharper, more uniform working edge compared to the simple scrapers used previously," Litov added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tech-advancement-shown-in-flint-tools">Tech advancement shown in flint tools</h2>



Prof. Barkai explains that the study reveals “links between technological developments and changes in the fauna hunted and consumed by early humans.” 



While previous theories credited <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-nature-to-knapping-the-surprising-origins-of-stone-tools/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">advancements in stone tools</a> to biological evolution, he and his team suggest a “double connection, both practical and perceptual.”



Practically, tool sophistication evolved to meet the demands of hunting smaller, faster prey. Perceptually, Barkai points to a symbolic association between specific locations and resources. 



“We found a connection between the plentiful source of fallow deer and the source of flint used to butcher them,” he notes. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-used-interesting-technique-hunt-big-animals-clovis-points/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prehistoric hunters</a> seemed to favor flint from the same region where the deer roamed - Mounts Ebal and Gerizim - suggesting a deep-rooted awareness of the landscape and its significance.



“This behavior,” he adds, “is familiar from many other places worldwide and is still widely practiced by native hunter-gatherer communities.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



According to Litov, the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaria" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mountains of Samaria</a> held deep significance for prehistoric people living at Qesem Cave and Jaljulia. 



“We believe that the Mountains of Samaria were sacred to the prehistoric people… because that’s where the fallow deer came from,” he says.



As elephant populations declined, early humans in the region shifted their focus to fallow deer. Tools made from a variety of local stones have been found at Jaljulia, but something unique occurred when they began sourcing both their prey and tool-making materials from the Samarian highlands.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/stone-tools_400000-years-old_Quina-like_credit-Tel-Aviv_3s.webp" alt="A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1970091"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">A close look at a Quina-like scraper from Jaljulia. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



“Identifying the deer's plentiful source, they began to develop the unique scrapers in the same place,” Litov explains. 



These specialized tools - first appearing in Jaljulia around 500,000 years ago - later spread more broadly, showing up at Qesem Cave between 400,000 and 200,000 years ago.



Archaeological evidence, including fallow deer bones from Mount Gerizim and other sites, suggests that the area supported deer populations well into the Holocene. 



“Apparently, the Mountains of Samaria gained a prominent or even sacred status as early as the Paleolithic period,” Litov concludes, “and retained their unique cultural position for hundreds of thousands of years.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prehistoric-man-was-smarter-than-we-thought">Prehistoric man was smarter than we thought</h2>



Pairing a resource with a place crops up again and again in human history, from obsidian quarries in the American Southwest to jade rivers in ancient China. 



The Jaljulia and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qesem_cave" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Qesem Cave</a> findings push that behavior deep into the past, showing that meaning and material were already intertwined long before written lore. Technology did not change in a vacuum; it mirrored environmental stress and social imagination.



Understanding how early communities adapted to shrinking megafauna offers a cautionary parallel for modern ecosystems losing key species. Innovation can soften the blow, but it also reshapes culture in ways that echo far beyond survival. 



A humble flint scraper, carried miles across rugged ground, reminds us that tools are never just tools. They are signatures of what people value, where they find sustenance, and how they make sense of their world.



The full study was published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11759-024-09493-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Archaeologies</a>.



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Stone tools created 400,000 years show technological advancement of early humans

Archaeology sometimes feels like detective work with a very long timeline. Every chip of flint or shard of bone builds a narrative of how early humans used tools to feed themselves, cooperated, and thought about the places they called home. Fresh finds from two sites just northeast of today’s Tel Aviv - Jaljulia and Qesem Cave - add an eye-opening chapter to that story. They point to a moment, roughly 400,000 years ago, when hunters in the Levant not only pivoted to new prey but also redesigned...

Deer,,Cervus,Elaphus,,With,Antlers,Growing,On,Velvet.a,Huge,Deer

On an early autumn morning, a group of researchers from the Globe Institute at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> embarked on an intriguing expedition into a Danish forest. Armed with plastic boxes, these scientists sought to "vacuum" animal DNA from the air.&nbsp;



The boxes, rigged with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-collect-human-dna-from-water-air-and-basically-everywhere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> air samplers, were strapped onto tree trunks, air filters attached, and then powered on. As the boxes powered up, a faint hum indicated that they were collecting airborne particles.



Over the next three days, the researchers returned to the forest on numerous occasions to replace the air filters, each time marking a step further into their investigation.



"We saw relatively few animals in the short time we spent in the forest when we changed the air filters. A squirrel, the sound of a woodpecker, a pheasant squawking, and a white-tailed eagle flying above us one day," said Christina Lynggaard. However, the richness of the biodiversity they discovered in the air starkly contrasted the lack of visible activity.



<h2 id="h-which-animals-were-detected">Which animals were detected?</h2>



By sequencing the airborne <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breakthrough-in-nutrition-science-dna-barcoding-reveals-dietary-secrets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA particles</a> collected on the filters, the team discovered a surprising number of forest inhabitants. The "vacuuming" process, executed over three days in an area of the forest roughly equivalent to a football field, unveiled DNA traces from 64 animal species.



They detected the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dna-collection-method-is-harmless-to-wildlife/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> of animals including domestic species like cows, pigs, sheep, chickens, and dogs, and even exotic pets like parakeets and peacocks. Yet, the real surprise was the detection of roughly 50 terrestrial wild animals. 



The DNA revealed the presence of small to large wild animals with varied lifestyles - red deer, roe deer, Eurasian badger, white-tailed eagle, red fox, different vole species, robin, Eurasian red squirrel, common toad, smooth newt, great crested newt, crane, great spotted woodpecker, nuthatch, grey heron, marsh tit, woodcock, and several more.



<h2 id="h-amazing-results">Amazing results</h2>



In a stunningly short time, the researchers uncovered nearly a quarter of the land-living animals previously recorded in and around the area.&nbsp;



"It's absolutely crazy! Although we have worked hard to optimise the method, we did not dare to hope for such good results. We didn't think we would succeed so well in the very first attempt in nature," said Professor Kristine Bohmann.



<h2 id="h-animal-dna">Animal DNA&nbsp;</h2>



The DNA that was collected from the air is referred to as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-help-monitor-pollinators/">environmental DNA</a>. "Animals secrete DNA into their surrounding environment all the time. It could be in the form of fragments of hair, feathers, and skin cells. If they are airborne, we can vacuum them and use DNA analyses to find out which animals they came from," explained Lynggaard.



This innovative approach of "vacuuming" DNA from air builds upon a previous study by the same team that explored the presence of animal DNA in the air at a zoo and mapped the presence of many of its inhabitants.&nbsp;



However, there's a big difference between a zoo and nature, as Bohmann explained: "In a zoo, the animals are present in large numbers in a relatively small area, while in nature they are much less concentrated. Therefore, we were unsure how well we could make the method work in nature. And that is where we have to get it to work if we want to use it to monitor biodiversity.”



<h2 id="h-valuable-tool">Valuable tool</h2>



The trial in the Danish forest has proven that airborne environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-dna-found-in-greenland/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> could become a valuable tool in biodiversity monitoring. 



"We are in a biodiversity crisis, and tools are needed to understand how ecosystems change as a result of human impacts, to guide management strategies and to assess the risk of the spread of diseases in areas where animals can come into contact with people," said Lynggaard.



Despite dealing with tiny amounts of airborne environmental DNA, the researchers went to great lengths to verify their findings. When they first detected DNA from peacocks, they feared it might be an error. But upon further investigation, they found local residents who confirmed occasional peacock sightings during their walks.&nbsp;



The initial results suggest that this method could be effective in mapping the presence of wild animals. The study inspires optimism, even though the technique needs further refinement and testing. "It demonstrates a sensitive method for mapping the presence of animals without having to see or disturb them," said Professor Bohmann.



<h2>More about DNA air sampling</h2>



DNA air sampling, also referred to as environmental DNA (eDNA) air sampling, is a revolutionary scientific technique for collecting and analyzing DNA present in airborne particles. 



This approach represents a breakthrough in ecological and biological research. It opens new and exciting opportunities to study species distribution, disease surveillance, and biodiversity.



<h3>Overview</h3>



In DNA air sampling, scientists actively capture and analyze the genetic material from air samples. Airborne DNA, often associated with microscopic particles such as dust, pollen, or skin cells, provides an environmental snapshot of the biological entities present in a particular location.



<h3>Methodology</h3>



The process involves the use of specially designed air filters or samplers, which collect airborne particles from the surrounding environment. The air filters trap DNA-carrying particulates, which researchers then extract and purify in a lab.



Following extraction, scientists apply a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to replicate the collected DNA sequences. The replication allows for easier detection and analysis of the genetic material. Next, they sequence the DNA to identify the species of organisms present in the sample.



The application of high-throughput sequencing technologies, also known as next-generation sequencing, has significantly improved the detection accuracy and identification capacity of this technique.



<h3>Applications for DNA air sampling</h3>



The use of DNA air sampling extends to various domains. In ecology, it provides a non-invasive tool to study species distribution and diversity. It enables scientists to monitor the presence or absence of specific species, including endangered, invasive, or disease-causing organisms.



In public health, the technique has enormous potential in disease surveillance. By detecting airborne pathogens or allergens, scientists can monitor the prevalence of diseases, thereby aiding in early warning systems.



In forensics, DNA air sampling might prove instrumental in crime scene investigations. It could potentially detect the presence of a suspect through skin cells or other biological traces left in the air.



<h3>Limitations and future directions</h3>



While DNA air sampling holds promise, it is not without its limitations. Issues such as potential contamination, the uneven distribution of airborne DNA, and the need for comprehensive reference databases for accurate species identification can pose challenges.



Further refinement and testing of the technique are needed. However, the potential of DNA air sampling is vast, and ongoing research continues to expand its applications. As the methodology improves, it will likely become an increasingly important tool for biodiversity monitoring and ecological research.



In summary, DNA air sampling is a promising technique that leverages the ubiquity of airborne DNA. It offers a non-invasive means of studying and monitoring the biodiversity of an environment, tracking diseases, and potentially aiding in forensic investigations. Despite its limitations, the technique holds immense potential and represents an exciting frontier in biological and ecological research.



—-



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Scientists vacuumed animal DNA from the air in a forest and had amazing results

On an early autumn morning, a group of researchers from...

Diamonds form under great pressures in the depths of the Earth and are hundreds, or even billions of years old. They are usually found in types of volcanic rocks called kimberlites. These are located in the oldest, strongest, and thickest parts of the continents, such as in South Africa, where the well-known diamond rush of the 19th century occurred. However, how diamonds reach the Earth’s surface has largely remained a mystery until recently.



Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> and the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> has found that the breakup of tectonic plates is the main driving force behind the generation and ultimate eruption of diamond-rich magmas from deep inside the Earth.&nbsp;



“We found that a domino effect can explain how continental breakup leads to formation of kimberlite magma. During rifting, a small patch of the continental root is disrupted and sinks into the mantle below, triggering a chain of similar flow patterns beneath the nearby continent,” explained co-author Stephen Jones, an associate professor of Earth Systems at Birmingham.



<h2 id="h-studying-how-diamonds-reach-earth-s-surface">Studying how diamonds reach Earth's surface</h2>



The experts used statistical analysis and machine learning algorithms to forensically examine the connection between continental breakup and kimberlite volcanism. 



The investigations revealed that the eruptions of most kimberlite volcanoes occurred 20 to 30 million years after the initial tectonic breakup of our planet’s continents.



“Using geospatial analysis, we found that kimberlite eruptions tend to gradually migrate from the continental edges to the interiors over time at rates that are consistent across the continents,”&nbsp;said co-author Thea Hincks, a senior research fellow in Geology at Southampton.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



These findings prompted the scientists to examine what geological processes may drive this pattern. They discovered that the Earth’s mantle – the convecting layer between the planet’s crust and core – is often disrupted by rifting, or stretching, of the crust. 



This phenomenon occurs even thousands of kilometers away. The result leads to a domino effect which can help explain how continental breakup causes the formation of kimberlite magma.



“The pattern of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-can-diamonds-reveal-about-the-formation-of-earthquakes/">diamond</a> eruptions is cyclical, mimicking the rhythm of the supercontinents, which assemble and break up in a repeated pattern over time. But previously we didn’t know what process causes diamonds to suddenly erupt, having spent millions – or billions – of years stashed away 150 kilometers beneath the Earth’s surface,” said lead author Tom Gernon, an associate professor of Earth Science at Southampton. 



These findings could be used to identify the locations and timings of past volcanic eruptions linked to these processes, providing important insights that could enable the future discovery of additional diamond deposits.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06193-3">Nature</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-diamond-deposits">More about diamond deposits&nbsp;</h2>



Diamond deposits are where <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-diamonds-may-hold-the-key-to-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diamonds</a> can be found in the Earth's crust. The vast majority of natural diamonds are found in kimberlite pipes, which are volcanic in origin. These pipes originate deep in the Earth's mantle, over 100 miles below the surface, where the pressure and temperature conditions are right for diamond formation. 



The pipes then burst through to the surface in violent eruptions, bringing diamonds with them. These deposits are mined in many parts of the world, with the most significant sources being in Russia, Botswana, Canada, Australia, and South Africa.



Another form of diamond deposit is called an alluvial deposit. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revolutionary-process-turns-carbon-emissions-into-diamonds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diamonds</a> are found in riverbeds and along the coast where rivers meet the sea. They originate from kimberlite pipes, but over millions of years, they've been eroded out of the pipes and transported by water to their current location. 



Alluvial diamonds are often of very high quality because the process of erosion tends to destroy lower-quality stones. Alluvial diamond deposits are found in several places, including Brazil, Venezuela, and Namibia.



Finally, there are also <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/diamonds-have-the-potential-to-conduct-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diamond</a> deposits in certain types of meteorites known as ureilites. These diamonds were likely formed by high-velocity impacts in space, though their exact origin is still a subject of scientific study.



The process of mining diamonds has significant environmental and social impacts, and many diamonds are sold on the global market under strict protocols intended to prevent the sale of "blood diamonds" that finance conflict. 



These protocols include the Kimberley Process, which is an international certification scheme to prevent the trade in conflict diamonds. However, these protocols have been criticized for their effectiveness and for not addressing broader social and environmental issues associated with diamond mining.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Mystery of how diamonds reach the Earth’s surface finally solved

Diamonds form under great pressures in the depths of the...

Scientists have discovered that bees and wasps have independently developed remarkably similar architectural techniques, despite their diverse evolutionary backgrounds and the distinct materials they use for construction.&nbsp;



The two species share a common practice: the creation of hexagonal cells. But what's even more intriguing is their consistent approach to solve a complex building challenge that arises when a perfect hexagonal structure can't be achieved.



Similar to how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activities-threaten-australian-tiger-sharks/">sharks</a> and whales have developed analogous body structures to adapt to their aquatic environments, bees and wasps construct hexagonal cells for their nests. This configuration offers an optimal balance of strength and storage area while reducing the need for construction materials.&nbsp;



However, bees and wasps can't always build a perfect hexagonal cell. This is especially true when both species need to accommodate differently-sized hexagons within a single comb sheet.



<h2 id="h-studying-bees-and-wasps">Studying bees and wasps</h2>



Certain honey bee and wasp species construct two distinct hexagon sizes: smaller cells house workers, while the larger ones accommodate drones and queens. This discrepancy in cell sizes brings forth a significant architectural issue. How can these two different-sized hexagons fit seamlessly within a single comb sheet?



To investigate, researchers gathered nest images from around the world that portrayed both worker and reproductive cells within the same comb. The team was led by Dr. Michael L. Smith, assistant professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at <a href="https://www.auburn.edu/">Auburn University</a> and affiliate member of the Max Planck Institute for Animal Behavior.



Applying custom-built software, the experts meticulously extracted per-cell measurements from an impressive number of cells, reaching 22,745.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The study revealed that in species like Metapolybia mesoamerica, there was no architectural conundrum to unravel. Both worker and reproductive cells were identically sized. By contrast, species like Apis andreniformis presented a significant challenge, with reproductive cells being up to 2.7 times larger than worker cells.



Through this investigation across ten species, Smith and his team found a common pattern: as the discrepancy between worker and reproductive cells grew, the insects began to construct non-hexagonal cells. These were mainly 5- and 7-sided cells built in pairs, with the 5-sided cell created on the worker side, and the 7-sided cell on the reproductive side.&nbsp;



The pattern appeared across all bee and wasp species that had to deal with cell size variation. This observation was fascinating, given these insects' renowned affinity for hexagonal structures.



<h2 id="h-bees-and-wasps-came-to-the-same-conclusion">Bees and wasps came to the same conclusion&nbsp;</h2>



The team developed a mathematical model that predicts the number of non-hexagonal cells to incorporate, building upon their findings on the cell-size difference.



The researchers found that some species consistently outperformed the model's expectations by incorporating intermediate-sized cells into the transition region, reducing the need for non-hexagonal cells.



Despite an evolutionary separation of over 179 million years, bees and wasps appear to have independently arrived at the same architectural solution to handle this scalable issue. Even with distinct building materials and the independent origins of hexagonal cells, they all adopt the same constructional approach.



<h2 id="h-striking-results">Striking results</h2>



"Once we were able to plot out all the data, the results were striking – you could see how the bees and wasps used intermediate-sized cells to make a gradual change, but also how consistently the non-hexagonal cells were arranged in the comb,” said Dr. Smith.



This study contributes to our understanding of how collective systems can build adaptive and resilient structures without centralized control. The construction of these combs doesn't rely on a single "architect." Instead, hundreds, or even thousands, of individual bees and wasps contribute to the final product.



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3002211">PLOS Biology</a>, was supported by the National Science Foundation, the German Research Foundation, a Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering, and GETTYLABS.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bee-nests">More about bee nests</h2>



Bee nests are fascinating structures that bees build to house their colonies. They are intricate and efficient systems built for both the protection and nurturing of the hive's members. Here's a closer look at some of the features of bee nests:



<h3 id="h-material">Material</h3>



Bees use wax, which they produce from glands in their abdomen, to build their nests. The most well-known structure inside a bee nest is the honeycomb, composed of hexagonal cells made of beeswax.



<h3 id="h-honeycombs">Honeycombs</h3>



Honeycombs are a marvel of natural engineering. Each cell in a honeycomb is a perfect hexagon, a shape that allows for the most efficient use of space with the least amount of building material. Bees use the cells for a variety of purposes, such as storing honey and pollen, and raising their young.



<h3 id="h-organization">Organization</h3>



Bee nests are highly organized structures. There are cells for worker bees, queen bees, and drones. The size and position of these cells differ based on their purpose. Worker bee cells are usually smaller, while queen cells are larger and often positioned at the bottom or edge of the comb.



<h3 id="h-temperature-control">Temperature control</h3>



Bee nests also have a remarkable system for temperature control. Worker bees control the temperature inside the hive by either fanning their wings to cool it down, or huddling together to generate heat.



<h3 id="h-protection">Protection</h3>



Bee nests are designed with protection in mind. They often have a single entrance which makes it easier for the bees to defend against predators and intruders.



<h3 id="h-location">Location</h3>



Depending on the species, bees build their nests in various locations. Some prefer hollow trees or cavities in rocks, while others may build in the ground. Some bee species even build their nests in human-made structures.



Each species of bee has its unique way of constructing and organizing its nest, and studying these methods gives scientists insight into their complex social structures and behaviors.



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Bees and wasps use the same nest-building tricks despite independent evolution

Scientists have discovered that bees and wasps have independently developed...

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A team of astronomers led by the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) has found that with the development of next generation telescopes, scientists could observe weather phenomena on distant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-class-of-exoplanets-discovered/">exoplanets</a>, and thus shed new light on the possibility of extraterrestrial life.



High-powered astronomical observatories such as the&nbsp;<a href="https://elt.eso.org/">Extremely Large Telescope (ELT)</a>,&nbsp;the <a href="https://giantmagellan.org/">Giant Magellan Telescope (GMT)</a>, and&nbsp;the <a href="https://www.tmt.org/">Thirty Meter Telescope</a> (TMT) will be the largest ground-based telescopes ever constructed and will likely exceed the capabilities of the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST).



“Learning about the atmospheres of other objects outside our solar system not only informs us how Earth’s atmosphere may behave but allows scientists to scale those concepts to study potentially habitable planets,” explained lead author Michael Plummer, a graduate student in Astronomy at OSU.



<h2 id="h-measuring-cosmic-objects">Measuring cosmic objects&nbsp;</h2>



According to the researchers, data collected with these next generation telescopes will allow astronomers to use Doppler imaging – a groundbreaking technique that can recreate 2D maps of an object’s surface – to accurately measure the magnetism and chemistry of ultracool cosmic objects with temperatures below 2700 K. This category includes brown dwarfs (BDs), very low-mass stars (VLMs), or even some exoplanets.



Since the existence of magnetic fields is necessary to support life on a planet, particularly in smaller star systems, the ability to detect their presence is crucial for assessing whether a planet could be habitable or not.&nbsp;



To simulate and infer the presence of surface discrepancies such as magnetic star spots, cloud systems, and other atmospheric phenomena like hurricanes, the experts previously developed a publicly available analytical code named “<a href="https://github.com/mkplummer/Imber">Imber</a>.”



<h2 id="h-capabilities-of-next-generation-telescopes">Capabilities of next generation telescopes&nbsp;</h2>



In the current study, the experts used this technique to estimate the scientific capabilities of various ELTs’ instruments - the&nbsp;GMT’s Consortium Large Earth Finder (GMT/GCLEF),&nbsp;the&nbsp;ELT’s Mid-Infrared ELT Imager and Spectrograph (ELT/METIS)&nbsp;and the&nbsp;TMT’s Multi-Objective Diffraction-limited High-Resolution Infrared Spectrograph (MODHIS) - to detect surface variations on six cosmic objects.&nbsp;



These objects included the star of&nbsp;<a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/trappist1/">Trappist-1</a>, a well-known seven-planet system located approximately 40 light-years from Earth, two brown dwarfs, and three exoplanets.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



The analysis revealed that, although discerning star spots on Trappist-1 was difficult for all three instruments due to its edge-on inclination (i.e. the fact that its orbit is parallel to the rest of the sky), both next generation telescopes ELT and TMT could provide high-resolution observations of the brown dwarfs and exoplanets during a single rotation. 



By contrast, GMT’s instruments required multiple rounds of observations to identify surface irregularities on the exoplanets.



According to Plummer, their technique already garnered interest from astronomers aiming to identify or confirm planetary bodies using the <a href="https://exoplanets.nasa.gov/resources/2285/radial-velocity/">radial velocity method</a>, a way of discovering exoplanets by identifying the slight gravitational effect cosmic objects have on the stars they orbit.



“The more we learn about other similar planets to Earth, the more those discoveries should inform Earth science itself. Our work is particularly well-suited to help make those real-world observations,” Plummer concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4357/accd5d">Astrophysical Journal</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-habitable-planets">More about habitable planets</h2>



Many exoplanets are located in what scientists refer to as the "habitable zone" or "Goldilocks zone" around their host stars. This is the region around a star where conditions might be just right - not too hot and not too cold - for liquid water to exist on the surface of a planet, which is a key ingredient for life as we know it.



Some of the most notable potentially habitable exoplanets include:



<h3 id="h-proxima-centauri-b">Proxima Centauri b</h3>



This exoplanet orbits the star Proxima Centauri, which is the closest star to our sun at approximately 4.24 light years away. Proxima Centauri b is located within the habitable zone of its star and may have conditions suitable for liquid water. However, the star it orbits is a red dwarf, which are known to produce harsh solar flares that could hinder life.



<h3 id="h-kepler-22b">Kepler-22b</h3>



This was the first exoplanet discovered by the Kepler Space Telescope that was located within the habitable zone of its star. Kepler-22b is about 2.4 times the size of Earth and orbits a star similar to our own, although slightly cooler.



<h3 id="h-teegarden-s-star-b-and-c">Teegarden's Star b and c</h3>



These two exoplanets orbit Teegarden's Star, a red dwarf only 12 light-years away from us. They're both near-Earth size and are located within their star's habitable zone.



<h3 id="h-trappist-1-system">TRAPPIST-1 system</h3>



This is one of the most exciting discoveries, as this system contains seven Earth-sized planets, at least three of which are located in the habitable zone of the star. TRAPPIST-1 is a red dwarf star located about 40 light-years away.



It's important to remember that being within the habitable zone doesn't guarantee a planet is actually habitable. Many other factors, such as the planet's atmosphere, magnetic field, geology, and more, also play a crucial role in its potential habitability.



—--



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Next generation telescopes can detect signs of life on habitable planets

A team of astronomers led by the Ohio State University...

Climate change isn't just raising sea levels and increasing the frequency of extreme weather events. It's also threatening to unleash potentially devastating pathogens from melting permafrost and ice that have been trapped for thousands of years.



With the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-lakes-are-vanishing-due-to-permafrost-thaw/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">permafrost</a> melting at an alarming rate, these ancient, 'time-traveling' pathogens could pose a significant risk to the global environment and even humanity.



Melting permafrost and glaciers could bring back many forms of dormant pathogens. The specific extent of harm they could inflict on contemporary ecosystems remains largely unknown.



<h2 id="h-how-to-study-time-traveling-pathogens">How to study time traveling pathogens</h2>



However, new research from Dr. Giovanni Strona of the <a href="https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/index_en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Commission Joint Research Centre</a> and Professor Corey Bradshaw, the Matthew Flinders Professor of Global Ecology at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a> in Australia, provides a sobering glimpse into what the future could hold.



Their research, published today in the open-access journal <a href="http://doi.org/10.1771/journal.pcbi.1011268">PLOS Computational Biology</a>, is the first of its kind to calculate the ecological risks posed by the release of these ancient microbes. They utilized a digital platform to simulate how pathogens from the past might interact with modern bacterial communities.



In this eye-opening study, Strona and Bradshaw carried out simulated experiments in which they released digital replicas of <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/melting-ice-and-permafrost_Giovanni-Strona_1medium-scaled.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancient pathogens</a> into host communities akin to bacterial colonies. They then compared the effect of these invasions on the bacterial diversity to the results in similar communities that did not allow invasions.



<h2>What the research team found</h2>



What they found was a testament to the resilience and adaptability of these ancient pathogens. In many of the simulations, the ancient pathogens not only survived in the modern environment but also evolved. Remarkably, about 3% of these pathogens became dominant in their new environment.



The findings became more startling when around 1% of the invading pathogens caused unpredictable outcomes. Some of these pathogens wiped out up to a third of the host species. Other pathogens increased diversity by up to 12% compared to the control simulations that did not allow pathogenic invasions.



While the risk posed by this 1% may seem insignificant at first glance, considering the vast number of ancient microbes being continuously released into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restoring-coastal-ecosystems-can-mitigate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modern ecosystems</a>, these events represent a tangible threat.



<h2>Great concern about time-traveling pathogens</h2>



Strona remarked, "The scientific debate on the topic has been dominated by speculation, due to the challenges in collecting data or designing experiments to elaborate and test hypotheses. For the first time, we provide an extensive analysis of the risk posed to modern ecological communities by these 'time-travelling' pathogens through advanced computer simulations."



"Our findings suggest that threats so far confined to science fiction could in reality pose serious risk as powerful drivers of ecological damage," he added, expressing concern over the unpredictable nature of these ancient pathogens.



Professor Bradshaw also emphasized the importance of their findings, stating, "Our results are worrisome, because they point to an actual risk deriving from the rare events where pathogens currently trapped in the melting permafrost and ice produce severe ecological impacts."



He also warned about the potential for irreversible damage caused by the invasion of these 'black swan' pathogens. "In the worst, but still entirely plausible case, the invasion of a single ancient pathogen reduced the size of its host community by 30% when compared to our non-invasive controls."



<h2>Humanity must act now to halt melting permafrost</h2>



He urged society to recognize the potential risk associated with the release of these ancient microbes.



"As a society, we need to understand the potential risk posed by these ancient microbes so we can prepare for any unintended consequences of their release into the modern world. The results tell us that the risk is no longer simply a fantasy that we shouldn't be prepared to defend against."



The tool used for these simulations was Avida, an artificial-life software platform developed by <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a>. This allowed the researchers to build and test the simulated release of digital pathogens into biological communities.



While this study calls for more research, it underscores the potentially dire consequences of climate change that extend beyond rising temperatures and extreme weather.



As we continue to grapple with the complexities of our changing climate, understanding the hidden threats lurking in the ancient ice is becoming increasingly urgent.



<h2>More about permafrost</h2>



Permafrost, a crucial component of the Earth's cryosphere, refers to the permanently frozen ground found primarily in the polar regions.



<h3>Definition</h3>



Permafrost is soil, rock, or sediment that remains at or below the freezing point of water (0°C or 32°F) for two or more consecutive years. It consists of an active layer on top that undergoes seasonal thawing and a permanently frozen layer underneath.



<h3>Formation and structure</h3>



Permafrost forms when the temperature of the ground drops below the freezing point of water for long enough to solidify the soil or rock. Its thickness can vary from less than a meter to more than 1,500 meters. As the planet warms, the permafrost melts.



The structure of permafrost consists of two primary layers. The top layer, known as the "active layer," thaws during the warmer summer months and freezes again in the colder winter months. Beneath this active layer lies the "permafrost layer," which remains frozen year-round.



<h3>Distribution</h3>



Permafrost is predominantly found in the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere, including large sections of Siberia, Alaska, Canada, and Scandinavia. It also occurs in the Southern Hemisphere, notably in parts of Antarctica. It can be found in high-altitude areas like the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-carbon-fuels-glacial-loss-on-the-tibetan-plateau/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tibetan Plateau</a> and the Andes as well.



<h3>Ecological role</h3>



Permafrost plays a vital role in the global carbon cycle. It contains a significant amount of organic material, including dead plants and animals, trapped and preserved within the ice. 



Because of its frozen state, the organic material in permafrost does not decompose and thus stores vast amounts of carbon. Scientists estimate that permafrost contains twice as much carbon as is currently present in the atmosphere.



<h3>Thawing permafrost and climate change</h3>



Rising global temperatures due to climate change are causing permafrost to melt at an increasing rate. This thawing poses serious ecological and environmental concerns. 



When permafrost thaws, the organic material it contains begins to decompose. This releases greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. This release exacerbates global warming in a positive feedback loop known as the "permafrost carbon feedback."



Thawing permafrost also impacts local ecosystems and human infrastructure. As the ground melts and becomes less stable, buildings, roads, and pipelines can collapse, posing significant challenges in Arctic communities.



In summary, permafrost is an essential element of the Earth's cryosphere. It plays a critical role in maintaining global climate and serving as a significant carbon sink. 



However, the ongoing threat of climate change and the resultant thawing of permafrost present substantial ecological, environmental, and societal challenges. Scientists continue to study permafrost to better understand its dynamics and the potential impacts of its thawing.



---



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Time-traveling pathogens from melting permafrost pose great risk to the Earth

Climate change isn't just raising sea levels and increasing the...

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A new study involving over 700,000 U.S. veterans indicates that by embracing eight healthy lifestyle habits by middle age, individuals could potentially add decades to their lives compared to those with few or none of these habits. The research offers compelling evidence that our daily lifestyle habits can significantly influence our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-quality-sleep-increases-life-expectancy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">life expectancy</a>.&nbsp;



The eight habits are: being physically active, being free from opioid addiction, not smoking, managing stress, adopting a healthy diet, not habitually binge drinking, maintaining good sleep, and having positive social relationships.



<h2 id="h-decades-of-life-from-a-healthy-lifestyle">Decades of life from a healthy lifestyle</h2>



The study estimates that men who adhere to all eight habits by the age of 40 could anticipate living an average of 24 years longer than men without these habits. 



For women, the presence of all eight healthy lifestyle habits during middle age was linked with an estimated increase of 21 years in life expectancy compared to women lacking these habits.



Xuan-Mai T. Nguyen, a health science specialist at the Department of Veterans Affairs, expressed surprise at the extent of the potential benefits associated with lifestyle habits.&nbsp;



“We were really surprised by just how much could be gained with the adoption of one, two, three, or all eight lifestyle factors,” Nguyen explained. 



“Our research findings suggest that adopting a healthy lifestyle is important for both public health and personal wellness. The earlier the better, but even if you only make a small change in your 40s, 50s, or 60s, it still is beneficial.”



Nguyen will present these groundbreaking findings at <a href="https://nutrition.org/n23/">NUTRITION 2023</a>, the premier annual meeting of the <a href="https://nutrition.org/">American Society for Nutrition</a>, taking place July 22–25 in Boston.



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



For the investigation, the researchers analyzed data obtained from medical records and questionnaires collected from 2011 to 2019, involving 719,147 participants from the Veterans Affairs Million Veteran Program.&nbsp;



This large-scale, nationally representative study included adults aged 40 to 99 and accounted for 33,375 deaths during its follow-up period.



<h2 id="h-bad-lifestyle-habits">Bad lifestyle habits</h2>



Significantly, the analysis revealed that certain lifestyle habits had a profound impact on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-a-link-between-eye-health-and-lifespan/">lifespan</a>. Low physical activity, opioid use, and smoking posed the greatest risks, each associated with a roughly 30-45% higher risk of death during the study period.&nbsp;



Meanwhile, lifestyle factors such as chronic stress, binge drinking, poor diet, and inadequate sleep hygiene were each linked with approximately a 20% increase in the risk of death. The lack of positive social relationships correlated with a 5% increased risk of death.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



The findings emphasize the critical role that lifestyle factors play in contributing to chronic diseases like type 2 diabetes and heart disease, conditions which often lead to premature disability and death. 



Moreover, the results help quantify the extent to which healthy lifestyle choices can mitigate the risk of such diseases and promote longevity.



"Lifestyle medicine is aimed at treating the underlying causes of chronic diseases rather than their symptoms," said Nguyen, adding that it provides a potential pathway to curtail the escalating healthcare costs generated by prescription medicine and surgical procedures.



The estimated extension in life expectancy from adopting the eight healthy lifestyle habits slightly decreased with age but remained statistically significant. Thus, even older individuals could potentially benefit from adopting healthier habits. “It is never too late to adopt a healthy lifestyle,” said Nguyen.



<h2 id="h-more-about-healthy-lifestyle-habits">More about healthy lifestyle habits&nbsp;</h2>



Healthy lifestyle habits can encompass many different areas of life, and adopting them can significantly improve your health and well-being. Here are some you might consider:



<h3 id="h-balanced-diet">Balanced diet</h3>



Eat a balanced, nutritious diet that is rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats. Avoid processed foods and limit your intake of sugar, sodium, and saturated fats.



<h3 id="h-physical-activity">Physical activity</h3>



Get at least 30 minutes of moderate to intense exercise most days of the week. This could be anything from brisk walking to running, cycling, swimming, weight training, or team sports.



<h3 id="h-adequate-sleep">Adequate sleep</h3>



Aim for 7-9 hours of sleep per night. Good sleep is essential for your body to heal and rejuvenate, and lack of sleep can lead to a number of health problems.



<h3 id="h-regular-check-ups">Regular check-ups</h3>



Regular medical check-ups can help catch potential health issues early. Be sure to schedule regular check-ups with your healthcare provider.



<h3 id="h-lifestyle-habits-and-hydration">Lifestyle habits and hydration</h3>



Drink plenty of water throughout the day to stay hydrated. The exact amount you need can depend on your size, activity level, and the climate you live in. However, a general rule is to drink at least 8 glasses of water per day.



<h3 id="h-stress-management">Stress management</h3>



Learn how to manage stress effectively. This could involve practicing mindfulness or meditation, taking time for relaxation and leisure activities, or seeking professional help if needed.



<h3 id="h-healthy-lifestyle-means-no-smoking">Healthy lifestyle means no smoking</h3>



Avoid smoking and limit your consumption of alcohol. Both of these can lead to serious health problems.



<h3 id="h-healthy-weight">Healthy weight</h3>



Maintain a healthy weight. Being overweight can increase your risk of various health conditions, including heart disease, diabetes, and certain types of cancer.



<h3 id="h-mental-health">Mental health</h3>



Pay attention to your mental health. If you're feeling depressed, anxious, or overwhelmed, don't hesitate to seek help from a mental health professional.



<h3 id="h-limit-screen-time">Limit screen time</h3>



Too much time in front of screens (TV, computer, smartphone, etc.) can lead to health issues. These include eye strain, poor sleep, and a sedentary lifestyle. Set limits for yourself and make sure to take breaks regularly.



<h3 id="h-strong-social-connections">Strong social connections</h3>



Maintain strong social connections. Social isolation can negatively impact both your physical and mental health. Make an effort to stay connected with friends and family.



—-



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Eight lifestyle habits proven to extend your life by decades

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"Fairy circles” are a fascinating natural phenomenon found in the Namib Desert and some other arid regions in southern Africa, such as parts of South Africa and Angola. They are circular patches of barren soil surrounded by a ring of lush grass or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegetation-impacts-energy-movement-in-the-arctic/">vegetation</a>.&nbsp;



The barren patches can range from a few feet to as much as 65 feet (20 meters) in diameter. From above, you can view them best, where their intricate patterns become more apparent.



The name originates from local folklore, which suggests that these circles are the footprints of the gods or fairies who dance in the desert. However, the true scientific explanation for their formation has been a subject of research and debate for over a decade.&nbsp;



Several ecosystem modelers have argued that the circles are caused by self-regulation of the grasses. However, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.uni-hamburg.de/en.html">University of Hamburg</a> has recently found evidence that the circles in fact emerge from termite activity.



<h2 id="h-different-theories-about-fairy-circles">Different theories about fairy circles</h2>



A prominent theory explaining the circles was put forward by researchers from the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/1.html">University of Göttingen</a>. They argued that the grass plants' self-organization causes the bare patches. These plants draw water unevenly to themselves with their roots and through extensive diffusion in the sandy soils. This leads to the death of grasses in the bare patches.&nbsp;



According to this theory, the grasses surrounding these patches cause the evidence of desiccation found beneath the fairy circles at a depth of about 20 centimeters through fast horizontal water sucking.



However, as early as 2013, the University of Hamburg botanist Norbert Jürgens proposed a different theory. He argued that activity of subterranean <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termite-mounds-could-inspire-living-and-breathing-buildings/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sand termites</a> of the genus&nbsp;Psammotermes is causing the bare patches. 



By eliminating the plants in the sandy soils, they enable long-lasting storage of water after infrequent rainfall. In the current study, Jürgens and his colleagues have proven the presence of sand termites on over 1,700 fairy circles in <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/dust-blows-off-the-coast-of-namibia-over-the-atlantic-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Namibia</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/cloud-gravity-waves-off-coast-angola/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Angola</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/south-africa-turbulent-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South Africa</a>.



<h2 id="h-self-regulation-theory-ruled-out">Self-regulation theory ruled out</h2>



“Of even greater significance is that the analysis of my colleague Gröngröft and the measurements of the hydrological properties of the desert sand carried out in the laboratory invalidate the crucial foundations of the assumption of self-regulation,” Jürgens explained.&nbsp;



“The water conductivity of the coarse-grained sand of the fairy circles, in which the termites live, is indeed very high when a lot of water is present during a heavy rain event, which can then quickly seep away in the large pores."



"However, the situation is completely different when the sand has released the easily movable water into the depths and has dried out to less than about eight percent of the soil volume. Then water is only stored at the points of contact between the sand grains. At this point, a continuous film of water is missing and the soil’s ability to conduct water drops to very low levels. This means that at the levels of moisture found below fairy circles (≤5 percent by volume), very little liquid water transport can take place over short distances.”



According to the experts, the horizontal water transports over meters in just a few days assumed by the representatives of the self-regulation theory are physically impossible.&nbsp;



“The soil moisture measurements on the fairy circles and the soil hydraulic properties of the sand found in the laboratory thus rule out the self-regulation hypothesis as an explanation for the fairy circles. The cause for the formation of the fairy circles is thus clear. It is the sand termites that secure a considerable survival advantage through soil moisture storage,” Jürgens concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-fairy-circles">More about fairy circles&nbsp;</h2>



Fairy circles are a fascinating natural phenomenon. They exist primarily in the arid grasslands of the African continent, specifically in the Namib Desert. This area spans between Namibia and Angola's southern parts, even reaching into South Africa's northern Cape. 



A significant amount of scientific interest and local lore surrounds these peculiar patches of barren land amidst otherwise verdant grassland expanses.



<h3>Physical characteristics and distribution</h3>



These unique patterns, often described as "bald spots," range from 2 to 15 meters in diameter. Each circle encompasses a barren, compacted patch of soil encircled by a ring of tall, lush grass. They tend to occur in regions experiencing mean annual precipitation of 100-150mm, which primarily consist of grasslands.



The distribution of these fairy circles exhibits a remarkable degree of regularity, often appearing in vast hexagonal or honeycomb formations. This intriguing spatial arrangement is an example of natural self-organization, a process observed in numerous other natural phenomena.



<h3>Formation hypotheses</h3>



Despite extensive research, the exact cause behind the formation of fairy circles remains a subject of ongoing debate among scientists. Two primary hypotheses exist: the termite hypothesis and the self-organization hypothesis.



<h4>Fairy circles formed by termites</h4>



This theory posits that termites, especially the species Psammotermes allocerus, engineer these circles. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/family-of-termites-has-been-adrift-at-sea-for-50-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Termites consume plant roots</a>, leading to the death of the vegetation and subsequent formation of barren patches. The ring of enhanced grass growth surrounding the circle is a result of termites' subterranean activities, which increase soil nutrients and water availability.



<h4>Fairy circles are self-organized</h4>



This hypothesis suggests that fairy circles are the outcome of competition for scarce water resources among grass plants in these arid environments. The theory suggests that the dying off of vegetation at the circle's center helps promote the growth of the peripheral grass by reducing water competition.



Both hypotheses offer compelling arguments. The current scientific consensus is that a combination of biotic and abiotic factors likely contributes to fairy circle formation.



<h3>Ecological significance of fairy circles</h3>



Fairy circles play a crucial role in the ecology of arid grasslands, serving as miniature oases. During periods of drought, the circles trap water. 



This nourishes the surrounding vegetation and creates a habitat for various small organisms. This functionality underlines their ecological importance, contributing to biodiversity in these regions.



<h3>Cultural significance</h3>



Fairy circles hold considerable cultural significance among local communities. These formations associate with various myths and folklore.



Some believe that these are footprints of gods, while others perceive them as the result of dragon's breath. These cultural narratives add to the mystique of fairy circles and have a role in local tourism.



In summary, the mystery of fairy circles in Africa continues to inspire scientific research and cultural fascination. Understanding these unique natural phenomena provides essential insights into ecological dynamics and self-organization processes in nature. 



As we uncover more about the fairy circles, we illuminate not only the intricacies of African grasslands but also broader themes of resilience and adaptation in ecology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ppees.2023.125745">Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics</a>.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Mystery of the "Fairy circles" may finally be solved

"Fairy circles” are a fascinating natural phenomenon found in the...

Mountains,And,Permafrost

Scientists are warning of an increasing threat to our environment and potentially human health, due to the emergence of "time-traveling" pathogens released from melting permafrost.&nbsp;



The research suggests that ancient viruses and bacteria, long trapped in ice, could break free to wreak havoc on our modern ecosystems.&nbsp;



The study, led by Giovanni Strona of the <a href="https://commission.europa.eu/about-european-commission/departments-and-executive-agencies/joint-research-centre_en">European Commission Joint Research Centre</a>, serves as yet another stark reminder of the potentially catastrophic consequences of a warming world.



<h2 id="h-quantifying-the-risks-of-melting-permafrost">Quantifying the risks of melting permafrost</h2>



The concept that these age-old pathogens could re-emerge due to thawing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/himalayan-glaciers-retreating-threat-is-much-worse-than-previously-believed/">glaciers</a> and permafrost isn't new. However, the actual extent of the threat these microbes could pose to our health and the environment has remained largely speculative until now.



"Permafrost thawing and the potential ‘lab leak’ of ancient microorganisms generate risks of biological invasions for today’s ecological communities, including threats to human health via exposure to emergent pathogens," wrote the researchers.



"Whether and how such ‘time-traveling’ invaders could establish in modern communities is unclear, and existing data are too scarce to test hypotheses."



The team has attempted to quantify these potential risks, utilizing sophisticated digital simulations to emulate the interactions between ancient microbes and modern bacterial communities.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-studying-time-traveling-pathogens">Studying time-traveling pathogens</h2>



The researchers conducted a series of artificial evolution experiments in which digital constructs, representing virus-like pathogens from epochs past, invaded simulated communities of bacteria-like hosts.



The effects of these invading pathogens on the host bacteria's diversity were then compared against control simulations where no such invasions took place. The findings were both intriguing and alarming.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



It turns out that in these virtual experiments, many of the ancient pathogens managed to survive and evolve within the modern bacterial communities. Overall, approximately three percent of these invaders survived, evolved, and became dominant within their new environments.&nbsp;



Although the majority of these dominant invaders had negligible effects on the overall composition of the wider community, about one percent of them generated unpredictable and significant outcomes.



Some of these outcomes included causing up to one-third of the host species to die out, while others unexpectedly increased diversity by up to 12 percent compared to the control simulations.



<h2 id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



Despite the seemingly small percentage of these destructive invaders, the study warns that due to the vast number of ancient microbes being released regularly into modern communities, the potential risks could still be substantial.&nbsp;



What was once confined to the realm of science fiction - the resurgence of time-traveling pathogens - could indeed pose significant threats to human health and act as potent catalysts of ecological change.



Further research is needed to fully comprehend the scale and consequences of this threat. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1011268">PLOS Computational Biology</a>.



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-dangers-of-melting-permafrost">More about the dangers of melting permafrost&nbsp;</h2>



The melting of permafrost - permanently frozen ground that covers nearly a quarter of the Northern Hemisphere - presents one of the most significant yet underappreciated threats posed by climate change.&nbsp;



This phenomenon not only stands to release dangerous ancient pathogens, as the study by Giovanni Strona and his team suggests, but also has the potential to instigate a series of ecological and environmental crises.



<h3 id="h-release-of-greenhouse-gases">Release of greenhouse gases</h3>



Perhaps the most alarming threat from melting permafrost is the release of vast amounts of greenhouse gases, specifically carbon dioxide and methane. These gases have been locked in the frozen soil for thousands of years as part of plant and animal matter.&nbsp;



As the permafrost thaws, it provides an environment for bacteria to break down this organic matter, releasing these potent greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. This could further accelerate global warming, creating a feedback loop that results in even more permafrost thaw.



<h3 id="h-damage-to-infrastructure">Damage to infrastructure</h3>



Buildings, roads, pipelines, and other infrastructure built on permafrost are in danger of severe structural damage as the ground beneath them thaws and shifts. This presents significant logistical and financial challenges, especially in Arctic regions, where whole communities may have to relocate.



<h3 id="h-impact-on-wildlife">Impact on wildlife</h3>



The thawing permafrost significantly alters the habitats of many wildlife species, leading to disruptions in their feeding, mating, and migration patterns. This could have profound impacts on the biodiversity of these regions and trigger a cascade of changes throughout the ecosystem.



<h3 id="h-sea-level-rise">Sea level rise</h3>



Melting permafrost contributes to rising sea levels. This, in turn, can lead to coastal flooding, erosion, and the displacement of human and wildlife populations. It also has the potential to alter ocean currents and weather patterns, leading to far-reaching climatic effects.



<h3 id="h-release-of-toxic-mercury">Release of toxic mercury</h3>



A study published in 2018 found that permafrost soils are the largest reservoir of mercury, a potent neurotoxin, in the world. As permafrost melts, this mercury can be released into nearby rivers and oceans. From there, it impacts the aquatic ecosystems and enters the food chain, posing a significant risk to human health.



<h2>More about pathogens</h2>



Pathogens, infectious agents capable of causing disease or illness in their host organism, represent a broad group that includes various types of organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites. They contribute significantly to human, animal, and plant disease across the globe.



<h3>Classification of Pathogens</h3>



Pathogens divide into four primary classes: viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites.



<h4>Viruses</h4>



Viruses represent the smallest form of pathogens, measuring only a few nanometers in size. They cannot reproduce on their own; they require a host cell to replicate. 



Viruses consist of genetic material (DNA or RNA) encased within a protein shell, or capsid. They cause a range of diseases, such as influenza, HIV/AIDS, and COVID-19.



<h4>Bacteria</h4>



Bacteria represent single-celled organisms with a simple cellular organization. They reproduce independently, often through binary fission, which involves splitting into two daughter cells. 



Many bacteria perform crucial roles in various ecosystems, but some species cause diseases such as tuberculosis, pneumonia, and food poisoning.



<h4>Fungi</h4>



Fungi, another class of pathogens, include yeasts, molds, and mushrooms. They have a more complex cellular organization than bacteria. 



While most fungi are harmless or beneficial, some species can cause diseases, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Examples of fungal diseases include ringworm, athlete's foot, and candidiasis.



<h4>Parasites</h4>



Parasites live off other organisms, called hosts, to survive. They can be microscopic, such as the Plasmodium species that cause malaria, or larger organisms like tapeworms. Parasitic diseases also include toxoplasmosis and schistosomiasis.



<h3>Modes of transmission</h3>



Pathogens spread through various means. Direct contact, such as touching or kissing, can transfer pathogens. Airborne transmission occurs when pathogens are released into the air. This typically occurs through sneezing or coughing, and inhaled by a new host. 



Vector-borne transmission involves an intermediary organism, or vector. One example is a mosquito, which carries the pathogen from one host to another. Finally, pathogens can spread through contaminated water or food.



<h3>Pathogenicity and virulence</h3>



Pathogenicity refers to a pathogen's ability to cause disease, while virulence describes the degree of damage it can inflict. Pathogens display a range of virulence, from mild to severe. 



Factors affecting virulence include the pathogen's ability to enter the host, evade the host's immune system, and damage the host's cells.



<h3>Pathogens and the immune system</h3>



The immune system is the primary defense mechanism against pathogens. The immune response starts with physical barriers, such as skin and mucus membranes, which prevent pathogen entry. 



If a pathogen bypasses these defenses, the innate immune system responds with generalized defenses, including inflammation and fever. If these measures prove insufficient, the adaptive immune system provides a tailored response. This response creates specialized cells to fight the specific pathogen.



<h3>Treatment and prevention</h3>



Treatment of diseases caused by pathogens often involves antimicrobial drugs such as antibiotics, antivirals, antifungals, and anti-parasitics. However, the overuse or misuse of these drugs can lead to antimicrobial resistance, a growing global health concern.



Prevention strategies often focus on limiting the spread of pathogens. These measures can include hygiene practices, vaccination, and public health interventions like vector control and safe food handling procedures.



In summary, pathogens, despite their microscopic size, pose significant challenges to global health. Understanding their biology, transmission, and interactions with the immune system is crucial to developing effective treatments and preventative measures. 



With the rise of antimicrobial resistance, the need for continued research and innovative solutions is more critical than ever.



—-



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Melting permafrost poses multiple environmental dangers with unknown consequences

Scientists are warning of an increasing threat to our environment...

Parents often worry about their children's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-counteracts-negative-effects-of-sleep-deprivation/">sleep</a> - contemplating whether they're getting too little or too much. A research team from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA) has recently revealed insights that may alleviate some parental anxieties about their children's nap times.&nbsp;



The study offers an intriguing look into the world of infant sleep patterns. The findings help to clarify the relationship between sleep and early childhood learning.



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The research was focused on how the frequency and length of naps can mirror a child's cognitive development and needs.



The results suggest that the frequency of children's naps reflects their cognitive requirements. In other words, some infants consolidate information more efficiently during sleep, resulting in fewer naps, while others with smaller vocabularies and poorer cognitive skills may need more frequent napping.



<h2 id="h-no-need-to-worry-about-nap-times">No need to worry about nap times</h2>



Dr. Teodora Gliga, the lead researcher on the project, stresses that parental anxieties about their child's sleep patterns may be misplaced.&nbsp;



"Parents worry that their kids don't nap as much as expected for their age, or nap too frequently and for too long, but our research shows that how frequently a child naps reflects their individual cognitive need. Some are more efficient at consolidating information during sleep, so they nap less frequently."



Dr. Gliga also notes a correlation between cognitive function and nap frequency: "Children with smaller vocabularies or a lower score in a measure of executive function, nap more frequently."&nbsp;



She urges parents not to fret about this, but rather to allow the natural course to take its shape. "Young children will naturally nap for as long as they need and they should be allowed to do just that."



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The study observed the sleep habits of 463 infants aged between eight months and three years during the lockdown in 2020.&nbsp;



Parents were surveyed regarding their children's sleep patterns, their ability to focus on a task, keep information in their memory, and their linguistic capacity.&nbsp;



The survey also took into account the socio-economic status of the families, gathering data about their postcode, income, and education level. Furthermore, the experts considered the amount of screen time and outdoor activities the child was exposed to.



“Lockdown gave us an opportunity to study children’s intrinsic sleep needs because when children are in childcare, they rarely nap as much as they need to," said Dr. Gliga. “Because nurseries were closed, it meant less disturbance to the children’s natural sleep patterns. None of the children taking part were attending day care."



<h2 id="h-remarkable-insights">Remarkable insights</h2>



“What we found is that the structure of daytime sleep is an indicator of cognitive development. Infants with more frequent but shorter naps than expected for their age had smaller vocabularies, and worse cognitive function."



“We also found that this negative association between vocabulary and frequency of naps was stronger in older children."



Dr. Gliga noted that while the majority of parents said that their child’s sleep was unaffected by lockdown, parents from lower socio-economic backgrounds were more likely to report a worsening in sleep.



“Screen time increased during lockdown and outdoor activities decreased but these did not explain differences in children’s sleep," said Dr. Gliga.



<h2 id="h-children-need-their-natural-nap-times">Children need their natural nap times</h2>



“Previous work suggested that caregivers should encourage frequent naps, in pre-school children. Our findings suggest that children have different sleep needs - some children may drop naps earlier because they don’t need them anymore. Others may still need to nap past three years of age."



“In the UK, preschools enrolling three to five-year-olds have no provisions for napping. Caregivers should use a child’s mental age and not chronological age to ascertain a child’s sleep needs," said Dr. Gliga.



The study sheds a new light on the importance of respecting children's natural sleep patterns, underlining that the variance in nap times may be less about a problem and more about an individual's developmental needs.



The findings could have substantial implications for understanding infant development and may serve to guide future research in this area.&nbsp;



The UEA team collaborated with several other universities, including the University of Oxford, Oxford Brookes University, the University of Leeds, and the University of Warwick. Funding was granted by the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC).



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/26929384">JCPP Advances</a>.



—--



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Children's nap times can tell you about their brain development

Parents often worry about their children's sleep - contemplating whether...

In an unprecedented scientific breakthrough, researchers at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> have revealed the first-ever instance of genetically engineering virgin birth, also known as parthenogenesis, in an organism that typically reproduces sexually.&nbsp;



The study was focused on the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. The researchers demonstrated that the induced ability for parthenogenesis can be passed down through subsequent generations of female flies.



Most animals rely on sexual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-may-reduce-blue-whale-reproduction/">reproduction</a>, a process that involves fertilization of a female's egg by a male's sperm. By contrast, parthenogenesis allows an egg to evolve into an embryo without the need for sperm. This effectively eliminates the necessity for males in the reproductive equation. 



<h2 id="h-genetic-engineering">Genetic engineering </h2>



Dr. Alexis Sperling, a researcher at the University of Cambridge and the first author of the paper, explained the breakthrough: “We’re the first to show that you can engineer virgin births to happen in an animal - it was very exciting to see a virgin fly produce an embryo able to develop to adulthood, and then repeat the process.”&nbsp;



“In our genetically manipulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/non-biting-flies-pose-a-bigger-threat-to-public-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flies</a>, the females waited to find a male for half their lives - about 40 days - but then gave up and proceeded to have a virgin birth.”



The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.07.006">Current Biology</a>, highlights how only one to two percent of the second-generation female flies with the capability for parthenogenesis managed to produce offspring. This only occurred in the absence of males. If male flies were present, the females resorted to conventional sexual reproduction.



This ability to switch to parthenogenesis could act as a strategic survival tactic. For instance, a solitary generation of virgin births could potentially keep the species alive and flourishing.



<h2 id="h-conducting-the-virgin-birth-study">Conducting the virgin birth study </h2>



To investigate, the research team initially sequenced the genomes of two strains of Drosophila mercatorum, a separate species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drosophila-flies-prefer-to-lay-their-eggs-in-untouched-fruit/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruit fly</a>. One strain was dependent on males for reproduction, while the other exclusively used parthenogenesis. 



Through this process, the researchers were able to identify the genes that were activated or deactivated during fatherless reproduction.



Armed with the knowledge of potential virgin birth genes in Drosophila mercatorum, the team manipulated what they believed to be corresponding genes in Drosophila melanogaster. The experiment was successful - Drosophila melanogaster gained the ability to reproduce through parthenogenesis.



This monumental research spanned six years and involved more than 220,000 virgin fruit flies. One of the key factors contributing to this discovery was the researchers' choice to use Drosophila melanogaster. This species of fruit fly has been a model organism in genetic research for over a century due to its well-understood genes.



<h2 id="h-virgin-birth-among-insects">Virgin birth among insects</h2>



Dr. Sperling, who conducted this research in the Department of Genetics, has now shifted to the Cambridge Crop Science Centre, where she will focus on crop pests. She aims to delve deeper into the increasing frequency of virgin birth among insects, particularly in pest species.



“If there’s continued selection pressure for virgin births in insect pests, which there seems to be, it will eventually lead to them reproducing only in this way. It could become a real problem for agriculture because females produce only females, so their ability to spread doubles," said Dr. Sperling.



While virgin birth is a natural occurrence among certain egg-laying animals, such as birds, lizards, and snakes, it is relatively rare among animals that generally reproduce sexually. Zoo animals, particularly females isolated for extended periods with little hope of finding a mate, often exhibit parthenogenesis.



This research not only redefines the boundaries of our understanding of reproduction but also raises intriguing questions about the potential consequences of such genetic manipulation in the future.



<h2 id="h-more-about-virgin-birth">More about virgin birth</h2>



Parthenogenesis, commonly referred to as "virgin birth," is a form of asexual reproduction where growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization. The term comes from the Greek "parthenos," meaning "virgin," and "genesis," meaning "origin."



While parthenogenesis is quite rare in mammals, certain animal groups exhibit it more frequently. These include insects, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. 



The offspring produced through this method are usually female and genetically similar to the mother, but they are not exact clones. This is because the genetic material comes entirely from the mother, without any contribution from a male.



<h3 id="h-types-of-parthenogenesis">Types of parthenogenesis&nbsp;</h3>



There are several types of parthenogenesis. In "automixis," the egg cells undergo a kind of self-fertilization. Here, meiosis, the process that halves the number of chromosomes in the egg cell, is followed by a duplication or fusion of the genetic material, which restores the full complement of chromosomes. 



In "apomixis," on the other hand, the egg cell doesn't undergo meiosis, which means the offspring has the same genetic makeup as the mother.



<h3 id="h-survival-strategy">Survival strategy&nbsp;</h3>



The biological benefit of parthenogenesis is primarily related to survival. If females in a population are unable to find males to mate with, parthenogenesis allows the continuation of the species. This can occur in environments with low population density or situations where isolation affects the females.



However, sexual reproduction still offers the advantage of genetic diversity, which is critical for the long-term survival and adaptability of a species.



<h3 id="h-new-realm-of-possibilities">New realm of possibilities&nbsp;</h3>



The discovery of the ability to induce parthenogenesis artificially, such as in the case of the fruit flies mentioned earlier, opens a new realm of possibilities for scientific research.&nbsp;



For instance, understanding the genetics behind parthenogenesis might lead to advances in fertility treatments. But it also poses important ethical and ecological considerations, given the potential consequences of manipulating reproduction in this way.



—-



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For the first time, scientists have genetically engineered virgin births

In an unprecedented scientific breakthrough, researchers at the University of...

Spider,Web,,Photographed,At,Dawn

Despite their reputation as creepy critters, spiders actively serve as some of the most environmentally friendly pest regulators. Spiders actively feed on flies, moths, roaches, and mosquitoes and thus playing a critical role in eliminating parasites and various disease-vectors. 



According to a recent study led by the <a href="https://umd.edu/">University of Maryland</a> (UMD), a simple way to take advantage of these natural ecosystem services is to provide tree-dwelling spiders a more diverse habitat. 



“We found that there’s a strong link between the species diversity of tree habitats and the population density of the spiders that live in them,” said senior&nbsp;author Karin Burghardt, an assistant professor of Entomology at UMD.&nbsp;



“Spiders really like complex habitats, so having a large variety of tree species with different structural features like height, canopy cover, and foliage density will help increase spider abundance and also the natural pest regulation they provide.”



<h2 id="h-studying-the-role-of-tree-species">Studying the role of tree species </h2>



This recent study is part of a larger project called <a href="https://serc.si.edu/research/projects/biodiversitree">BiodiversiTREE</a>, led by the&nbsp;<a href="https://serc.si.edu/">Smithsonian Environmental Research Center</a>, and consisting of a series of large-scale, long-term experiments aiming to restore coastal forests along compromised shorelines of Chesapeake Bay by investigating the role of tree species diversity in forest responses to climate change, from the molecular to the watershed level.



“There have been some large-scale tree diversity experiments conducted in Europe and Asia, but our study is one of only a handful of experiments of its kind in temperate North America. With this research, we’re discovering crucial information about our local ecosystems, especially regarding how they react to both climate change and restoration efforts,” Burhardt explained.



<h2 id="h-how-scientists-studied-tree-species-and-spiders">How scientists studied tree species and spiders </h2>



The researchers reforested 75 plots of formerly agricultural land with 16 tree species native to Maryland, including red maple, white oak, and black gum trees. Each of these plots had an area of 35 square meters and contained 255 trees.&nbsp;



To examine how changes in tree diversity affect ecosystems, the scientists planted either the same tree species, four, or 12 different tree species on the plots.



From 2019 to 2021, the scientists repeatedly sampled 540 trees in these plots by counting the number of spiders from each tree.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned </h2>



Ultimately, the team discovered that plots with higher tree species diversity hosted greater <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiders-turn-to-cannibalism-when-food-sources-are-limited/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider populations</a>. For instance, researchers found that plots containing four or 12 different tree species supported 23 to 50 percent more spiders than plots with a single species.



“Plots with more variation in tree species tend to have more canopy cover than plots with only a single tree species,” Burghardt said. “More canopy cover and tree shade may mean more water retention, cooler temperatures, additional hiding spaces from predators, and better web-making environments for spiders - all features that influence spider distribution.”



Researchers found the strongest relationship between tree diversity and spider populations during the late summer months, when temperatures were at their highest.



“Spider development time and reproduction is strongly influenced by changes in temperature. In addition, the summer months are also when their prey, insect herbivores, are the most active. This means maintaining certain microclimate conditions is essential to helping to maintain spider population levels and their natural pest control services, which allow managers to minimize the use of toxic chemical pesticides,” Burghardt explained.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-tree-species-study">Implications of the tree species study</h2>



As global temperatures continue to rise to due climate change, the number of tree-feeding insect pests and occurrences of potentially deadly diseases transmitted by vectors such as mosquitoes or ticks are likely to also increase.&nbsp;



Thus, designing habitats that support spiders and other beneficial organisms could offer environmentally and economically sustainable ways to counteract this worrisome trend.



“Tree planting initiatives can be used as strategic responses to changes in our local ecosystems, but they can also be proactive maneuvers. Research like this will help us plan more resilient forests for the future,” Burghardt concluded.



<h2>More about spiders</h2>



Spiders are a large, diverse group of predatory arthropods belonging to the order Araneae within the class Arachnida. Scientists document over 48,000 different species of spiders, and regularly discover new species.



<h3>General description</h3>



Spiders exhibit significant variations in size and appearance. The smallest known species, the Patu digua, measures less than 0.37 millimeters in length, while the largest, the Goliath birdeater tarantula, can reach sizes up to 28 centimeters in leg span. 



Despite these variations, spiders share several key characteristics: they all possess eight legs, two main body sections (the cephalothorax and the abdomen), and fangs that inject venom. They also typically have eight eyes, although some species have fewer, and some cave-dwelling and parasitic spiders have none at all.



<h3>Web building spiders</h3>



Spiders are famously known for their ability to spin intricate webs from silk, a material produced in their abdominal silk glands. Different spiders create different types of webs, including the classic orb webs, funnel webs, cobwebs, and sheet webs. 



However, not all spiders weave webs. For instance, wolf spiders and jumping spiders prefer to actively hunt their prey rather than trapping it in a web.



<h3>Feeding and predation</h3>



The primary diet of spiders consists of insects and other small arthropods. Spiders employ various hunting strategies, such as trapping prey in their webs, ambushing prey, or actively hunting. 



Most spiders paralyze or kill their prey using venom delivered through their fangs. Afterward, they consume their meal by injecting digestive enzymes into the prey's body to liquefy its tissues, then sucking up the resulting fluid.



<h3>Reproduction and life cycle</h3>



The process of spider reproduction typically begins with a complex courtship ritual, which often involves the male demonstrating that he is a mate rather than prey. 



After successful mating, the female produces one or more egg sacs, which can contain hundreds to thousands of eggs. 



Spiderlings emerge as miniature versions of adults, and they gradually increase in size through a process known as molting.



<h3>Distribution and habitat</h3>



Spiders inhabit every continent except Antarctica and thrive in nearly every ecosystem, from the hottest deserts to the coldest mountain tops. They also adapt well to human environments, including homes and gardens.



<h3>Venom and spider bites</h3>



While all spiders produce venom, only a few species are dangerous to humans. Notable species include the brown recluse and the black widow in North America, and the Sydney funnel-web spider in Australia. 



Despite this, the vast majority of spider bites are harmless to humans, typically resulting in no more than a minor, temporary reaction.



<h3>Ecological importance</h3>



Spiders play a crucial role in the environment as predators of insects and other small arthropods, helping to control populations of these organisms. Their predatory activities benefit humans by reducing populations of pests that can damage crops and spread disease. 



In addition, the silk produced by spiders has a range of potential applications, from medical sutures to body armor materials, owing to its remarkable strength and elasticity.



In summary, spiders, while often misunderstood and feared, are an integral part of our planet's ecosystems. Their diversity, predatory efficiency, and silk production abilities make them a fascinating group of creatures worthy of study and respect. 



Through their ecological role and potential applications in medicine and materials science, spiders underscore the interconnectedness of life and the importance of biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4116">Ecology</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Natural pest control: Tree species diversity increases spider density

Despite their reputation as creepy critters, spiders actively serve as...

As the climate crisis accelerates, Canada is enduring its most devastating wildfire season to date. The situation paints a grim portrait of the potential impact of uncontrolled forest fires on climate change, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-air-quality-linked-to-cognitive-problems-in-infants/">air quality</a>, and biodiversity.



According to recent reports from the <a href="https://www.ciffc.ca/">Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre</a>, the country has witnessed an astonishing 4,774 fires since the beginning of the year until July 26.&nbsp;



The destruction cuts across more than 121,000 square kilometers, an area larger than South Korea. Notably, this is approximately 7.5 times the total area affected by forest fires in China over a span of two decades from 2000 to 2021.



<h2 id="h-carbon-dioxide-emissions">Carbon dioxide emissions&nbsp;</h2>



With the widespread fires comes an ominous cloud of carbon emissions. Researchers at the Institute of Applied Ecology (IAE) of the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> estimate that the Canadian fires have released one billion tons of carbon dioxide.&nbsp;



"The greenhouse gases emitted from these fires, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, have an undeniable impact on global climate warming, which has become a global environmental event," said Dr. LIU Zhihua, a renowned forest fire expert at IAE.



The escalating numbers were calculated using remote sensing technology, an effective approach for gauging carbon emissions from large-scale wildfires. With this method, carbon emission intensity is evaluated in conjunction with the area of land burned, as observed from satellite imagery.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-methane-and-nitrous-oxide">Methane and nitrous oxide</h2>



Factoring in the emissions of methane and nitrous oxide, which have a greenhouse effect equivalent to 110 million tons of carbon dioxide, the total greenhouse gas emissions from the ongoing Canadian fires is equivalent to approximately 1.11 billion tons of CO2.&nbsp;



A fraction of these wildfires, approximately one-eighth, has impacted permafrost areas, leading to the release of methane trapped in the frozen soil.



<h2 id="h-air-quality-impacts-of-canadian-fires">Air quality impacts of Canadian fires </h2>



Beyond the climate implications, the fires are precipitating a cascade of environmental and health repercussions. The flames have released an array of pollutants into the atmosphere, including particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), organic aerosols, and black carbon.&nbsp;



The wildfire smoke plumes have also crossed national borders during four periods this year - May 17-26, June 6-19, June 23-30, and July 15-20 - significantly deteriorating air quality in the United States.&nbsp;



For example, New York City experienced its worst air pollution since 1960 due to the second smoke episode. Meanwhile, Chicago's air quality index during the third episode exceeded standard levels by a staggering 5.6 times on June 27.



The pollutant particulates are also being swept across continents by the westerly winds, impacting regions as far off as Europe, North Africa, and Asia. During one such atmospheric transport event from June 27-30, PM2.5 levels in Europe increased by over 5 μg/m3. The transport also contributed 1-2 μg/m3 to PM2.5 concentrations in western China.



<h2 id="h-forest-destruction">Forest destruction </h2>



Furthermore, the wildfires are wreaking havoc on forest ecosystems. The uncontrolled flames rapidly consume vegetation, destroying habitats, and depleting food sources for wildlife. The aftermath of wildfires often exposes the soil surface, triggering secondary disasters like soil erosion, sediment runoff, and landslides.



These occurrences highlight how wildfires are no longer merely a traditional ecological disturbance but have morphed into an environmental catastrophe.&nbsp;



These severe forest fires deplete carbon reserves in the vegetation and soil, disrupt the natural succession of forests, and degrade ecosystems. The result is a shift from forests to shrubland or grassland, with a consequent reduction in the carbon sequestration capacity of the ecosystem.



The worsening wildfire situation is not exclusive to Canada. Recent years have seen the Amazon Rainforest burning over 90,000 square kilometers in just 10 months in 2019, and the Australian bushfires devouring more than 243,000 square kilometers in 2019-2020.&nbsp;



With the wildfire season in Canada typically lasting until October, there is a growing concern that the scale of the disaster could escalate further.



<h2 id="h-china-s-fire-prevention-strategy">China's fire prevention strategy&nbsp;</h2>



In the wake of these disastrous events, China, with its extensive forest area of approximately 2.31 million square kilometers (about two-thirds of Canada's forest area), has implemented a comprehensive strategy for forest fire prevention. The Chinese government has adhered to the policy of "Combining prevention and control, with prevention as the primary focus."&nbsp;



These collective efforts have considerably curtailed the occurrence of forest fires, mitigating the disaster losses and notably improving the nation's fire prevention and control capability.



In the past two decades, carbon dioxide emissions from forest fires in China have averaged about 15 million tons per year, constituting only about 0.2% of the CO2 emissions from global wildfires.



—-



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Canadian fires have released a billion tons of carbon dioxide

As the climate crisis accelerates, Canada is enduring its most...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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