Giant viruses were once mysterious. Now, they appear essential to the ocean's balance. These viruses infect protists - single-celled marine life like algae, amoebas, and flagellates. 



Protists sit at the base of the food web. When giant viruses infect them, the effects ripple through the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-based-viruses-discovered-that-trap-carbon-and-combat-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>. Sometimes, these infections even trigger harmful algal blooms. These blooms can hurt marine animals and affect public health.



Researchers now want to know more. If we understand these viruses better, we might predict when and where blooms will occur. That would help protect coastal communities. A team at the <a href="https://www.earth.miami.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric and Earth Science</a> has taken a big step forward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-giant-viruses-influence-marine-life">How giant viruses influence marine life</h2>



The research team analyzed vast sets of publicly available environmental DNA sequences collected from marine waters around the world. 



By applying their specialized tool to this massive data pool, they were able to recover 230 previously unknown, high-quality giant virus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/23-new-marine-bacteria-species-discovered-that-influence-global-ocean-cycles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genomes</a>.



The genomes originated from samples collected across a diverse range of oceanic regions, stretching from the frozen Arctic Ocean in the north to the remote reaches of the South Pacific.



Among the sampling locations, the Baltic Sea stood out. This brackish body of water, known for its unique ecological conditions, yielded the highest number of discoveries - 108 high-quality viral genomes. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diversity-of-giant-viruses">Diversity of giant viruses</h2>



In addition to these complete sequences, the team also identified 398 partial giant virus genomes, expanding the known diversity even further.



The recovered viruses spanned several well-known taxonomic orders. Most belonged to Imitervirales and Algavirales, two dominant groups in marine viral ecology. Remarkably, the researchers also detected members of the rare Mirusviricota order. 



This group is particularly significant because it shows evolutionary links between giant viruses and herpesviruses, suggesting a much deeper history than previously thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giant-virus-dna-and-protein-makeup">Giant virus DNA and protein makeup</h2>



Many of the new viral <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genomes</a> were large - some over 1.3 million base pairs long. Genomes in the Algavirales group were among the biggest. Pandoravirales showed the highest GC content, which affects how the DNA behaves and is processed.



The researchers didn’t just stop at sequencing. They studied proteins inside these viruses and calculated nitrogen and sulfur in each protein chain. 



These values offer clues about virus-host dynamics. A high nitrogen content might drain host resources during infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-virus-genes-control-how-hosts-make-energy">Virus genes control how hosts make energy</h2>



The team found genes for photosynthesis and carbon metabolism. These include genes involved in glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and even chlorophyll-binding proteins. 



“We discovered that giant viruses possess genes involved in cellular functions such as carbon metabolism and photosynthesis - traditionally found only in cellular organisms," said Benjamin Minch, the lead author of the study.



Imitervirales carried many of these genes. Algavirales carried fewer, despite larger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-recreate-an-ancient-war-trick-to-defeat-viruses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> sizes. This hints at two different infection strategies. Imitervirales might rely more on hijacking and augmenting host metabolism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-hotspot-for-viral-diversity">A hotspot for viral diversity </h2>



The Baltic Sea turned out to be a hotspot for viral diversity. Researchers found many new proteins there, including 88% of the novel proteins identified in this study. 



Salinity, depth, and bacterial production played major roles in shaping these viral communities.



“This study allowed us to create a framework to improve existing tools for detecting novel viruses that could aid in our ability to monitor pollution and pathogens in our waterways,” Minch added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-photosynthesis-a-hijacked-process">Photosynthesis: A hijacked process</h2>



Newly discovered viral proteins linked to photosystems I and II, cytochrome b6f, and ATP synthase suggest that giant viruses can tweak their host’s photosynthetic machinery. That helps the virus maintain the host's energy production during infection.



“Giant viruses are often the main cause of death for many phytoplankton, which serve as the base of the food web supporting ocean ecosystems and food sources,” said Mohammad Moniruzzaman, co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tools-and-open-access-data">Tools and open access data</h2>



All this was made possible by <a href="https://gitlab.com/benminch1/BEREN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BEREN</a> - a new tool that spots giant viruses in public DNA libraries. The team avoided re-analyzing datasets already mined, like Tara Oceans, and focused on untapped sources.



Giant viruses remain one of biology’s great surprises. With just 1,800 marine genomes recovered to date, there’s much more to find. The new genomes add weight to the idea that viruses shape entire ecosystems.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s44298-025-00122-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">npj Viruses</a>.



The full dataset, genomes, and code are open-access on <a href="https://figshare.com/projects/Expansion_of_the_genomic_and_functional_diversity_of_global_ocean_giant_viruses/214120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Figshare</a> and <a href="https://zenodo.org/records/14782687" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zenodo</a>. 



Image Credit: Grieg Steward, Ph.D., <a href="https://manoa.hawaii.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa</a>.



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Giant viruses hijack ocean plants to control marine food webs

Giant viruses were once mysterious. Now, they appear essential to the ocean's balance. These viruses infect protists - single-celled marine life like algae, amoebas, and flagellates. Protists sit at the base of the food web. When giant viruses infect them, the effects ripple through the ecosystem. Sometimes, these infections even trigger harmful algal blooms. These blooms can hurt marine animals and affect public health. Researchers now want to know more. If we understand these viruses better, we might predict when and where blooms will occur. That would...

Have you ever watched an ant wandering around in search of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swans-sacrifice-rest-to-defend-their-foraging-areas/">food</a> and wondered whether there is method in its movements? Probably not. But this is exactly what Stefan Popp and Anna Dornhaus, both from the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a>, did when trying to understand how ants search their environments efficiently.&nbsp;



Most people assume that when ants need to find food that is in an unknown location, their best option would be to search in a random manner. Ants spend much of their lives searching for resources, but they must also stay close to their nest or colony, in case they need to return quickly. If they search randomly, they will be relatively efficient at locating resources, but will run the risk of returning to areas they have already searched. Alternatively, if they search in a non-random pattern, like a spiral or a left-to-right meander, they will not cross their path again but will be thrown by obstacles that obstruct their pathway and may end up deviating in a manner that takes them over territory they have already searched.&nbsp;



In order to find out which patterns rock ants (Temnothorax rugatulus) use when searching for food, the researchers transplanted five entire colonies into the lab, where they could track all ants automatically and under constant conditions. They gave the ants a large (2 x 3 m), empty arena and left them to search around for food for 5 hours. After video recording almost 5 km of ant tracks, which was equivalent to 1,384 individual tracks, they used statistical means to compare the ants’ movements with computer-generated random walk patterns.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We wanted to make sure that we are not just seeing patterns where there are none,” Popp said. “We then used a&nbsp;simple&nbsp;statistical method of detecting regularity in movement tracks to get a&nbsp;simple&nbsp;answer.”



The results, published in the online journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.105916">iScience</a>, showed that the ants used a mixture of distinctly systematic movements, along with random elements. A total of 78 percent of the ants systematically turned the direction of their search roughly every 10 mm. This means that a turn in one direction was usually followed by a turn in the opposite direction after roughly three ant body lengths. The researchers termed this regular movement “meandering.”&nbsp;



“Previously, researchers in the field assumed that ants move in a pure random walk when searching for targets of which they don't know their location,” said Popp. “We found that rock ants, show a striking, regular meandering pattern when exploring the area around their nests. This means that the ants smoothly alternate left and right turns on a relatively regular length scale of roughly three body lengths.”



The regular meandering movements are also interspersed with random elements. The researchers state that the ant tracks 1) cross themselves less often than random walks would, and 2) sometimes disperse more than random walks. This means that ants cover the search area more efficiently than if their movements were simply random, because they don’t waste time searching areas they have already covered. In addition, their systematic meandering takes them away from the nest rapidly, to areas that have not been searched as thoroughly. Thus, the movement system of the ants is more efficient than if they walked around randomly. Popp says he was most intrigued by the extreme forms the ants’ patterns could take from these simple principles.



“Parts of some tracks look like the curled threads&nbsp;one can pull out of a piece of clothing, and in some it looks like the meandering path meanders itself,” he said, “creating a seemingly fractal structure. It reminds me of some space-filling curves we know from math!”



The new study is the first to find evidence for efficient search through regular meandering in a freely searching animal, the researchers report. It also adds another complex behavior for ants, suggesting that there’s still more to learn.



Popp says he’s most fascinated in questions about the rules in an ant’s mind that allow such complex search patterns to emerge. He notes also that the ants have solved a problem of collective search over the course of evolution in a way that might find application for designing autonomous swarms of search robots or drones for use in disaster areas or unexplored landscapes.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Meandering ants have a method to their madness

Have you ever watched an ant wandering around in search...

As Earth’s atmosphere traps more heat under the influence of greenhouse gases, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-killing-asteroid-scoured-the-worlds-oceans/">oceans</a> become warmer. This means that, ideally, if we wish to understand how much Earth’s climate has changed, we need to look at the warming of the oceans. The oceans have a massive thermal inertia (are slow to heat up) and have been able to absorb around 90 percent of the Earth’s increasing heat load, but they have been warming inexorably for many decades. The implications of this change in ocean heat content, which is unlikely to stop any time soon, are likely to be devastating to natural systems and to all living creatures.&nbsp;



In a new review published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00345-1">Nature Reviews Earth &amp; Environment</a>, an international team of scientists has analyzed temperature data from the world’s oceans in order to put together a clear picture of the extent of global ocean heat change since the 1950s. Using this information, the researchers are able to predict likely trends in ocean warming going forward, and to assess the potential consequences. This study is important because it motivates us to take actions to mitigate and respond to climate change. It shows what will happen if we don't take urgent action to slow global warming.



The study involved scientists from leading institutions in France, USA, Australia, the UK, and China, including the <a href="http://english.iap.cas.cn/">Institute of Atmospheric Physics</a>. The team collected temperature information from past studies of the world’s oceans that made use of a variety of different temperature sensors. Some of these sensors are manually placed in the oceans by researchers, others are deployed by cargo vessels, and many are autonomous devices that float in the ocean or are tethered, like a buoy or mooring. By combining many thousands of temperature measurements spread across the globe and over the years, the scientists were able to piece together a clear picture of global ocean heat content change back to the 1950s.



Analysis of the data showed that the upper 2000m of ocean began warming, unequivocally, at least in the 1950s. The warming has continued since then and has been driven, mostly by the heat uptake at the ocean surface, and the transport of this warmed water by currents, mixing and stirring in the ocean interior.&nbsp;This has meant that heat has not been equally distributed between the world’s oceans; some, such as the southern Atlantic and Southern Oceans, have warmed more than others due to the effects of current movements.



Now, the upper 2000m of ocean is warming at a rapidly accelerating rate that has more than doubled (from &lt;5 to 10 ZJ per year.&nbsp; A ZJ is 1021 Joules of energy, or 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Joules) between the 1960s and the 2010s. To put this in perspective, the annual energy consumption for the USA is approximately 0.1 ZJ. In addition, this overall warming pattern is now driven less by ocean current mixing, and more by the passive uptake of added heat by surface waters, as the Earth becomes warmer and warmer.&nbsp;



A massive temperature data set like the one used in the current review is key to understanding both our past and our future, in terms of ocean heat content. The researchers describe the heat content changes between 1950 and 2019 in all the world’s oceans and this enables them to predict what will happen to the oceans in the coming decades. The most important finding is that the future of the oceans is in our hands.&nbsp;



The authors stress that if significant cuts in greenhouse gas emissions are made (i.e., if the target of the Paris Agreement of limiting global surface temperature increase to 2°C above the pre-industrial level can be achieved), the acceleration of ocean warming will stop at around 2030. However, if we don’t take action, the predictions are quite dire. The rate of warming will skyrocket throughout the 21st&nbsp;century: by the 2090s, the rate of ocean warming is projected to be four times larger than the current level.



Some of the potential consequences of this unabated ocean warming are described by the researchers. By 2100, all regions of the ocean will exhibit warming, although the Southern and Atlantic Oceans will have warmed the most. This will lead to continued melting of ice sheets and glaciers and a consequent increase in sea levels worldwide. This, in turn, will cause coastal erosion, displacement of people, flooding and damage to coastal infrastructures. Ocean warming also affects the cycling of carbon, oxygen and nutrients in the ocean, affecting food chains that support the ocean’s living creatures.&nbsp;



In addition, ocean warming intensifies tropical cyclones and changes the paths of storms. It leads to marine heat waves that bleach corals, change phytoplankton blooms and kill kelp forests and sea grasses. This can lead to the mass mortality of benthic organisms, declines in fish and seabird populations and a shortage of food for humans. Weather patterns also change as a consequence of a warm ocean, with some areas receiving more rain and flooding while others become drier with more heat waves and droughts.&nbsp;



Continued monitoring of ocean temperatures is critical, say the authors, along with enhanced understanding and adaptation to the effects of warmer waters. However, they stress that the future of ocean warming is in our hands. Low greenhouse gas emissions would be likely to lead to a detectable and lasting reduction in ocean warming rate, with noticeable reductions in climate-change impacts. But if these emissions continue unabated, the consequences will be very severe. We have already experienced a wide range of climate disasters during 2022: heat waves, flooding, heavy rainfalls, and strong hurricanes. If the current weather is wild, just wait for the coming decades … we haven't seen anything yet.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Ocean warming could be devastating to all living creatures

As Earth’s atmosphere traps more heat under the influence of...

On Monday January 30, 2023 the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) decided that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-largest-covid-wave-currently-unfolding-across-china/">Covid-19</a> remains a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC). However, due to currently high levels of both natural and vaccine-induced immunity, as well as the relative mildness of the Omicron variants compared to previous ones, the experts agreed that the pandemic is at a “transition point.”



A PHEIC has the benefit of creating an agreement among countries to abide by WHO’s recommendations for managing the pandemic, while each country in its turn can declare its own public health emergency, allowing them to legally waive rules and marshal resources for mitigating the impact of such health crises. Although the world is much better equipped to manage the pandemic than it was in the previous three years, many nations around the world are still experiencing a high – and, in some cases, even rising - number of infections and deaths, an aspect clearly showing that the pandemic is far from over.



“Achieving higher levels of population immunity globally, either through infection and/or vaccination, may limit the impact of SARS-CoV-2 on morbidity and mortality, but there is little doubt that this virus will remain a permanently established pathogen in humans and animals for the foreseeable future. As such, long-term public health action is critically needed,” WHO’s International Health Regulations Emergency Committee&nbsp;recently stated.



“While eliminating this virus from human and animal reservoirs is highly unlikely, mitigation of its devastating impact on morbidity and mortality is achievable and should continue to be a prioritized goal.”



In a list of temporary recommendations, WHO advised that countries should continue vaccinating people and incorporate Covid vaccines into routine health care, while improving disease surveillance, continuing to fight misinformation, adjusting international travel requirements and recommendations based on comprehensive risk assessment, and maintaining a strong healthcare system to a avoid a “panic-neglect cycle” that characterized many of the previous pandemics.



“My message is clear: Do not underestimate this virus. It has and will continue to surprise us, and it will continue to kill unless we do more to get health tools to people that need them and to comprehensively tackle misinformation,” WHO’s Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Covid-19 remains a global health emergency

On Monday January 30, 2023 the World Health Organization (WHO)...

A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/">University of Tokyo</a> has found that scratches on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-daspletosaurus-sheds-light-on-dinosaur-evolution/">dinosaur</a> teeth could reveal what they used to eat. By employing a technique called “dental microwear texture analysis” (DMTA) – a scanning method devised to examine topographical dental wear and tear in microscopic detail – the experts inferred the feeding habits of large theropods, including Allosaurus and T. rex.



The researchers discovered that while some dinosaurs may have frequently crunched on hard bone, others had regularly eaten soft foods and prey. This technique opens up new research avenues in Paleontology, helping scientists better understand not only dinosaurs themselves, but also the environment and communities in which they lived.



“We wanted to test if we could use DMTA to find evidence of different feeding behaviors in tyrannosaurids (from the Cretaceous period, 145 million to 66 million years ago) compared to the older&nbsp;Allosaurus&nbsp;(from the Jurassic period, 201 million to 145 million years ago), which are both types of theropods,” explained study lead author Daniela Winkler, a postdoctoral fellow in Paleontology at the University of Tokyo. “From other research, we already knew that tyrannosaurids can crack and feed on bones (from studies of their feces and bite marks on bone). But allosaurs are much older and there is not so much information about them.”



The scientists studied 48 teeth – 34 from theropod dinosaurs and 14 from crocodilians (modern crocodiles and alligators). Surprisingly, the analysis did not reveal evidence of much bone crushing behavior in either Allosaurus or tyrannosaurids, although it was well-known that the latter ate bone.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, there may be several reasons for this unexpected discovery. For instance, it could be that although T. rex was able to eat bone, it was less commonly done than previously thought. In addition, the team had to use well-preserved teeth, so it could be that extremely damaged teeth that could have provided evidence of bone crushing were excluded from the study samples.&nbsp;



The investigation also revealed noticeable differences between juveniles and adults. “We studied two juvenile dinosaur specimens (one&nbsp;Allosaurus&nbsp;and one tyrannosaurid) and what we found was a very different feeding niche and behavior for both compared to the adults. We found that there was more wear to juvenile teeth, which might mean that they&nbsp;had to more frequently feed on carcasses because they were eating leftovers,” Winkler explained.&nbsp;



“We were also able to detect different feeding behavior in juvenile crocodilians; however, this time it was the opposite. Juvenile crocodilians had less wear on their teeth from eating softer foods, perhaps like insects, while adults had more dental wear from eating harder foods, like larger vertebrates.”



Besides shedding more light on the behavior of various dinosaur species, this innovative technique could help scientists better understand the ancient environments in which these creatures lived. “From what we learn using DMTA, we can possibly reconstruct extinct animals’ diets, and from this make inferences about extinct ecosystems, paleoecology, and paleoclimate, and how it differs from today,” Winkler concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/pala.12632">Paleontology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Dinosaur teeth reveal their eating habits

A team of scientists led by the University of Tokyo...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-protects-against-alzheimers-disease/">coffee</a> with milk can have a strong anti-inflammatory effect, since the combination of antioxidants from coffee with proteins from milk doubles the anti-inflammatory properties of immune cells.



When pathogens and other foreign substances enter our bodies, our immune systems react by deploying an army of white blood cells and chemical substances to protect us, leading to inflammation. To counteract the bodily damaged caused by inflammation, antioxidants such as polyphenols help reducing the oxidative stress in our bodies. However, much remains unknown about these beneficial substances. Now, the researchers have examined what happens when polyphenols react with other molecules, such as amino acids (the building blocks of proteins).



“In the study, we show that as a polyphenol reacts with an amino acid, its inhibitory effect on inflammation in immune cells is enhanced,” said senior author Marianne Lund, an expert in Food Science at Copenhagen. “As such, it is clearly imaginable that this cocktail could also have a beneficial effect on inflammation in humans. We will now investigate further, initially in animals. After that, we hope to receive research funding which will allow us to study the effect in humans.”



To investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of polyphenols mixed with proteins, the scientists applied artificial inflammation to immune cells, and discovered that the cells exposed to this combination were twice as effective at fighting inflammation as those to which only polyphenols were added.



While previous research has found that polyphenols bind to proteins in meat products, milk, and beer, thus leading to major health benefits, the present study has shown that this process occurs also in coffee with milk. 



“Our result demonstrates that the reaction between polyphenols and proteins also happens in some of the coffee drinks with milk that we studied. In fact, the reaction happens so quickly that it has been difficult to avoid in any of the foods that we’ve studied so far,” Lund reported.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Because humans do not absorb that much polyphenol, many researchers are studying how to encapsulate polyphenols in protein structures which improve their absorption in the body. This strategy has the added advantage of enhancing the anti-inflammatory effects of polyphenols,” she concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.2c06658">Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Coffee with milk has powerful anti-inflammatory properties

A new study led by the University of Copenhagen has...

Plants let their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-colors-in-sunflowers-dont-only-attract-bees/">flowers</a> fade quickly for protection from detrimental microbes, according to a study led by experts at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en">Kyoto University</a>. Using field experiments and plant microbiome analyses, the researchers discovered that microbes growing on flowers can have a negative impact on fruit yields. As a defense mechanism, plants are quick to shed their flowers before the microbes increase in abundance.



"The results suggest that old flowers harbor microbial communities different from those at anthesis, and that the microbes abundant on old flowers negatively affect plant reproduction," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Although it has received little attention, antagonistic microbes that rapidly proliferate on the flowers may have affected the evolution of various flower characteristics such as flower volatiles and life span."



Previously, researchers have investigated the tradeoff between energy that plants spend on producing and maintaining their flowers. Since flowers serve as a reproductive structure, it seems that plants would benefit from keeping them longer.&nbsp;



In an earlier study, the Kyoto team had looked at the mystery of why plants invest their energy to produce fragile flowers that wither quickly, rather than investing a bit more energy to produce flowers that are more durable.



“Interestingly, flower lifespan is negatively correlated with temperature; the hotter the environment where they bloom, the shorter the period a plant retains them. The phenomenon has been known for a long time,” said study co-author Shoko Sakai.



“Then, at some point, I came up with the hypothesis that antagonistic microbes, such as bacteria and fungi growing on flowers after the flower bud opens, must be the driver that shortens the lifespan of a flower. I doubted that it was a coincidence that microbes grow faster in higher temperatures.”



The team conducted field experiments to determine what microbial communities appear on flowers that live longer. The experts transferred microbes from old flowers of wild ginger to other wild ginger plants with new flowers that had just opened.



The experimental plants ultimately produced fewer fruits, despite the fact that there were no visible signs of infection or disease. When the researchers analyzed the microbiomes of the plants, they found several groups of bacteria that were increasing with time.&nbsp;



“So far, flower characteristics have mostly been studied in the context of their interactions with pollinators," said Sakai. "Recent studies have raised the question whether we have overlooked the roles of microbes in the studies of floral characteristics. For example, flower volatiles - which are often regarded as a primary pollinator attractant - can also function to suppress antagonistic microbes."



"The impacts of microbes on plant reproductive ecology may be more deeply embedded in the evolution of angiosperms than we have considered."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://mbmg.pensoft.net/">Metabarcoding and Metagenomics</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants shed their flowers quickly for protection

Plants let their flowers fade quickly for protection from detrimental...

Each year, the United States spends almost a trillion dollars attempting to combat metallic corrosion, an electrochemical reaction which occurs when metals oxidize and begin to rust. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">Ohio State University</a> (OSU) has estimated how much corrosion is gradually worsening global carbon <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-will-increase-arctic-co2-emissions-by-40-billion-tons/">emissions</a>.&nbsp;



Although previous research has already estimated the economic cost of corrosion to be about three to four percent of United States’ gross domestic product, this is the first study to quantify the environmental impact associated with steel corrosion.



Global steel production has increased steadily for decades and, since steel has poor resistance to corrosion, part of that demand is to replace steel from construction materials that have become corroded over time. According to the experts, reducing the amount of steel which needs to be replaced due to corrosion could have significant effects on the amount of greenhouse gases produced to make steel.



“Given society’s reliance on coal fuel, iron and steel production is one of the largest greenhouse gases emitters of any industry. But most of the costs associated with the industry actually stem from the energy that goes into creating steel, and that energy is lost as the steel reverts to rust, which is similar to its original form of iron ore,” explained study senior author Gerald Frankel, a professor of Materials Science and Engineering at OSU.&nbsp;&nbsp;



By using historical carbon dioxide intensity data in order to estimate CO2 levels per year starting from 1960, the scientists found that, in 2021, steel production accounted for 27 percent of the carbon emissions of the global manufacturing sector, and approximately 10.5 percent of the total carbon emissions worldwide, while corroded steel emissions accounted for about 1.6 to 3.4 percent of emissions.



Fortunately, due to regulations placed on the steel industry, technological advancements in the steel industry have resulted in a 61 percent reduction in energy consumption over the past half a century. Nonetheless, policy makers and industry officials should still act urgently to amend and coordinate international policy concerning steel production and corrosion management.



“Coordinated international strategies, as well as decreasing global steel demand, by using best practices for corrosion mitigation, could better improve global corrosion management strategies and drastically reduce the rise in greenhouse gas emissions we’re seeing due to repeatedly replacing corroded steel,” Frankel said.



If such actions are not undertaken soon, greenhouse emissions caused by the steel industry could spike to 27.5 percent of the global carbon emissions by as early as 2030, with corroded steel representing four to nine percent of that number. This could have dire impacts on the Earth’s climate.



“Global warming is a societal challenge that takes coordination of a lot of multidisciplinary approaches. Our work is bringing to light an issue that seems to have gone under the radar in terms of the importance of adding to the problem,” Frankel concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41529-022-00318-1">npj Materials Degradation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Steel corrosion is a major contributor to climate change

Each year, the United States spends almost a trillion dollars...

According to a new study led by an international team of scientists, China is currently a nighttime “hotspot” for the production of nitrate radicals (PNO3) that may have a significant impact on health-threatening levels of ozone and fine particulates (PM2.5) in the atmosphere. 



While the United States and Europe experienced a decline in nocturnal production of NO3, China has recently experienced a rapid increase in these pollutants. The experts believe that this may have serious implications not only for China, but also for other developing countries such as India.



“Nitrogen oxides derived from combustion and natural sources are reactive gases that regulate the formation of key air pollutants including both ozone (O3) and PM2.5. Nocturnal oxidation driven by nitrate radicals is an important, but poorly understood, process in atmospheric chemistry – we must understand this better, if we are to formulate effective global pollution mitigation strategies and understand the influence of nitrogen oxides on air quality and climate,” said study co-author Zongbo Shi, an expert in Aerosol Chemistry and Physics at the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a>.



The analysis revealed that the current production of NO3&nbsp;radicals increased significantly in three megacity clusters (the North China Plain, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Pearl River Delta), while in eight major Chinese cities - Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Chengdu, Xi’an, Jinan, Zhengzhou and Shijiazhuang – it is currently comparable to that in Los Angeles in the 1990s, and keeps increasing. Moreover, if ozone <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-linked-to-a-higher-risk-of-stroke/">pollution</a> keeps rising, nighttime oxidation in China will most likely increase further, even if NO3&nbsp;emissions are curbed.



Considering the fact that much lower levels of NO3&nbsp;radicals in both U.S. and Europe have been shown to exert significant impacts on particulate nitrate and organic aerosol formation in those regions, the scientists believe that NO3&nbsp;radical chemistry may play a more critical role in atmospheric oxidation and thus aggravate both O3&nbsp;and PM2.5&nbsp;pollution in China very soon, posing public health problems in this country, as well as abroad.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-01122-x">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Nocturnal pollution is a rising public health threat in China

According to a new study led by an international team...

Sometimes the common names for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-animals-play-a-key-role-in-stabilizing-soil-carbon/">animals</a> can end up being rather confusing. For example, guinea pigs are not related to pigs and neither are they native to Guinea. In the case of American black bears, not all of them are black. In fact, they come in a range of colors, including brown (also known as cinnamon), blond, or bluish-grey, and some even have coats with mixed colors.&nbsp;



Scientists have wondered why there is this diversity in coat color among black bears. Some have hypothesized that the cinnamon coat is a way of mimicking the generally larger grizzly bear (Ursus arctos), which is brown (but can also be black!) This may provide some form of camouflage or defense for the American black bears.&nbsp;



In new research from scientists at <a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/">HudsonAlpha</a>, the University of Memphis, and the University of Pennsylvania, the answer to this question has been discovered in the genomes of the black bears, and it involves a mutation in a pigment gene that happened a very long time ago. The research paper is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



Dr. Emily Puckett is an assistant professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Memphis. She has devoted her career to learning more about the evolution and genetics of bears. With help from partners in state, provincial, and federal wildlife agencies, she collected hundreds of DNA and hair samples from North American bears. Dr. Puckett teamed up with Dr. Greg Barsh, an animal pigmentation expert at HudsonAlpha, to figure out why black bears aren’t always black.



Melanin is the pigment that gives mammals their coat colors. It is produced in the skin by cells known as melanocytes. There are two types of melanin: eumelanin is black or brown, and pheomelanin is red or yellow. It is widely accepted that genetic variation in melanin biosynthesis is what gives rise to differences in hair, eye, and skin color.&nbsp;



The researchers studied photos of bears and analyzed their hair samples. They found that the cinnamon-colored black bears produce reduced amounts of eumelanin, just like grizzly bears. They then sequenced the genomes of nearly 200 bears and identified several different missense mutations in the gene&nbsp;called TYRP1&nbsp;that codes for making the enzyme tyrosinase-related protein 1.&nbsp;



Cinnamon-colored black bears have a mutation called&nbsp;TYRP1R153C,&nbsp;while most (but not all) grizzly bears have a mutation called&nbsp;TYRP1R114C. The&nbsp;TYRP1&nbsp;gene produces the enzyme within the melanocytes, and this enzyme helps produce eumelanin, which explains why the cinnamon and grizzly bears have less of this specific pigment.&nbsp;



In addition, studies carried out in the lab of Dr. Mickey Marks at the University of Pennsylvania determined that the TYRP1R153C and TYRP1R114C&nbsp;mutations interfere with melanin synthesis and distribution.



“When we looked at other species, we were surprised to find the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;variant responsible for cinnamon&nbsp;U. americanus&nbsp;is identical to one previously described as a cause of oculocutaneous albinism (OCA3) in humans,” says Dr. Barsh. OCA3 is characterized by reddish skin and hair and frequent visual abnormalities and is most common in people of African or Puerto Rican ancestry. But according to Puckett, bears with&nbsp;TYRP1&nbsp;mutations have normal skin and can see just fine.



The&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;variant was primarily found in bears from the southwest United States, and at lower frequencies moving northward to Southeast Alaska and the Yukon Territory.&nbsp;The TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation was associated with the cinnamon color in black bears, as well as with the chocolate and light brown colors, meaning it accounts for almost all of the color diversity among&nbsp;U. americanus.



The researchers used their data to learn more about the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation. One hypothesis is that it may first have occurred in grizzly bears and then been&nbsp; transferred to black bears, but demographic analysis indicated that this was not what happened. Instead, the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation arose spontaneously about 9,360 years ago in black bears living in the western United States, then spread as the bears moved and became distributed across their current geographic range.



“Based on its wide range today, the&nbsp;TYRP1R153C&nbsp;mutation that arose in black bears over 9,000 years ago probably gave an advantage to the cinnamon-colored bears,” says Dr. Puckett. “We used genetic modeling and simulations to predict the selective forces acting on the cinnamon morph. But our predictions ruled out the grizzly mimicry hypothesis as well as another hypothesis having to do with thermoregulation.”



The research team proposed a new explanation for the persistence of the coat color variant: crypsis. This refers to the ability of an animal to conceal itself by blending into the surrounding environment, usually by having similar coloration or patterning as the background. The researchers suggest that this is not only important for prey species or ambush predators, but also for large-bodied species that need to blend into their habitat.&nbsp;



“These results illustrate how genetic variation in melanin biosynthesis can underlie iconic phenotypes and inform our understanding of color variation and recent evolution in large carnivores,” says Dr. Barsh.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Why are some black bears actually brown?

Sometimes the common names for animals can end up being...

A new study led by&nbsp;the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nord.no/en/Pages/default.aspx">Nord University</a> in Norway in collaboration with the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.icm.csic.es/es">Institut de Ciències del Mar</a>&nbsp;(ICM-CSIC) in Spain has found that the rise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-temperatures-rise-when-plants-stop-breathing/">temperature</a> in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions caused by global warming are promoting the settlement in these areas of species that previously lived in warmer, southern regions. These findings suggest that climate change is leading to a redistribution of species not only in the much more studied warmer areas of our planet, but also in colder regions which are warming at a much faster rate than the rest of the planet.



The scientists collected data from over 20,000 trawl surveys in the Norwegian and Barents Seas between 1994 and 2020. “In 1994, an average of eight fish species were caught in each trawl in the Norwegian and Barents Seas, while in 2020 the number rises to more than 13, which represents an increase of 66 percent. The results of the study also shown increases, albeit less significant, in the richness of adjacent areas,” said study lead author&nbsp;Cesc Gordó-Vilaseca, a doctoral student in Biosciences at the Nord University.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that, of the 193 species included, 71 relatively warm-water species are now more common in the Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, while 23 species which were previously more common in the north are now occurring there less frequently. However, the study also documented the expansion of some Arctic species that seem to adapt well to rising temperatures, such as the commercially valuable common cod (Gadus morhua).&nbsp;



“The shift in frequency of species, sometimes favored by high temperatures and sometimes not, could lead to a reconfiguration of ecological interactions and, therefore, could cause changes in the structure and functioning of the entire ecosystem,” warned co-author Marta Coll, a researcher at the ICM-CSIC.



These findings could contribute to the design of more effective conservation and management strategies. In future research, the scientists aim to analyze in more detail the changes at the level of the entire ecosystem that may be caused by rising temperatures in the Arctic, as well as the effects on fisheries management and protection measures such changes may cause.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120869120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Arctic biodiversity will get a boost from rising temperatures

A new study led by&nbsp;the&nbsp;Nord University in Norway in collaboration...

For decades, immunobiologists have pondered what are the long-term effects of infections on people’s immune systems. For instance, after the organism fights off a pathogen, does the immune system return to a previous baseline, or could a single infection change it in ways that alter how it will respond not only to an already familiar virus or bacteria but also to a new pathogenic threat?



Now, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.yale.edu/">Yale University</a> and the <a href="https://www.niaid.nih.gov/">National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases</a> (NIAID) has systematically analyzed immune responses of healthy people who had received the flu vaccine, and compared the responses between those who had never been infected with SARS-CoV-2 and those who experienced mild cases but recovered.



The analysis revealed that the immune systems of men previously infected with the new coronavirus responded more robustly to flu vaccines than previously-infected women or people who had never been infected with SARS-CoV-2. These findings suggest that the immune statuses of men previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 was altered in ways that changed their response to a different type of future exposure.



“This was a total surprise,” said study senior author John Tsang, an immunobiologist at Yale. “Women usually mount a stronger overall immune response to pathogens and vaccines, but are also more likely to suffer from autoimmune diseases.”&nbsp;



According to the scientists, this discovery could also be linked to an intriguing aspect noticed already early in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-origins-of-covid-19-will-most-likely-remain-a-mystery/">Covid-19</a> pandemic: men appeared much more likely to die from a runaway immune response than women after contracting Covid. The new study shows that even mild cases of Covid-19 may trigger stronger inflammatory responses in males than females, resulting in stronger functional changes to the male immune system, even a long time after recovery.



When analyzing the participants’ response to flu vaccinations, the experts found that males previously infected with SARS-CoV-2 produced more antibodies to influenza and increased levels of interferons (proteins produced by cells in response to infections or vaccines). This was surprising since, in general, healthy females have stronger interferon responses than males.



Since hundreds of millions – if not, according to some estimates, several billions – of people worldwide have been infected with the new coronavirus so far, and the emergence of long-Covid symptoms in some people is currently a major health concern, understanding the lingering effects of Covid on the immune system is crucial.&nbsp;



“Our findings point to the possibility that any infection or immune challenge may change the immune status to establish new set points. The immune status of an individual is likely shaped by a multitude of prior exposures and perturbations,” Sparks concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05670-5">Nature</a>.



—



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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What are the lingering immune system effects of Covid?

For decades, immunobiologists have pondered what are the long-term effects...

Mountains host about half of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, and action is urgently needed to protect these ecosystems. According to Professor Robert Marchant at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/">University of York</a>, these critically important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-turtle-recovery-greatly-depends-on-foraging-habitats/">habitats</a> should be prioritized in biodiversity policies.



Professor Marchant is calling on national governments to focus on mountain ecosystems while addressing the climate and biodiversity crises. He says that national policy simply isn’t keeping pace with land use change, development, population growth and the impacts of climate change on global mountain systems.



“Government environmental and business policies are rarely joined up and we are seeing continued widespread land degradation in mountain habitats. This includes uncontrolled grazing, deforestation, or overdevelopment - and much of it is resulting from weak policies and changing tenure laws," explained Professor Marchant.



Even though mountain ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to climate change and human development, they do not receive the necessary attention and investment from their governments.&nbsp;



In Kenya, for example, the area around Mount Kilimanjaro has endured a major increase in population density and agriculture over the last two decades. Companies have bought land to drill boreholes and extract water from the mountain’s aquifer.



“Once you’ve paid for that borehole, that water is a free resource to you. But these services are provided by nature – and no one is presently paying for either the water resources or for stewardship of that land. Asking companies to pay for this kind of service, by issuing controllable permits for example,&nbsp; would be a step towards treating our mountain resources with more respect.”



Professor Marchant is calling on countries to invest more in mountain ecosystem restoration activities, and to develop effective climate change policies. His policy brief will be presented later this month at the United Nations Biodiversity Conference (COP15) in Montreal, Canada.



"We are hoping for some progress at COP15, but what is really needed is an international treaty or code of practice that accepts the value of our mountain ecosystems, and I suspect that is some way off.”



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Mountain ecosystems are in urgent need of protection

Mountains host about half of the world’s biodiversity hotspots, and...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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