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Scientists have long mapped separate brain areas for sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Yet new research reveals that when we focus sharply on any of those senses, signals converge on the same two structures buried deep in the brain - the midbrain reticular formation and the central thalamus.



This finding highlights a shared neural pathway that sustains <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-stops-paying-attention-to-repeated-distractions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attention</a> and wakefulness and could inspire therapies for coma, epilepsy, and attention-deficit disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-senses-in-a-single-brain-region">Senses in a single brain region</h2>



Research over the past century has shown that visual scenes activate the occipital cortex, melodies light up the temporal lobes, and so forth.



“We were expecting to find activity on shared networks, but when we saw all the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-sense-of-smell-and-different-odors-can-influence-how-we-see-colors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">senses</a> light up the same central brain regions while a test subject was focusing, it was really astonishing,” said Aya Khalaf, a postdoctoral associate in neurology at <a href="https://medicine.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale School of Medicine</a> and lead author of the study.



Those two regions - the reticular formation, a mesh of neurons in the upper brainstem, and the intralaminar and mediodorsal nuclei of the thalamus - form part of the so-called subcortical arousal system, a set of circuits long suspected to regulate alertness and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/consciousness-may-stem-from-unseen-dimensions-beyond-our-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">consciousness</a>.



Previous work had linked these hubs to vigilance by studying patients emerging from coma or experiencing absence seizures. But most of those experiments examined responses to a single type of stimulus, for example flashing lights or chirping sounds.



Khalaf and colleagues asked the broader question: do different senses share the same arousal circuitry when people deliberately pay attention?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-massive-data-mine">A massive data mine</h2>



To answer that, the team turned to the publicly available <a href="https://www.humanconnectome.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human Connectome Project</a> and other repositories, assembling functional MRI scans from 1,561 healthy adults.



Across 11 tasks, participants viewed moving shapes, listened to spoken stories, sampled liquid tastants, or felt puffs of air on their fingertips. Each task included abrupt cues that forced subjects to switch attention - for instance, a sudden change in picture orientation or a surprise tone embedded in white noise.



The investigators processed more than 500 hours of scan data through a pipeline that removed head motion and physiological noise, then aligned brain volumes to a common atlas.



In every sensory domain, when a cue demanded rapid attentional re-orientation, blood-oxygen signals spiked in the reticular formation and the central thalamus. The effect was absent or minimal during passive stimulation, underscoring the importance of active engagement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consciousness-in-the-brain">Consciousness in the brain</h2>



Why would a taste test and a vision task end up at the same neural address? The authors propose that the midbrain reticular formation integrates sudden sensory changes and broadcasts a “wake-up” volley to the thalamus, which relays it to widespread cortical areas.



That burst synchronizes cortical rhythms, priming the brain to process incoming information. The scheme dovetails with classical animal studies showing that electrical stimulation of the reticular formation induces cortical desynchronization and behavioral arousal, while lesions produce stupor.



“It tells us how important this brain region is and what it could mean in efforts to restore consciousness,” Khalaf said.



“This has also given us insights into how things work normally in the brain. It’s really a step forward in our understanding of awareness and consciousness,” said senior author Hal Blumenfeld, a neurologist at Yale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-awakening-senses-in-the-brain">Awakening senses in the brain</h2>



Because the same deep-brain hubs fire regardless of which sense is active, treatments aimed at modulating those hubs could benefit diverse conditions.



Drugs that enhance thalamic neurotransmission, for instance, might improve focus in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/autism-and-adhd-disorders-directly-linked-amount-of-time-kids-spend-on-screens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attention deficit hyperactivity disorder</a>. Conversely, overactivity in the arousal circuit has been implicated in insomnia; dampening the circuitry could help induce sleep.



The results also support ongoing trials that deliver low-intensity ultrasound or deep-brain electrodes to the central thalamus in patients with disorders of consciousness. 



If attention triggers the thalamus to “switch on” the cortex, stimulating it directly might help rouse patients who are minimally conscious.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-sensory-rehabilitation"><a></a>Rethinking sensory rehabilitation</h2>



The discovery challenges sensory-specific training programs that ignore subcortical commonalities. 



For example, visual rehabilitation for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stroke-risk-is-elevated-by-air-pollution-and-traffic-noise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stroke</a> survivors may benefit from pairing attentional cues with tactile or auditory tasks to engage the shared arousal pathway.



Likewise, virtual-reality therapies that bombard users with multi-sensory surprises might more effectively sharpen attentional control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



The Yale team plans to refine the timeline of activation using magnetoencephalography, which offers millisecond resolution. They also hope to dissect the frequency bands that link the thalamus to frontal and parietal cortices during attentional jumps. 



Such work could reveal whether gamma-band bursts or alpha-band suppression carry the critical “wake-up” message.



Another frontier involves patients. Investigators will compare responses in healthy volunteers with those in people who have attention deficits or who are emerging from anaesthesia. 



Identifying a lost or delayed thalamic spike could serve as a biomarker for impaired consciousness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-regions-and-the-senses">Brain regions and the senses</h2>



For now, the study establishes the midbrain reticular formation and central thalamus as the universal relay through which sight, sound, taste, and touch gain conscious entry - at least when our minds snap to attention.



By showing that “all the senses light up the same central brain regions,” it confirms that consciousness depends not only on specialized cortical maps but also on a common deep-brain gatekeeper. 



Therapies that target this gatekeeper may eventually help restore awareness where it has dimmed and sharpen it where it wanders.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053811925002277?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeuroImage</a>.



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Scientists discover a brain region that connects all the senses

Scientists have long mapped separate brain areas for sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Yet new research reveals that when we focus sharply on any of those senses, signals converge on the same two structures buried deep in the brain - the midbrain reticular formation and the central thalamus. This finding highlights a shared neural pathway that sustains attention and wakefulness and could inspire therapies for coma, epilepsy, and attention-deficit disorders. Senses in a single brain region Research over the past century has shown that visual scenes...

Global increases in temperatures due to climate change are having detrimental consequences for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-plants-on-earth-could-be-saved-from-extinction/">plants</a>, which tend to flower earlier than before and rush through the reproductive process, leading to less fruit and seeds.&nbsp;



In a recent study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2304714120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, an international team of scientists has unveiled a new mechanism that plants use to sense temperature, which could lead to solutions to counteract some of climate change’s negative impacts on plant growth, flowering, and seed production.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-key-protein-involved">Key protein involved&nbsp;</h2>



The experts found that the key thermosensor of plants’ circadian clock – which determines their growth, metabolism, and when they flower – is EARLY FLOWERING 3 (ELF3), a protein playing a vital role in plant development.&nbsp;



By integrating environmental cues such as light and temperature with internal developmental signals, this protein regulates the expression of flowering genes and determines when flowers grow and bloom.



The researchers investigated the molecular mechanism of how ELF3 works in vitro and in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. They discovered that, as the temperature rises, ELF3 undergoes a process known as “phase separation,” meaning that two liquid phases co-exist, in a similar way to oil and water.



“We believe that when it goes through phase separation, it sequesters different protein partners like transcription factors, which translates into faster growth and early flowering as a function of elevated temperature,” said senior author Chloe Zubieta, an expert in Cellular Physiology at the <a href="https://www.univ-grenoble-alpes.fr/">University of Grenoble Alpes</a>.&nbsp;



“We are trying to understand the biophysics of the prion-like domain inside ELF3, which we think is the responsible for this phase separation.”



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



Since ELF3 is a flexible protein with no well-defined structure, it cannot be studied using X-ray crystallography. Instead, the researchers used a method called Small Angle X-ray Scattering and discovered that the prion-like domain forms a higher order monodisperse oligomer that is vital for phase separation.&nbsp;



Similar to a ball of about 30 copies of the protein, this oligomer acts as a scaffold in order to interact with other proteins in the plant cell. When the scientists increased the temperature, the spheres came together to form a liquid phase and, later on, an ordered lamellar stack.&nbsp;



Further experiments, using electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and X-ray powder diffraction on beamline ID23-1, confirmed these initial results.



“If we manage to tune when phase separation occurs as a function of temperature, by mutating different amino acid residues, we could ultimately delay flowering of plants under warmer conditions, allowing them to establish more biomass and make more fruits and seeds,” explained lead author Stephanie Hutin, a scientist at the <a href="https://www.cea.fr/">French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission</a>&nbsp;(CEA).



“Therefore, the next step in this research will be to add a different form of the ELF3 gene to the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, and to see what happens when we grow them at warm temperatures. If our model is correct, we could do the same in crop species that have trouble adapting to warmer conditions,” she concluded.



<h2 id="h-more-about-plant-flowering">More about plant flowering&nbsp;</h2>



Flowering in plants refers to the process in which a plant produces flowers. This is a critical phase in the life cycle of flowering plants (angiosperms) because it's when sexual reproduction occurs.



Flowering is controlled by a variety of environmental factors, genetic factors, and hormonal controls.&nbsp;



<h3 id="h-environmental-factors">Environmental factors</h3>



These include photoperiodism (the length of daylight), temperature, and in some cases, water availability. For example, some plants flower only after exposure to certain lengths of daylight or darkness, while others need a period of cold (vernalization) to induce flowering.



<h3 id="h-genetic-factors">Genetic factors</h3>



The inherent genetic make-up of a plant also determines when and how it will flower. Certain genes are involved in the process of floral initiation, development, and maturation.



<h3 id="h-hormonal-controls">Hormonal controls</h3>



Phytohormones such as auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, and ethylene are also involved in the regulation of flowering.



During the flowering process, a plant's shoot apical meristem changes from a vegetative meristem, which produces leaves, to a floral meristem, which produces the parts of a flower. The flowers themselves are specialized reproductive structures that include sepals, petals, stamens (male organs), and carpels (female organs).



The main goal of flowering is to enable reproduction. This can occur through self-pollination, where the pollen from the stamen fertilizes the ovules in the carpel of the same flower, or cross-pollination, where pollen is transferred from the stamen of one flower to the carpel of another flower, often by wind or animals.&nbsp;



After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds and the surrounding ovary ripens into a fruit. The seeds can then be dispersed to give rise to new plants.



Flowering is a complex process that scientists are still studying to understand fully. Researchers use model organisms like the thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana) to investigate the molecular biology underlying flowering.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Why do plants flower earlier in a warming world?

Global increases in temperatures due to climate change are having...

In a study led by Dr. Lujendra Ojha of <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>, scientists report that Earth-like planets with potential to harbor liquid water could be about 100 times more common than previously believed.



The research, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35187-4">Nature Communications</a>, is a game-changer for our understanding of the universe. It also opens an intriguing new chapter in the search for extraterrestrial life.



“It was estimated that around one rocky planet around every 100 stars would have liquid water,” Dr. Ojha said at the Goldschmidt geochemistry conference held in Lyon, France. 



“The new model shows that if the conditions are right, this could approach one planet per star - so we are a hundred times more likely to find liquid water than we thought.”



With at least 100 billion stars in our Milky Way galaxy, this study dramatically broadens the potential stage for the existence of life. As Dr. Ojha put it, “that represents really good odds for the origin of life elsewhere in the universe.”



<h2 id="h-many-stars-could-host-earth-like-planets">Many stars could host Earth-like planets&nbsp;</h2>



Traditionally, scientists have considered Earth-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-exoplanets-could-have-enough-water-to-be-habitable/">exoplanets</a> with surface water bodies like oceans, lakes, and rivers to be scarce. 



However, this new research suggests that many stars could indeed host planets. They only need the right geological conditions to sustain liquid water beneath their surface.



Our own solar system provides examples of subterranean oceans. Enceladus, one of Saturn's moons, as well as Europa and Ganymede, which are moons of Jupiter, are believed to harbor saltwater oceans encased within icy shells. Even dwarf planets like Pluto and Ceres, and potentially several moons of Uranus, are believed to possess underground oceans.



<h2 id="h-liquid-water-is-essential">Liquid water is essential&nbsp;</h2>



Dr. Ojha emphasized the significance of water for life as we know it. He said, “We know that the presence of liquid water is essential for life.” 



This research sheds light on the potential for liquid water to exist in places that hadn't been seriously considered before. “This significantly increases the chances of finding environments where life could, in theory, develop.”



This groundbreaking conclusion comes from a closer look at how planets, seemingly frozen on their surface, could have liquid water oceans beneath their crust. 



A couple of primary mechanisms make this possible. First, the heat from radioactivity within the planet's core can warm the water enough to prevent it from freezing. This is similar to what we observe in Antarctica and the Canadian Arctic. Also, the gravitational effects of the larger planets they orbit can prevent freezing.



<h2 id="h-red-dwarf-stars">Red dwarf stars&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers also highlighted the role of red dwarf stars, the most abundant star type in the Milky Way. They found that a significant percentage of planets orbiting red dwarf stars could produce their own heat.&nbsp;



“We found that when one considers the possibility of liquid water generated by radioactivity, it is likely that a high percentage of these exoplanets can have sufficient heat to sustain liquid water - many more than we had thought,” explained Dr. Ojha.



<h2 id="h-wet-moons">Wet moons</h2>



Furthermore, the experts drew attention to the solar system’s wet moons. Their interiors are continuously churned due to the strong gravitational effects from the large planets they orbit. This is similar to the lunar influence on our Earth's tides but on a grander scale.



Enceladus and Europa are considered top contenders for life in our solar system. Several space agencies have already launched missions to explore these intriguing moons. 



Notably, the European Space Agency's JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) mission, which commenced in April 2023, is slated to orbit Ganymede following numerous flybys of Europa and Callisto. 



NASA is not far behind with its Europa Clipper. This mission is set to launch in October 2024 and conduct 32 flybys of Europa from 2030.



<h2 id="h-more-about-earth-like-planets">More about Earth-like planets&nbsp;</h2>



An Earth-like planet, also referred to as a "terrestrial" or "telluric" planet, is a planet that is similar to Earth in key characteristics. These include size, mass, and composition. 



They are primarily composed of rock and metal, and have solid surfaces. The term "Earth-like" often suggests a similarity not only in physical properties but also in potential habitability.



<h3 id="h-key-characteristics">Key characteristics&nbsp;</h3>



<h4 id="h-size-and-mass">Size and mass</h4>



Earth-like planets are usually close to Earth in size and mass. Too large, and the planet might become a gas giant. Too small, and it may not be able to hold onto an atmosphere.



<h4 id="h-location-in-the-habitable-zone">Location in the habitable zone</h4>



The planet should ideally be located in its star's habitable zone (often referred to as the "Goldilocks Zone"). This is where conditions might be just right – not too hot, not too cold – for liquid water to exist on the planet's surface.



<h4 id="h-rocky-composition">Rocky composition</h4>



Earth-like planets are composed mainly of silicate rocks or metals. They have a hard surface that can potentially support oceans, continents, and life as we know it.



<h4 id="h-presence-of-an-atmosphere">Presence of an atmosphere</h4>



A significant atmosphere can help regulate temperature and protect the planet from stellar radiation and meteor impact.



<h4 id="h-surface-water">Surface water</h4>



The presence of liquid water is a critical aspect of "habitability." As we currently understand, every life form we know on Earth requires water to survive.



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Earth-like planets may be more common than we ever imagined

In a study led by Dr. Lujendra Ojha of Rutgers...

In the lush green forests of North America's west coast, a towering tree is silently waging a biological war against a notorious pest. A fascinating study from <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> reveals how the Sitka spruce tree defends itself against the voracious spruce weevil.



The findings will provide insights for breeding more resistant species of this tree, which could ultimately safeguard its survival against the voracious spruce weevil, Pissodes strobi.



The primary objective of the study was to investigate the genetic mechanisms of natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crop-pest-will-spread-northward-as-soil-temperatures-warm/">pest</a> resistance. "We wanted to learn about the genetic basis for natural pest resistance that certain Sitka spruce trees have evolved to prevent insects from feeding on the plant," explained study first author Professor Justin Whitehill.



<h2 id="h-formation-of-stone-cells">Formation of stone cells</h2>



The research, which Whitehill began during his time as a postdoctoral researcher at the University of British Columbia, sheds light on an intriguing defense feature of the Sitka spruce - the formation of stone cells.



"The trait we studied in Sitka spruce is a physical defense known as stone cells, which are found in almost all plant species,” Whitehill explained. Stone cells are the culprits behind the gritty texture one feels when eating a pear, revealing their existence in more familiar contexts.



Professor Whitehill emphasized the complexity of stone cell development, noting that thousands of genes contribute to this process. The research team, however, has managed to identify certain key genetics involved in the initial stages of these cells’ development.



<h2 id="h-sitka-spruce-vulnerability">Sitka spruce vulnerability&nbsp;</h2>



Distributed along the West Coast from California to Alaska, the Sitka spruce is a large conifer tree. Despite its replacement in North America with other timber species due to susceptibility to the weevil, it maintains a strong presence as a timber species in Europe.&nbsp;



Professor Whitehill highlighted an interesting historical cause of the tree's vulnerability. He noted that the primary population cultivated for forestry products on the West Coast originated from an island, where they had never been exposed to the weevil, leading to a heightened susceptibility in these trees.



<h2 id="h-some-trees-built-resistance">Some trees built resistance&nbsp;</h2>



But there was a silver lining in this tale of botanical hardship. A group of resistant Sitka spruce trees that developed stone cells was discovered in Canada. These rigid cells uniquely proliferate in less than an inch of the top of budding branches, coincidentally the very region favored by the weevil for feeding.



The stone cells play a critical role in the tree's defense. "The stone cells slow down the progression of the insect and give time for the resin found in the trees’ bark to coat the insect and make it too sticky to feed more," explained Professor Whitehill. Their effect is to obstruct the feeding insects and hinder their progress sufficiently to avoid significant damage to the tree.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-discovered">What the researchers discovered&nbsp;</h2>



The comprehensive analysis led to the identification of almost 1,300 genes that were expressed at higher levels in stone cells.&nbsp;



The experts also pinpointed a key gene functioning as a "master switch," activating thousands of other genes known to control the development of thick-walled cells in other plants.



Professor Whitehill succinctly summarized the import of their findings: "This paper lays out a roadmap of the genes involved in stone-cell development. We’re showing it’s strongly controlled by genetics involved in secondary cell walls."



The execution of this study hinged on the use of a microdissection tool that employs a laser to meticulously slice tissue into thin sections. This technology enabled the researchers to study genes expressed specifically in stone cells during their formation.



<h2 id="h-future-research-plans">Future research plans</h2>



With an updated version of this tool now funded for use at NC State, the research team plan to delve into the genetic makeup of the Fraser fir tree, a leading Christmas tree in the United States grown in western North Carolina.&nbsp;



The size of the Fraser fir's genome, which is five times bigger than the human genome, has raised hopes of unlocking insights into the tree's viability, fragrance, and pest resilience.



The application of the laser microdissection technique is viewed by Whitehill as a promising path forward: "We’re using this approach now to look for genes involved in resistance to pathogens and pests, and to understand complex ecological interactions at the genetic level."&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-sitka-spruce-tree">More about the Sitka spruce tree&nbsp;</h2>



The Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is a species of spruce tree native to the west coast of North America. Its range extends from Alaska, down through British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and as far south as northern California. It's named after Sitka, a city in southeast Alaska.



This tree species is notable for its size. It is one of the largest spruce species and among the tallest trees in the world. Some mature Sitka spruce trees can reach heights of over 300 feet (90 meters), although they typically average around 125 to 180 feet (38 to 55 meters) tall. The trunk diameter can be up to 16 feet (5 meters).



The Sitka spruce has a conical shape, with dense branches that droop slightly and are covered with sharp, stiff, needle-like leaves. Its bark is thin and scaly, and its cones are cylindrical and hang down from the branches.



Sitka spruces are adapted to cool, wet climates and grow well in both sun and shade. They're commonly found in coastal rainforests and near bodies of water, as they require a lot of moisture to thrive.



The wood of the Sitka spruce is light, strong, and flexible, making it highly valued in various industries. It's often used in the construction of musical instruments, especially soundboards for pianos and tops for guitars, due to its excellent resonant properties. The wood is also used in aircraft construction, particularly in small light aircraft, because of its strength-to-weight ratio.



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Nature's defenses: How the Sitka spruce fends off weevil invasion

In the lush green forests of North America's west coast,...

In the scorching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-experienced-its-hottest-summer-on-record-in-2022/">summer</a> of 2022, record-breaking heatwaves swept across Europe, marking it as the hottest summer ever documented in the continent's history.&nbsp;



These unprecedented events ignited forest fires, spurred droughts, and dried up major rivers. Even more devastatingly, a new study has linked Europe's record heat to an estimated 61,672 deaths between May 30 and September 4, 2022.



The grim results, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02419-z">Nature Medicine</a>, highlight the catastrophic human toll of intensifying global warming trends.



Eurostat, the European statistical office, had previously reported a significant spike in mortality for that period, yet the contribution of extreme heat had not been precisely quantified.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



The current study was a collaborative effort by experts at the <a href="https://www.isglobal.org/en">Barcelona Institute for Global Health</a> (ISGlobal), an institution supported by the "la Caixa" Foundation, and the French National Institute of Health (Inserm).



The researchers accessed temperature and mortality data for 2015-2022 from 823 regions spanning 35 European countries. Collectively, the data represented a population of over 543 million people.&nbsp;



Based on this information, the team developed epidemiological models to estimate temperature-attributable mortality for each region and week of the summer period.



Throughout the summer of 2022, sweltering heat was relentless, with above-average temperatures occurring every week. The hottest weather lingered from mid-July to mid-August, coinciding with the most deadly period of heat-related mortality. In this month alone, a staggering 38,881 deaths were recorded.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-geographical-disparities">Geographical disparities</h2>



Italy endured the highest number of heat-related fatalities, with 18,010 deaths. Spain and Germany followed with 11,324 and 8,173 deaths respectively.&nbsp;



When the data is adjusted by population, Italy again emerges as the most affected, with 295 heat-related deaths per million, followed by Greece (280), Spain (237), and Portugal (211). The European average was calculated at 114 deaths per million.



In terms of temperature anomalies, France experienced the warmest conditions with temperatures rising +2.43°C above the average values for the period 1991-2020. Switzerland (+2.30°C), Italy (+2.28°C), Hungary (+2.13°C), and Spain (+2.11°C) were also severely impacted.



<h2 id="h-mortality-rate-and-gender">Mortality rate and gender</h2>



The study further highlighted a troubling disparity in terms of age and gender. Older age groups, particularly women, were disproportionately affected. Overall, 4,822 victims were under 65 years of age, 9,226 were between 65 and 79, and 36,848 were over the age of 79.



Gender-specific data revealed that heat-attributable mortality was 63% higher in women than in men. This manifested as 35,406 premature deaths (or 145 deaths per million) in women compared to 21,667 (or 93 per million) in men.&nbsp;



This increased susceptibility to heat was observed across the population but was especially pronounced in women over 80, who had a mortality rate 27% higher than their male counterparts. Conversely, men under 65 and those aged 65-79 saw higher mortality rates than women by 41% and 13% respectively.



<h2 id="h-summer-deaths-in-2003">Summer deaths in 2003</h2>



The disastrous summer of 2022 is comparable to the deadly 2003 heatwave, which caused over 70,000 excess deaths.&nbsp;



According to Joan Ballester Claramunt, the lead author of the study and a researcher at ISGlobal, the summer of 2003 was a rarity even when accounting for anthropogenic warming observed up until that point.&nbsp;



The events of 2003 exposed the deficiencies in health systems' capacity to handle climate-related emergencies, leading to the implementation of prevention plans in subsequent years.



Contrastingly, the temperatures recorded in the summer of 2022 were not exceptional when compared to the recent temperature series. This affirms that warming has accelerated over the last decade.&nbsp;



"The fact that more than 61,600 people in Europe died of heat stress in the summer of 2022, even though, unlike in 2003, many countries already had active prevention plans in place, suggests that the adaptation strategies currently available may still be insufficient," noted Joan Ballester Claramunt.



<h2 id="h-prevention-plans-urgently-needed">Prevention plans urgently needed</h2>



Hicham Achebak, a researcher at Inserm and ISGlobal, echoed Ballester's sentiment, emphasizing the pressing need to reassess and bolster prevention plans. This need is particularly urgent given the escalating warming trends and the fact that Europe is experiencing warming rates up to 1°C higher than the global average.



The researchers project a bleak future if effective adaptive responses are not implemented. The team estimates that, in the absence of such measures, the continent could face an average of more than 68,000 premature deaths each summer by 2030 and exceed 94,000 by 2040.&nbsp;



This stark prediction highlights the urgent need to address the age and gender gaps in vulnerability to heat, improve adaptation strategies, and, most importantly, tackle the root causes of the accelerating climate crisis.



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Deadly summer: More than 61,000 deaths linked to Europe's 2022 heatwaves

In the scorching summer of 2022, record-breaking heatwaves swept across...

Currently, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-material-biodegradable-soil/">plastic</a> mulch films are extensively used in agricultural practices. When tucked in around the base of plants, they can help control weeds and pathogens, reduce water evaporation, and prevent soil splashing on fruit.&nbsp;



However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.calpoly.edu/">California Polytechnic State University</a> (Cal Poly), the plastic mulch used to support the growth of Californian strawberries sheds large quantities of plastic fragments that negatively impact soil quality. Such a situation is likely to occur in the case of other crops too, suggesting that this method’s risks may outweigh its benefits.



“What we are seeing is a huge quantity of macroplastic material – particles bigger than 5mm across - being shed where the mulch is used to enhance strawberry production. These can remain in the soil for decades or longer,” said study lead author Ekta Tiwari, a postdoctoral fellow in Geochemistry at Cal Poly.



<h2 id="h-plastic-fragments-accumulate-for-decades">Plastic fragments accumulate for decades</h2>



Although the mulch is removed after the crop’s seasonal production is complete, even careful land stewardship by farmers fails to remove all the plastic, since fragments usually adhere to the soil after removal.&nbsp;



After decades of annual plastic mulch application and removal, even in extremely well-managed fields, there is a significant accumulation of plastic fragments.



“We carried out a systematic survey of strawberry fields after the seasonal removal of these plastic film. We found that the distribution was fairly uniform. On field surfaces alone, we found up to 213,500 macroplastic particles per hectare. That doesn’t include subsurface particles, which we did not survey," explained Tiwari.



"In addition, we are currently analyzing the same soil samples for&nbsp;microplastics, which are smaller particles, less than 5mm across; these are not yet included in our findings."



<h2 id="h-plastic-mulch-degrades-soil-quality">Plastic mulch degrades soil quality</h2>



By using a groundbreaking method called Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, the experts found that most of the particles were polyethylene. Moreover, the analysis revealed that, as the levels of microplastic pollution increased, soil moisture content, microbial respiration, and plant-available nitrogen decreased.



“The plastic mulch provides benefits, but at the expense of long-term soil quality. It’s difficult and expensive to remove these particles from the soil, so once they are there they can stay there indefinitely. We tend to think that strawberries are simply things to be enjoyed, but this shows that even something as delicious as fresh strawberries can come with a cost to the environment. We are working with the manufacturers to see if we can mitigate these costs,” Tiwari said.



<h2 id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed&nbsp;</h2>



Since the current study has only focused on macroplastic pollution, the researchers are now evaluating the level of microplastic pollution too. Providing reliable data on the extent of plastic pollution in the U.S. agricultural system could help improve land management practices and assess the biogeochemical consequences of plastic accumulation in agricultural soils.



Although there are alternatives to using polyethylene mulches – such as biodegradable plastic mulches or natural mulches like straw – such methods come with additional costs, which makes them less popular among farmers. Further research is needed to identify cost-effective techniques that could protect crops, while avoiding the negative impacts of plastic mulch.



The study was presented the <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2023/meetingapp.cgi">Goldschmidt Geochemistry Conference</a> in Lyon, France (9-14 July).



<h2 id="h-more-about-plastic-mulch">More about plastic mulch</h2>



Plastic mulch is a product used in farming and gardening to suppress weeds and conserve water. It's made from a thin layer of plastic film that is placed over the soil with the plants growing through slits or holes in the plastic. Here are some key points about plastic mulch:



<h3 id="h-weed-control">Weed control</h3>



Plastic mulch forms a physical barrier between the soil and the atmosphere, thus preventing weed seeds from germinating and growing. This is because most weed seeds need light to germinate, and the plastic mulch blocks this light.



<h3 id="h-moisture-conservation">Moisture conservation</h3>



Plastic mulch acts as a barrier to evaporation, reducing the amount of water that is lost from the soil. This helps to conserve water and can be especially useful in regions where water is scarce or in times of drought.



<h3 id="h-soil-temperature-regulation">Soil temperature regulation</h3>



Depending on its color, plastic mulch can either absorb or reflect sunlight, thus affecting the temperature of the soil underneath.&nbsp;



Black plastic mulch absorbs sunlight and warms the soil, which can be beneficial for warm-season crops like tomatoes and peppers. Conversely, white or silver plastic mulch reflects sunlight and can help to keep the soil cooler, which can be beneficial for cool-season crops.



<h3 id="h-increased-crop-yield">Increased crop yield</h3>



By suppressing weeds, conserving water, and helping to regulate soil temperature, plastic mulch can contribute to increased crop yield.



Despite these benefits, there are also several potential drawbacks to using plastic mulch. One is that it is a form of non-biodegradable waste, which can contribute to environmental pollution. Additionally, the use of plastic mulch can lead to soil degradation over time due to reduced organic matter decomposition and soil biodiversity.&nbsp;



To address these issues, some farmers and gardeners use biodegradable mulches, which provide many of the same benefits but break down over time to reduce waste and soil degradation.



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Plastic mulch used in strawberry production leads to long-term pollution

Currently, plastic mulch films are extensively used in agricultural practices....

The escalating threat of climate change, characterized by soaring temperatures and increasing drought, paints a grim future for America's forests.&nbsp;



A recent study led by researchers at <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> and University of Utah has found that while the majority of U.S. forests have the capacity to adjust to these harsh conditions, the rate of adaptation is not swift enough to escape the environmental stress.



The experts conducted a comprehensive investigation into the susceptibility of woodlands to severe drought conditions. The study, published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486">Global Change Biology</a>, was focused on mathematical models and data from both the U.S. Forest Service and plant physiologists.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-good-news-and-bad-news">Good news and bad news</h2>



"We were concerned to find that forests were not changing fast enough to avoid increased water stress due to climate change," said study lead author Greg Quetin, who serves as an assistant project scientist at the UCSB Department of Geography.&nbsp;



Despite the concern, Quetin also emphasized the silver lining that lies ahead, stating that most forests in the continental U.S. contained enough functional diversity to increase their drought tolerance through shifts in species composition.



<h2 id="h-how-forests-adapt">How forests adapt</h2>



Forests can adopt various strategies to adapt to drier conditions. Individual trees can modify their activities, physiology, and gene expression in response to the environmental changes they encounter.&nbsp;



Moreover, species that are inherently drought-tolerant can gain dominance in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-single-gene-could-control-biodiversity-in-an-ecosystem/">ecosystem</a>. Evolutionary dynamics can also play a role in the form of natural selection, resulting in alterations in species composition, although the impact would likely be minimal over the next century given the long lifespan of trees.



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



The team's primary focus was to discern whether the traits and species present in the nation's forests could allow them to acclimate to the impending climate changes without triggering widespread mortality.&nbsp;



Quetin and his team analyzed data from the Forest Inventory and Analysis program - a comprehensive database maintained by the U.S. Forest Service that provides insights into the health and conditions of the country's woodlands. They also leveraged information from the Xylem Functional Traits Database, containing measures of tree physiology and hydraulic traits.



Building on this robust foundation of data, the team devised a model simulating a forest's reaction to heightened water stress, including processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, and growth, as well as plant stress.&nbsp;



To understand how changes in leaf area could alleviate stress caused by changing environmental conditions, the researchers also integrated an optimization technique into the model.



Study co-author Professor Lee Anderegg noted: "All the data to date suggest that leaf area is just the biggest lever that individual trees can throw to manage water stress." Therefore, forests situated in drier regions are expected to develop sparser canopies, while forests in wetter areas can sustain dense foliage.



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned&nbsp;</h2>



Upon running their model, the researchers found that approximately 88% of forests across the continental U.S. possess the requisite species diversity and trait variability to adjust to climate change, and these forests have already begun the transition. However, the speed of adaptation lagged behind the rate that the model indicated as necessary to prevent increased water stress and subsequent mortality.



Study co-author Professor Anna Trugman commented: "It’s concerning that we don’t see the required shifts that our model predicts need to happen." Despite this, she remains hopeful, emphasizing that biodiversity could act as a significant buffer against the impacts of climate change on a given forest.



The rising concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere add a layer of complexity to the study. While higher levels of CO2 allow plants to decrease their pore size, thus limiting water loss and maintaining their photosynthesis rates, the drier atmosphere associated with a warming climate could increase water loss from leaves.



The energy costs involved in transporting this water cannot be overlooked either, as observed in a previous paper by the authors.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-ongoing-research">Ongoing research&nbsp;</h2>



Currently, the team is gathering data on the physiological changes in trees following climate-driven fires in Sequoia National Park. This will help to establish the extent to which trees can adjust their physiology, and to explore whether they can avert future water stress entirely through changes to their leaf area.



Forests are already demonstrating signs of change. As the atmosphere becomes drier, sparse canopies will become increasingly common, and the mix of species within woodlands will likely deviate from historical norms.&nbsp;



These transformations will also impact the carbon storage capacity of forests, which currently sequester about 30% of human-made emissions. Recent findings from the group indicate a probable decrease in this capacity under climate change.



As we move forward, it becomes increasingly crucial to adopt management strategies that facilitate forest adaptation. Anderegg emphasizes the need to see forests not as static entities, but as dynamic systems that need to change in harmony with the shifting climate.&nbsp;



This gradual transition could avert catastrophic events such as wildfires and widespread tree deaths, thereby protecting forests, wildlife, and nearby human communities.



—-



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America's forests are in a race against climate change

The escalating threat of climate change, characterized by soaring temperatures...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>, warmer springs are causing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-bees-struggle-to-recover-after-extreme-weather-events/">bees</a> in the UK to wake up earlier from hibernation, threatening the pollination of important crops such as apples or pears.&nbsp;



The experts found that, for each degree Celsius rise in temperature, wild bees emerge from their nests 6.5 days earlier on average. This could cause them to lose sync with the plants on which they depend and thus have less food to consume, meaning they may not have sufficient energy to pollinate crops effectively, or may even miss crop blossom completely.



“Rising temperatures are making life tougher for bees. Warmer conditions mean bees emerge from hibernation earlier, but there may not be enough food to provide energy for them when they start buzzing about,” said study lead author Chris Wyver, a doctoral student in Entomology at Reading.



“Matching wake-up dates with plant flowering is vital for newly emerged bees because they need to find pollen and nectar to increase their chances of survival and produce offspring. A mismatch means bees cannot pollinate effectively."&nbsp;



"Less natural pollination could lead to farmers needing to use managed honeybees, meaning greater costs, which may be passed on to consumers. We could see even more expensive apples, pears, and vegetables in supermarkets as a result.”



<h2 id="h-alarming-results">Alarming results</h2>



By using over 350,000 individual recordings of bees emerging from hibernation, the researchers examined 88 different species of wild bees over a period of four decades in order to identify shifts in emergence dates, both over time and in relation to temperature changes.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that, on average, the 88 species emerged four days earlier per decade, with some species emerging earlier than others (since different species of bees respond differently to changing temperatures). The results are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.10284.">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



With winters projected to be one to 4.5 degrees Celsius warmer and up to 30 percent wetter by 2070, spring is likely to continue to start earlier and affect bees even more radically.&nbsp;



These shifts in bee emergence will have a major impact on plants that are heavily dependent on pollination, such as apple trees, which might not be ready to flower by the time bees emerge from hibernation.



<h2 id="h-fruitwatch">FruitWatch&nbsp;</h2>



To better understand how climate change affects the flowering of fruit trees and pollination by bees, the scientists have recently set up <a href="https://fruitwatch.org/ords/r/livefw/fruit-watch101/home?tz=1:00">FruitWatch</a>, a project encouraging people to report when fruit trees in their gardens and nearby parks start to flower.&nbsp;



Users’ submissions – of which over 6,500 have been received in two years – will help researchers build a larger and more reliable database documenting the impact of climate change on a variety of ecosystems.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bee-hibernation">More about bee hibernation&nbsp;</h2>



Not all bees hibernate, but many do experience a period of reduced activity or dormancy during the colder months, which could be likened to hibernation.



In temperate climates, most species of bees are seasonal creatures that are most active during the warmer months of the year. As temperatures drop and food sources become scarce, many bees enter a kind of "winter rest."



For example, honey bees do not hibernate in the traditional sense. Instead, they cluster together in their hives to stay warm, shivering their bodies to generate heat and feeding on the honey they collected during the warmer months. The queen is protected at the center of the cluster.



By contrast, bumblebees do experience a form of hibernation. The mated queens are usually the only members of the bumblebee colony to survive the winter, hibernating underground and emerging in spring to establish a new colony.



Many solitary bees, like mason bees and leafcutter bees, have a life cycle that involves a period of dormancy during the winter, but they spend this time as larvae or pupae in their nests, not active adults.



So while "hibernation" may not be the scientifically accurate term for all bee species, many bees do have adaptations to survive the winter in some form of dormant state.&nbsp;



—-



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Bees emerge from hibernation 6.5 days earlier for each degree of warming

According to a new study led by the University of...

In an intriguing new study, researchers have found that a bird's choice of nest materials strongly correlates with the dimensions of its beak. This discovery is based on an extensive data analysis involving close to 6,000 bird species. The experts report that beak shape could accurately forecast the type of nesting material a bird might utilize.



The comprehensive research was a collaborative effort by researchers at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> and the University of St Andrews. Their innovative approach to the study involved employing random forest models - a machine learning algorithm widely used for pattern recognition and data analysis.&nbsp;



The objective was to use these models to analyze beak data and predict corresponding nesting material preferences.



<h2 id="h-surprising-findings">Surprising findings</h2>



The researchers were surprised to discover an unexpectedly robust correlation between beak characteristics and nest materials. With only the knowledge of beak shape and size at their disposal, the experts were able to predict broad nest material usage in 60 percent of species. In some instances, their predictive accuracy reached as high as 97 percent.



These intriguing findings, published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rstb">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a>, provide a detailed exploration of the ecological and evolutionary factors behind these relationships. The researchers acknowledge certain variables influencing their results, such as the fact that not all species have equal access to all types of nest materials.



<h2 id="h-implications-of-the-study">Implications of the study</h2>



"We know a lot about primate hands, but not as much about how other animals use their limbs and mouths to manipulate objects," said Dr. Catherine Sheard, the lead author of the study from Bristol's School of Earth Sciences. "We're very excited about the potential applications of our findings, to further explore how beak shape may have co-evolved with other aspects of nest building or other functions."



Dr. Shoko Sugasawa, the senior author of the study based at the University of St Andrews, emphasized the significance of these insights in understanding animal evolution. "Most animals, including birds, do not have hands like ours, but manipulating objects like nest material and food is such a crucial part of their lives."&nbsp;



"Our finding is the first step to reveal possible interactions between the evolution of beaks and manipulation like nest building, and helps us better understand how animals evolved to interact with the world with or without hands," said Dr. Sugasawa.



<h2 id="h-future-research">Future research&nbsp;</h2>



The team is now conducting new research that is focused on anthropogenic nest material in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-poisonous-birds-discovered/">bird species</a>. The aim is to understand which birds incorporate human-made materials such as plastic, wire, or cigarette butts into their nests. A key area of interest is determining if there's a correlation between this behavior and birds that dwell in urban areas.



Dr Sheard expressed her curiosity on how beak shape influences other nest attributes. "I’m also interested in how beak shape relates to other properties of the nest, including overall nest structure, such as whether birds build nests with walls, or a roof."



The study sheds light on the intriguing connection between the physical traits of birds and their behavior. The ongoing research will continue to unravel the complexities of evolution, nest-building behavior, and the impact of human activity on the world's birds.



<h2 id="h-more-about-bird-beaks">More about bird beaks</h2>



Bird beaks, also known as bills, are a prominent feature of birds and are extremely diverse, reflecting a wide range of adaptations to different environments and lifestyles. Here are a few key points about bird beaks:



<h3 id="h-shape-and-size">Shape and size</h3>



The size and shape of a bird's beak can tell a lot about its diet and behavior. For example, birds that eat seeds often have strong, short beaks for cracking open the seeds, while birds that eat nectar have long, thin beaks for reaching into flowers. Birds of prey have sharp, curved beaks for tearing meat, while shorebirds have long, thin beaks for probing into mud for invertebrates.



<h3 id="h-temperature-regulation">Temperature regulation</h3>



Bird beaks also play a role in regulating body temperature. Some species, particularly those living in hot climates, can increase blood flow to their beaks to lose heat and cool down.



<h3 id="h-sensory-organ">Sensory organ</h3>



The beak is a sensory organ that provides birds with detailed information about their environment and the food they eat. It contains nerve endings, allowing the bird to feel what it's doing.



<h3 id="h-tool-use">Tool use</h3>



Some birds, like crows and parrots, use their beaks as tools to find food and manipulate objects.



<h3 id="h-nesting-and-mating">Nesting and mating</h3>



Beaks play a role in building nests. Some birds have beaks specially adapted to weaving intricate structures. In many species, beak color and health can be indicators of fitness, playing a role in mate selection.



<h3 id="h-communication">Communication</h3>



Some birds use their beaks for communication. They may tap their beaks to signal aggression or clack them together as part of mating displays.



The extraordinary diversity of bird beaks is a prime example of evolution in action, illustrating how a basic structure can be modified in countless ways to suit a species' needs.



—-



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Bird behavior: Beak shape can predict nest materials

In an intriguing new study, researchers have found that a...

As Earth grows warmer due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-the-world-look-in-2100-due-to-climate-change/">climate change</a>, the potential health effects on the human population are becoming more visible and concerning. One such emerging health risk seems to be a marked increase in serious vision impairment, particularly among older adults, living in warmer regions of the United States.



A comprehensive study involving 1.7 million people has provided strong evidence for this alarming correlation. The study reveals that older adults living in regions with average temperatures of 60 degrees Fahrenheit or higher, which is comparable to the warm climate of South Florida, are significantly more likely to suffer from blindness or difficulties in seeing, even with glasses.



"The link between vision impairment and average county temperature is very worrying if future research determines that the association is causal," explained Esme Fuller-Thomson, the co-author of the study and director of the <a href="https://aging.utoronto.ca/">University of Toronto's Institute of Life Course and Aging</a>.&nbsp;



This concern is intensified in the light of climate change predictions that project a rise in global temperatures. "It will be important to monitor if the prevalence of vision impairment among older adults increases in the future,” said Fuller-Thomson.



<h2 id="h-disturbing-trends">Disturbing trends</h2>



The research uncovered a disturbing trend: compared to residents of counties with average temperatures less than 50 degrees F, the odds of severe vision impairment rose in tandem with temperature increases.&nbsp;



The likelihood was 14 percent higher for residents of counties with temperatures ranging from 50-54.99 degrees, and 24% higher in places where average temperatures fell between 55-59.99 degrees. For those living in regions with even warmer climates, the odds of vision loss were a staggering 44% higher.



Remarkably, the link between higher temperatures and vision impairment remained strong even when demographic factors like age, sex, and income were taken into consideration.&nbsp;



"It was powerful to see that the link between vision impairment and temperature was consistent across so many demographic factors including income," said study co-author Elysia Fuller-Thomson, a graduate student at the University of Toronto.



The researchers found this correlation was stronger among individuals aged 65 to 79 compared to those aged 80 and above. The link was also found to be more prevalent among men than women. However, the exact reason why temperature has such an impact remains an enigma.



<h2 id="h-underlying-causes">Underlying causes</h2>



The team proposed potential causes for this correlation, such as increased ultraviolet light exposure, air pollution, infections, and degradation of folic acid with rising temperatures.&nbsp;



The consequences of this development are alarming, considering that vision problems are a significant cause of disabilities and functional limitations. They contribute to falls and deteriorate the quality of life among older adults.



The research was focused on data from six consecutive waves of the American Community Survey, targeting Americans aged 65 and above. Average temperature data was obtained from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and combined with the survey data to draw these conclusions.



These critical findings have been recently published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/iope20">Ophthalmic Epidemiology</a>, pointing to an urgent need for further investigation into the links between climate change and health.



<h2 id="h-more-about-vision-impairment">More about vision impairment&nbsp;</h2>



Vision impairment refers to a decrease in the ability to see to a certain degree that can't be corrected fully with eyeglasses, contact lenses, or eye surgery. It is often characterized by partial or complete loss of sight or inability to see clearly.



<h3 id="h-various-types">Various types&nbsp;</h3>



<h4 id="h-low-vision">Low vision</h4>



This is a significant reduction of visual function that cannot be fully corrected by glasses or contact lenses. People with low vision may have difficulty performing everyday tasks like reading, recognizing faces, or crossing the street.



<h4 id="h-legal-blindness">Legal blindness</h4>



In the U.S., this is defined as vision that's 20/200 or worse in the better seeing eye with the best possible correction, or a field of vision that is 20 degrees or less.



<h4 id="h-color-blindness">Color blindness</h4>



This is the inability to see colors in a normal way. The most common type is red-green color blindness, but there are many variations and degrees of color blindness.



<h4 id="h-night-blindness">Night blindness</h4>



People with night blindness (nyctalopia) have difficulty seeing in low light conditions or at night.



<h4 id="h-blindness">Blindness</h4>



This is the complete lack of vision. Blindness can be due to genetic mutations, injuries, diseases, or age-related conditions.



<h3 id="h-causes">Causes</h3>



Causes of vision impairment include eye diseases like macular degeneration, glaucoma, and cataracts; systemic diseases like diabetes; and injuries or accidents. Sometimes, vision impairment can be present from birth.



<h3 id="h-treatments">Treatments&nbsp;</h3>



Treatments for vision impairment can include glasses, contact lenses, visual aids, vision rehabilitation, and surgery, depending on the type and cause of vision impairment.&nbsp;



However, some forms of vision impairment cannot be reversed. In such cases, resources and training can help individuals to adapt to their vision loss and maintain a high quality of life.



—--



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Rising temperatures linked to vision impairment

As Earth grows warmer due to climate change, the potential...

In the intricate world of plant biology, researchers are on a quest to uncover the secrets of plant regeneration. Plants have the fascinating ability to regenerate an entire organism from a somatic cell - an ordinary cell not typically associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-prioritize-survival-over-reproduction/">reproduction</a>.&nbsp;



Plant regeneration is based on the formation of a structure known as the shoot apical meristem (SAM), which subsequently gives rise to lateral organs critical for the plant's reconstruction.&nbsp;



However, SAM formation does not just occur haphazardly - it is regulated by a series of positive and negative regulator molecules. But what molecules exactly, and are there other regulatory layers that are yet to be unveiled?



<h2 id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



To answer these questions, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.naist.jp/en/">Nara Institute of Science and Technology</a> (NAIST) in Japan focused on Arabidopsis, a model plant species frequently utilized in genetic research.&nbsp;



The researchers identified and characterized a key negative regulator of shoot regeneration known as WUSCHEL-RELATED HOMEOBOX 13 (WOX13) gene and its accompanying protein.



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg6983">Science Advances</a>, reveals how WOX13 promotes the non-dividing (non-meristematic) function of callus cells. This action as a transcriptional (RNA-level) repressor can impact the efficiency of plant regeneration.



"The search for strategies to enhance shoot regeneration efficiency in plants has been a long one. But progress has been hindered because the related regulatory mechanisms have been unclear. Our study fills this gap by defining a new cell-fate specification pathway," explained Momoko Ikeuchi, the principal investigator of the study.



<h2 id="h-previous-research">Previous research&nbsp;</h2>



Prior research by Ikeuchi's team had established WOX13's role in tissue repair and organ adhesion following grafting, thus piquing their interest in this gene's potential role in regulating shoot regeneration.&nbsp;



They experimented with a mutated version of Arabidopsis, called the wox13 mutant, which has a dysfunctional WOX13 gene. Using a two-step tissue culture system, the experts analyzed the speed of shoot regeneration in plants both with and without the WOX13 gene.



The analysis painted a clear picture: Shoot regeneration was faster - by approximately three days - in plants lacking the WOX13 gene, and conversely, slower when WOX13 expression was induced. It became evident that WOX13 is a negative regulator of shoot regeneration.



<h2 id="h-current-research">Current research&nbsp;</h2>



To substantiate these findings, the team undertook a comparative study using RNA sequencing, examining gene expression over multiple time points in both the wox13 mutants and normal (wild-type) plants.&nbsp;



The absence of WOX13 did not substantially alter the gene expression of Arabidopsis under callus-inducing conditions.&nbsp;



However, the absence of WOX13 under shoot-inducing conditions significantly amplified the gene alterations, leading to increased expression of shoot meristem regulator genes. These same genes were suppressed within 24 hours when WOX13 was overexpressed in mutant plants.



This breakthrough highlights a crucial role for WOX13, showing it inhibits a subset of shoot meristem regulators while simultaneously activating cell wall modifier genes involved in cell expansion and differentiation.



<h2 id="h-new-understanding-of-plant-regeneration">New understanding of plant regeneration&nbsp;</h2>



The NAIST study also underscores a significant departure from traditional understanding of plant regeneration. Unlike previously identified negative regulators, which solely prevent the transition from callus towards SAM, WOX13 impedes SAM specification by promoting the acquisition of alternative cell fates.&nbsp;



WOX13 and the regulator WUS form a mutually repressive regulatory circuit, leading to the transcriptional inhibition of WUS and other SAM regulators.



"Our findings show that knocking out WOX13 can promote the acquisition of shoot fate and enhance shoot regulation efficiency. This means that WOX13 knockout can serve as a tool in agriculture and horticulture and boost the tissue culture-mediated de novo shoot regeneration of crops," said Ikeuchi.&nbsp;



As scientists continue to decipher the complex mechanisms of plant regeneration, such discoveries hold promise for innovative applications in agriculture and horticulture, potentially transforming plant regeneration efficiency and crop yields.



<h2 id="h-more-about-self-renewal-in-plants">More about self-renewal in plants</h2>



Self-renewal in plants refers to the capacity of a plant to continually produce new cells and tissues throughout its lifetime. This process is essential for the survival and growth of plants, and it happens thanks to specific types of cells called meristems.



<h3 id="h-meristems">Meristems&nbsp;</h3>



Meristems are regions of plant growth, where cells are undifferentiated, much like stem cells in animals. These cells can divide and differentiate into various types of plant cells and have the potential to grow into any part of the plant.&nbsp;



Meristems are typically located in the tips of roots and shoots (called apical meristems), which allow for vertical growth, and in the vascular and cork cambium (lateral meristems), which allow for girth expansion in woody plants.



<h3 id="h-self-renewal">Self-renewal&nbsp;</h3>



Self-renewal is also essential for the process of plant regeneration. Plants have a remarkable ability to regenerate lost or damaged parts. For example, if a branch gets cut off, many plant species can grow a new one in its place. Similarly, some plants can even grow an entirely new plant from a single cell or small tissue cutting, a feature that is extensively utilized in the field of plant tissue culture and micropropagation.



The self-renewal in plants is controlled by a complex network of genetic and hormonal pathways. Several plant hormones, such as auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins, play crucial roles in the process of cell division and differentiation. These hormones work together with various genes and transcription factors to ensure the proper development and growth of plants.



Studies in model organisms, such as the small flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana, have provided much insight into the molecular mechanisms behind plant self-renewal and regeneration. However, there's still a lot to learn about these processes, and ongoing research continues to uncover new aspects of plant growth and development.



—--



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Study sheds light on the pathways of plant regeneration

In the intricate world of plant biology, researchers are on...

In a bold stride toward innovative mental health treatment, Australia has become the first country to legally authorize psychiatrists to prescribe specific psychedelic substances to patients grappling with depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/women-with-ptsd-and-depression-are-four-times-more-likely-to-die-prematurely/">PTSD</a>).&nbsp;



This historic legislation took effect last Saturday, allowing Australian medical practitioners to administer doses of MDMA, colloquially known as ecstasy, for PTSD. Psilocybin, the psychoactive component in psychedelic mushrooms, has been greenlighted for patients suffering from intractable depression.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.tga.gov.au/therapeutic-goods-administration-tga">Therapeutic Goods Administration</a>, Australia's regulatory body for therapeutic goods, has added these two psychedelic substances to their roster of approved medicines.



<h2 id="h-pioneering-research">Pioneering research&nbsp;</h2>



This move, initially announced in February, has drawn astonishment from the scientific community in Australia, positioning the country at the leading edge of mental health research. One scientist cited Australia as now standing “at the forefront of research in this field.”



Chris Langmead, the deputy director of the Neuromedicines Discovery Centre at the <a href="https://www.monash.edu/mips">Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences</a>, highlighted the scarcity of breakthroughs in the management of persistent mental health issues over the last half-century. This pioneering development signals a possible new direction for treatment modalities.



<h2 id="h-cultural-acceptance">Cultural acceptance&nbsp;</h2>



The shifting cultural acceptance of these substances has been reflected in legislative measures across the United States. Oregon blazed the trail by legalizing the adult use of psilocybin, closely followed by Colorado, where voters chose to decriminalize psilocybin in 2022.&nbsp;



In an intriguing twist, the youngest brother of President Joe Biden revealed in a recent radio interview that the President has exhibited a “very open-minded” stance in their discussions about the potential benefits of psychedelics for medical treatment.



<h2 id="h-breakthrough-therapy">Breakthrough therapy</h2>



The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labeled psilocybin a “breakthrough therapy” in 2018, a status designed to expedite the development and evaluation of medications intended for serious conditions.&nbsp;



Psychedelics researchers, including teams at institutions such as Johns Hopkins, have gained support from federal grants. Moreover, the FDA issued preliminary guidelines last month for investigators planning clinical trials to evaluate psychedelic substances as potential treatments for an array of medical conditions.



However, the American Psychiatric Association has withheld endorsement of the use of psychedelics in treatment, citing the FDA's pending final decision.



<h2 id="h-unknown-risks">Unknown risks&nbsp;</h2>



Medical experts worldwide, including in the U.S. and Australia, have urged caution, stating that additional research is needed to fully comprehend these drugs' effectiveness and the scope of the potential risks. Psychedelics, known to induce hallucinations, are not without their dangers.



“There are concerns that evidence remains inadequate and moving to clinical service is premature; that incompetent or poorly equipped clinicians could flood the space; that treatment will be unaffordable for most; that formal oversight of training, treatment, and patient outcomes will be minimal or ill-informed," said Dr. Paul Liknaitzky, head of Monash University’s Clinical Psychedelic Lab.



Furthermore, the financial burden on patients is significant. In Australia, the cost of this novel treatment will amount to roughly $10,000 (approximately $6,600 U.S. dollars) per patient.



Despite these hurdles, Dr. Litnaitzky regards this as an exclusive opportunity for Australians to access these drugs for specific conditions. He expressed his optimism, stating that there’s excitement about drug policy progress. Dr. Litnaitzky sees the prospect of being able to offer patients “more suitable and tailored treatment without the constraints imposed by clinical trials and rigid protocols.”&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-psychedelics-and-mental-health">Psychedelics and mental health&nbsp;</h2>



Psychedelics, such as LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide), psilocybin (magic mushrooms), and ayahuasca, have gained attention in recent years for their potential effects on mental health. While research in this area is still ongoing, there is growing evidence suggesting that psychedelics may have therapeutic potential for certain mental health conditions.



Psychedelics are known to produce profound alterations in perception, thoughts, and emotions. They can induce a range of effects, including hallucinations, altered sense of self, and mystical experiences. Some studies have indicated that these substances may be useful in the treatment of conditions such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and addiction.



One of the most well-known studies on psychedelics and mental health is the use of psilocybin-assisted therapy for treating depression and end-of-life anxiety in cancer patients. Preliminary research has shown promising results, with participants experiencing reductions in depressive symptoms and improved quality of life. Similar studies have shown positive outcomes for other mental health conditions as well.



It's important to note that the therapeutic use of psychedelics typically involves a structured and supervised approach, often in the context of psychotherapy. These substances are not meant to be used recreationally or without professional guidance. The therapeutic process often includes careful preparation, the presence of trained therapists during the psychedelic experience, and integration sessions afterward to help individuals make sense of their experiences.



It's also crucial to recognize that psychedelics are not without risks. They can induce intense and challenging experiences that may be overwhelming for some individuals.&nbsp;



People with a history of mental health conditions or certain medical conditions, such as schizophrenia or certain heart conditions, may be at greater risk and should approach the use of psychedelics with caution.



—-



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Australia is the first country to legalize psychedelics for mental health treatment

In a bold stride toward innovative mental health treatment, Australia...

Looking back into the origins of our world billions of years ago, celestial bodies were beginning to form in the gargantuan, swirling disk of dust, gas, and rocky debris that orbited our sun.&nbsp;



This process, known as accretion, gradually gave rise to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-third-of-our-galaxys-planets-could-be-habitable/">planets</a>, moons, and asteroids that populate our cosmic landscape. Scientists continue to grapple with understanding the complex procedures that gave birth to planets, including Earth.



<h2 id="h-magma-holds-clues">Magma holds clues</h2>



One of the primary methods that researchers use to understand Earth's formation is the examination of magma, the molten or semi-molten natural rock, which emerges from deep within the Earth's core.&nbsp;



Magma samples contain chemical signatures that chronicle our planet's birth - detailing the timing and nature of the constituent materials that contributed to the formation of Earth. This is similar to how fossils offer us clues about the biological past of Earth.



In a groundbreaking new study from the <a href="https://www.caltech.edu/">California Institute of Technology</a>, evidence suggests that early Earth was created from hot, parched materials. This revelation suggests that water arrived relatively late in the history of Earth's formation.&nbsp;



The study fundamentally alters our understanding of our planet's creation story, shedding light on a crucial chapter in Earth's development. The research was conducted in the laboratories of Professor Francois Tissot and Yigang Zhang from the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences. Weiyi Liu, a graduate student at Caltech, is the first author of the paper published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



<h2 id="h-samples-from-earths-mantle">Samples from Earths mantle&nbsp;</h2>



Even though humans have not yet developed a way to physically penetrate into the heart of our planet, the interior is not entirely inaccessible to us. Deep within Earth's mantle, rocks can make their way to the surface through volcanic eruptions, bringing important samples with them.



These parental magmas can originate from different strata within the Earth, including the upper mantle, which starts roughly 15 kilometers beneath the surface and stretches to around 680 kilometers; or the lower mantle, extending from 680 kilometers down to the core - mantle boundary approximately 2,900 kilometers beneath our feet.&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-chemical-signatures">Chemical signatures&nbsp;</h2>



By analyzing magmas from varying depths, scientists are able to infer information about the distinct chemical composition of Earth's layers.



The formation of Earth was not an overnight phenomenon, but was a protracted process involving materials gradually coming together over a vast span of time. Through the study, the team was able to discern that the early Earth was primarily composed of desiccated, rocky substances.&nbsp;



The chemical signatures derived from the planet's depths indicated an absence of so-called volatiles, which are substances that readily evaporate, like water and iodine. By contrast, the upper mantle samples contained a higher proportion of volatiles, three times that found in the lower mantle.&nbsp;



Liu developed a model based on these chemical ratios, demonstrating that Earth initially formed from arid, rocky materials and that significant infusion of life-essential volatiles, including water, transpired during the last 15 percent (or less) of Earth's formation.



<h2 id="h-planetary-formation-theories">Planetary formation theories</h2>



The research significantly contributes to the ongoing dialogue around planetary formation theories - a field that has witnessed multiple paradigm shifts in the past decades and continues to be the locus of vibrant scientific debate. It also provides predictions for the nature of other terrestrial planets like Mercury and Venus, which are presumed to have been formed from similar dry materials.



Tissot emphasizes the importance of space exploration in this context: "Space exploration to the outer planets is really important because a water world is probably the best place to look for extraterrestrial life."&nbsp;



"There hasn't been a mission that's touched Venus's surface for nearly 40 years, and there has never been a mission to the surface of Mercury. We need to be able to study those worlds to better understand how terrestrial planets such as Earth formed."&nbsp;



<h2 id="h-more-about-earth-s-water">More about Earth's water</h2>



Earth's water constitutes a significant part of the planet's unique identity, playing a crucial role in sustaining a wide array of life forms. Until recently, it was widely accepted that water was a key part of Earth's formation. However, the Caltech study has introduced a significant paradigm shift in this understanding.



According to the new study, the early Earth, contrary to previous assumptions, was a barren, arid place, consisting mainly of hot, dry materials. Magma evidence strongly suggests that Earth's abundant water - essential for life as we know it - made a rather late appearance in the planet's formative history.



The late addition of water to Earth's composition has far-reaching implications for our understanding of life's evolution. The late addition of water could mean that life also started to evolve relatively late in Earth's history.



—--



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When did Earth get its water? Much later than expected, study suggests

Looking back into the origins of our world billions of...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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