Most people have heard that black holes slowly lose mass through cosmic decay, radiating tiny amounts of energy. This idea has circulated for decades and suggests that nothing is truly permanent.



Experts now propose that other extremely dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetar-flares-create-gold-platinum-uranium-in-seconds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">objects</a> might follow a related path. Their findings reveal a shorter timeline for everything, though not short on any human timescale.



Heino Falcke, a black hole researcher at <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Radboud University</a>, stands at the forefront of this investigation. He collaborated with quantum physicist Michael Wondrak and mathematician Walter van Suijlekom to figure out how quickly these processes might happen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-view-on-cosmic-decay">New view on cosmic decay</h2>



Scientists have long known about ideas related to black hole evaporation through a process first outlined by <a href="https://projecteuclid.org/journals/communications-in-mathematical-physics/volume-43/issue-3/Particle-creation-by-black-holes/cmp/1103899181.full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stephen Hawking</a>. The classic picture involves a black hole shedding mass over an incredibly long interval, eventually leaving no trace. 



Recent <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.14734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggests that dense objects like neutron stars and white dwarfs might follow similar decay patterns, though at a snail’s pace.



Researchers wondered how these timelines compare to old predictions. They took the mathematics behind black hole evaporation and applied it to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-cosmic-rays-from-supernova-sparked-rapid-earth-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial bodies</a>. The ultimate result? Those bodies still vanish, just more rapidly than many figured before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-fade-for-dense-objects">Faster fade for dense objects</h2>



“So the ultimate end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-in-the-shadows-giant-black-hole-emerges-from-cosmic-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> comes much sooner than expected, but fortunately it still takes a very long time,” said Heino Falcke. 



That statement might sound contradictory at first, but it sums up the team’s surprising takeaway. Ultimately, for everyday life, these timescales are beyond huge.



There is even a calculation for the disappearance of the Moon. The process would drag on for around 10^90 years. The details rest on <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/physics/research/gravitational-physics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational physics</a> equations and the idea that curving spacetime might gradually convert mass into particles that eventually slip away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-neutron-stars-and-white-dwarfs-reveal">What neutron stars and white dwarfs reveal</h2>



Neutron stars have densities so immense that a teaspoon of their material on Earth would outweigh a mountain. Given their density, cosmic decay could affect these stellar remnants, causing them to evaporate too.



The group uncovered that neutron stars might take about the same time to fade as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/black-holes/types/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar black holes</a> in the same mass range.



These results highlight a fresh perspective on gravitational physics. They show that events at a star’s surface could mirror those at the fringes of a black hole’s boundary, with subtle differences in how each body might reabsorb part of its own radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-denser-objects-lose-mass-faster">Why denser objects lose mass faster</h2>



Dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blazar-cosmic-objects-defy-classification-can-rapidly-change-its-identity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">objects</a> lose mass through minute particle streams. More density means an object’s gravitational pull is stronger, which changes how energy flows away. 



Draining that stored energy requires creative math, plus insights from quantum mechanics and general relativity.



A white dwarf, much less dense than a neutron star, might hold out for around 1078 years. That timeline sounds wildly big, yet it is significantly shorter than earlier guesses in the range of 101100 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-decay-physics-and-math">Cosmic decay: Physics and math</h2>



“By asking these kinds of questions and looking at extreme cases, we want to better understand the theory, and perhaps one day, we unravel the mystery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-radiation-may-actually-be-a-catalyst-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hawking radiation</a>,” said Walter van Suijlekom, professor of mathematics at Radboud University.



That blend of math, astrophysics, and quantum ideas drives this line of work.



Probing new models can spur lively debates. Some wonder if there are hidden factors that might stretch these rates. 



Others note that experimental tests in labs are tricky at best because these processes are far too slow to detect directly.



Any attempt to grasp cosmic timescales boggles the mind. Changes in star systems usually unfold in billions of years. 



These calculations push things far beyond that, highlighting a universe that still has an expiration, even if it is unimaginably distant.



Better knowledge of exotic decay can guide how we interpret ancient remnants. If these estimates hold, the universe’s inventory of black holes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-two-neutron-stars-collide-kilonova-explosion-very-bad-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron stars</a>, and other dense bodies eventually runs out far earlier than some old predictions claimed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revising-cosmic-timelines">Revising cosmic timelines</h2>



Revising cosmic timelines does not upend everyday astronomy, since these events are so far off. Yet it refines how scientists tally the lifetime of matter. 



Anyone who assumes that a star corpse lasts forever might have to rethink that stance now.



It also raises a question about the deep structure of spacetime. If space itself nudges these bodies toward decay, the nature of gravity might be more flexible than once supposed. 



Each object’s density appears to determine how quickly it joins the dust bin of cosmic history.



The study is published in the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.14734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a>.



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Cosmic decay: The universe will end sooner than we thought

Most people have heard that black holes slowly lose mass through cosmic decay, radiating tiny amounts of energy. This idea has circulated for decades and suggests that nothing is truly permanent. Experts now propose that other extremely dense objects might follow a related path. Their findings reveal a shorter timeline for everything, though not short on any human timescale. Heino Falcke, a black hole researcher at Radboud University, stands at the forefront of this investigation. He collaborated with quantum physicist Michael Wondrak and mathematician Walter van Suijlekom...

Agriculture will play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-hit-a-new-record-in-2021/">emissions</a> and limiting global warming, according to the latest report by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.



Professor Brent Sohngen of <a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a> was the lead author of the IPCC report’s section on agriculture. This portion of the document, which spanned about 130 pages, explains how agriculture, forests, and related land use can contribute to both climate change and climate mitigation.



“The key message is that there are a lot of actions in the agricultural land-use sectors that people around the world can undertake to mitigate climate change,” said Professor Sohngen, who has worked with the IPCC since the late 1990s.



Agriculture and land use changes such as deforestation account for about 22 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions. If these numbers could be reduced, either by curbing deforestation or turning to alternative biofuels, between 9 and 11 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year could be mitigated, explained Professor Sohngen.



The IPCC report warns that if people and governments do not begin to take climate warnings seriously, global warming could soon become twice as catastrophic as it is now. The document states that while many nations have previously promised to limit warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, it will take real change - not political promises - to ensure humanity does not waste its last chance.



Experts from more than 165 countries reviewed over 18,000 scientific papers to compile the IPCC report. They found some good news in the fact that the key technologies and policies needed to limit global warming already exist. According to the researchers, solar and wind power are some of the best ways we have to combat climate change.&nbsp;



“Now there are more options and more ways for people to get involved in mitigating climate change that are within the realm of being cost effective,” said Professor Sohngen. “Part of the reason why people are more optimistic about this report is because we’ve actually made progress on reducing emissions through mitigation actions.”



“The scientific literature suggests that if we do want to stay under the 1.5 degree target, we have to really scale up financing. We’ve estimated that about $50 to $250 billion per year over the next decade is needed to achieve some of the goals in the land-use sector for mitigation.”



Professor Sohngen said that he’s optimistic about how the public will respond to the report.&nbsp;



“There’s undoubtedly some approaches to climate change that we’re not thinking about now that hopefully, the next generation of scientists will think about in the future. I think that this report is an opportunity for people to study and to develop new methods, and better solutions to the climate crisis.”



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Agriculture could play a key role in limiting global warming

Agriculture will play a key role in reducing greenhouse gas...

Non-native lionfish have become increasingly common in parts of the Mediterranean. Growing numbers of lionfish threaten local <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salt-pollution-threatens-freshwater-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> by dominating native fish species and disrupting food chains.&nbsp;



In a new study from the <a href="https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/">University of Plymouth</a>, experts have developed a plan to help communities minimize the impact of lionfish in the Mediterranean Sea.



Lionfish were first spotted in the Mediterranean in 2012 off the coast of the Lebanon. Since that time, there have been sightings as far west as Sicily, and as far north as the Adriatic Sea near Croatia.&nbsp;&nbsp;



A major expansion of the Suez Canal in 2015, which deepened the main waterway, further facilitated the invasion of lionfish in the Mediterranean.



The researchers said that increasing lionfish densities – combined with the species’ generalist diet and consumption of ecologically and socio-economically important fish – has the potential to result in further disruption of an already stressed marine environment.



Now, the team has published a Guide to Lionfish Management in the Mediterranean, which features a series of recommendations that could help manage lionfish populations.



For example, the experts advise that a supply chain could be created between fishers, markets, and consumers to make lionfish a component of the region’s fishing industry.



The researchers are also calling for legal changes to permit lionfish removals across the Mediterranean, and for the species to be included on the European Union list of invasive species of concern.



“The lionfish invasion is the fastest ever reported in the Mediterranean Sea. Our research has shown that between 2018-2020 alone, there was a 400% increase in the numbers of lionfish in areas off Cyprus where fishing was restricted within Marine Protected Areas," said Professor Jason Hall-Spencer. "However, we have also seen there is both an understanding within communities of the need for action, and a willingness to get involved.&nbsp;



"The Mediterranean Sea’s lionfish populations are unlikely to be eradicated, and our changing climate and warming ocean means they are in fact more likely to spread further. Only through improvements to the biosecurity of the Suez Canal can we avoid more and more invasive species flooding into the Mediterranean Sea.”



The Guide has been endorsed by HSH the Sovereign Prince Albert II of Monaco. The Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation works to protect the environment and promote sustainable development.



Writing in the Guide’s foreword, the Prince said: “The proliferation of the lionfish in the Mediterranean is a major threat to our sea’s ecosystems. That is why it is important to do all we can to prevent, inhibit and limit it. This is what the solutions presented in this Guide very effectively set out, based on both sound scientific expertise and conclusive feedback.”



The research was funded by the <a href="https://european-union.europa.eu/index_en">European Union</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lionfish invasion is the fastest ever reported in the Mediterranean

Non-native lionfish have become increasingly common in parts of the...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucsf.edu/">University of California, San Francisco</a> (UCSF) and <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> (ICL) has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-can-safely-treat-mental-health-disorders/">psilocybin</a> – the active compound found in magic mushrooms - fosters greater connectivity between different regions of the brains in depressed individuals. This frees individuals from ingrained patterns of self-focus and excessive rumination, and thus significantly alleviates their symptoms of depression.



The study comprised of nearly 60 people who had participated in two psilocybin trials. In the first one, all of the participants had treatment-resistant depression and knew that they were given psilocybin. In the second one, the participants were depressed, but not as severely as those in the first cohort, and they were not told whether they were given psilocybin or an antidepressant called escitalopram.



The researchers performed fMRI scans of the participants’ brains, and noticed that the psilocybin treatment helped reduce connections within brain areas which are tightly connected in depression, and increase connections to other regions of the brain that are not well integrated in patients with chronic depression. Participants on psilocybin have also shown improved cognitive functioning and appeared to be less emotionally avoidant as before. These changes lasted at least until the end of the observation period, almost three weeks after a second psilocybin dose. No such changes were found in the brains of those who took escitalopram, suggesting that psilocybin acts differently on the brain than common antidepressants.&nbsp;



Psilocybin and other serotonergic psychedelics such as ayahuasca affect 5-HT2A receptors, which are numerous in brain areas that become overactive in depression. According to the scientists, psychedelic drugs may briefly disrupt these connections, and help rewire the brain in new ways in the days and weeks after treatment.



“In previous studies we had seen a similar effect in the brain when people were scanned whilst on a psychedelic, but here we’re seeing it weeks after treatment for depression, which suggests a carry-over of the acute drug action,” said study senior author Robin Carhart-Harris, the director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://urldefense.com/v3/__https:/u7061146.ct.sendgrid.net/ls/click?upn=4tNED-2FM8iDZJQyQ53jATUc5LV6xmdjlu4kjOmPya1BBNWgCSFrmapx50Dp5Vwi9y79HedMZU-2B6BcrYQNXRV0kQ-3D-3DNfw4_-2B8U3saH9uHKGZR0jGbnM48xs9UKOGr0-2Bs51-2Byf3OYxWbALGeyg62AFeErK6qQy2Zg3SWdKNIQd90HGY7deh4qSTwEwRJz9grjEztoSQB124NBGw18zQNWQYBUhusWkvKDmOiyAD8kssD8TLxklF3ttL-2FNU7oiFJo-2BdZmvFAThrzku5Plujt-2Bx1VDtUMkkSa6I1R8ZGNKfU-2FoMAT5iB5zkll5NpxmyW6yRhLo4uofTnN3qotllzM0kw3ogQbqe59540NLWgwlF1jVnBQNFwZbBVQsss-2Bymg-2BfeJ4l7ZXtK9IQo4m4Mn1cdyMVCMRmG6LG45EcaCXBzOpxsYPwmPBM-2F3ICIW-2BBLhLwRyJyCviBScY-3D__;!!LQC6Cpwp!6VjNgc6Ka4L4qUM6SMDUdghS144vfH4p9kq_c7ZZYo0H4bam_to6fLQ1gl4e-KigaQ8SRA$">Neuroscape Psychedelics Division</a>&nbsp;at UCSF.



“We don’t yet know how long the changes in brain activity seen with psilocybin therapy last, and we need to do more research to understand this. We do know that some people relapse, and it may be that after a while their brains revert to the rigid patterns of activity we see in depression.”



While these findings are generally encouraging, scientists claim that patients with depression should not attempt to self-medicate with hallucinogenic mushrooms. The treatment should take place under controlled, clinical conditions, using fixed dosages, and involving appropriate psychological support before, during, and after taking the psychoactive drugs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nm/">Nature Medicine</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Psilocybin can treat depression by restructuring the brain

A new study led by the University of California, San...

A new study published by the <a href="https://www.apa.org/">American Psychological Association</a> has identified certain personality traits that are linked with higher levels of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-have-the-cognitive-ability-to-make-and-use-stone-tools/">cognitive</a> functioning later in life.&nbsp;



The experts report that individuals who are organized with more self-discipline are less likely to develop mild cognitive impairment as older adults. On the other hand, people who are emotionally unstable are more likely to experience cognitive decline.



The research was focused on the “Big Five” personality traits, including conscientiousness, neuroticism and extraversion. The experts wanted to investigate the role that these traits play in cognitive functioning later in life.



“Personality traits reflect relatively enduring patterns of thinking and behaving, which may cumulatively affect engagement in healthy and unhealthy behaviors and thought patterns across the lifespan,” said study lead author Dr. Tomiko Yoneda of the University of Victoria.&nbsp;



“The accumulation of lifelong experiences may then contribute to susceptibility of particular diseases or disorders, such as mild cognitive impairment, or contribute to individual differences in the ability to withstand age-related neurological changes.”



Individuals who are more responsible, organized, hard-working and goal-oriented tend to have higher scores in conscientiousness. People who struggle with mood swings, anxiety, depression, self-doubt and other negative feelings often score high on neuroticism.



Extraverts are individuals who are energized by social engagement. According to Dr. Yoneda, extraverts tend to be enthusiastic, gregarious, talkative and assertive.



To examine the relationship between personality traits and cognitive impairment, the researchers analyzed data from nearly 2,000 participants in the Rush Memory and Aging Project. These participants had received a personality assessment and annual assessments of their cognitive abilities.



The analysis showed that individuals who scored high on conscientiousness or low in neuroticism were substantially less likely to develop cognitive impairment over the course of the study.



“Scoring approximately six more points on a conscientiousness scale ranging 0 to 48 was associated with a 22 percent decreased risk of transitioning from normal cognitive functioning to mild cognitive impairment,” said Dr. Yoneda. “Additionally, scoring approximately seven more points on a neuroticism scale of 0 to 48 was associated with a 12 percent increased risk of transition.”



The experts also found that participants who scored high on extraversion tended to maintain normal cognitive functioning longer than others.



In particular, 80-year-old participants who were high in conscientiousness were estimated to live nearly two years longer without cognitive impairment. Extraversion was associated with healthy cognition for approximately one extra year, while high neuroticism was associated with at least one less year of healthy cognitive functioning.&nbsp;



Furthermore, individuals lower in neuroticism and higher in extraversion were found to be more likely to recover to normal cognitive function after receiving a previous diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment. This suggests that some personality traits are protective even after an individual starts to progress to dementia.&nbsp;



The findings highlight the harms associated with the long-term experience of perceived stress and emotional instability, said Dr. Yoneda. He noted that the results on extraversion may be indicative of the benefits of social interaction for improving cognitive outcomes.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Certain personality traits protect cognitive function in late life

A new study published by the American Psychological Association has...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has found that children differ dramatically from adults in their moral views on animals. Unlike adults, children claim that farm animals should be treated the same as people and pets, and consider eating meat as less morally acceptable than adults do. These findings suggest that humans are not born with the mental processes used to justify eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-less-meat-may-lower-the-risk-of-cancer/">meat</a>, and that “speciesism” – a moral hierarchy which gives different value to different types of animals – develops only during adolescence.&nbsp;



“Humans’ relationship with animals is full of ethical double standards,” said study lead author Luke McGuire, a lecturer in Psychology at the University of Exeter. “Some animals are beloved household companions, while others are kept in factory farms for economic benefit. Judgements seem to largely depend on the species of the animal in question: dogs are our friends, pigs are food.”



In order to map the developmental timeframe of such views, Dr. McGuire and his team surveyed 479 people living in England, from three age groups: 9-11, 18-21, and 29-59. They found that the two adult groups had relatively similar views, suggesting that attitudes to animals generally change between the ages of 11 and 18.



“Something seems to happen in adolescence, where that early love for animals becomes more complicated and we develop more speciesism,” said Dr. McGuire. “It's important to note that even adults in our study thought eating meat was less morally acceptable than eating animal products like milk. So aversion to animals – including farm animals – being harmed does not disappear entirely.”



The survey also revealed that, as they age, people are more likely to classify farm animals as “food” rather than “pets,” while children where equally likely to consider animals such as pigs as falling into either of these categories.



According to the scientists, although adjusting attitudes is a natural part of growing up, the moral intelligence of children is also valuable. “If we want people to move towards more plant-based diets for environmental reasons, we have to disrupt the current system somewhere. For example, if children ate more plant-based food in schools, that might be more in line with their moral values, and might reduce the ‘normalization’ towards adult values that we identify in this study,” concluded Dr. McGuire.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/19485506221086182">Social Psychological and Personality Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Children are less likely to see farm animals as just “food”

A new study led by the University of Exeter has...

A research team led by the <a href="https://www.ucf.edu/">University of Central Florida</a> (UCF) has recently developed a new method to determine where storm surges are most likely to occur, whether the likelihood of such extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/a-look-back-at-the-extreme-weather-of-2021/">weather</a> events is changing over time, and why. Clarifying these issues could help cities better prepare for storm surge events by investing in flood-protecting resources such as larger sea walls or pump stations.



“We don't want to over design and waste money to build things bigger than they need to be, which is very expensive,” said study co-author Thomas Wahl, an assistant professor of Coastal Engineering at UCF. “On the other hand, we don't want to build things too small to just find out 20 years down the road that we underestimated the design and now we need to pay more money to further adapt our infrastructure.”



Dr. Wahl and his colleagues incorporated historical tide gauge data from 79 locations along the coasts of Europe (spanning a time period from 1960 to 2018) into a novel statistical approach that they developed. Their analyses revealed that – in addition to sea level rise – changes in storm surges have been significantly affecting the magnitude of extreme flooding events on European coastlines.



However, while some places such as the northern coasts of Scotland saw an additional increase in extreme flooding events because of changes in storm surges, others – including the coasts of Spain, Denmark, the Netherlands, France, Belgium, or Germany – witnessed a decrease in such events.



“What used to be a 50-year event, is now a 30-year event in some areas,” explained Professor Wahl. “So, there is an almost a 40 percent increase in the probability that certain extreme events could occur. But in other areas, what used to be a 50-year event with a two percent chance of occurrence in a given year in the 1960s is now closer to a 100-year event with only a one percent chance of occurrence.”&nbsp;



“Those changes take place on top of sea level rise. So, while some places see a compounding effect of sea level rise and increase in storm surges, these two cancel each other out in other places,” he added.



While previous studies argued that changes in the likelihood of extreme sea-level events were mainly due to sea-level rises, these new findings suggest that changes in storm surges may also play a significant role in the frequency and severity of such events.&nbsp;



“Our results demonstrate that both external and internal influences can considerably affect the likelihood of surge extremes over periods as long as 60 years, suggesting that the current coastal planning practice of assuming stationary surge extremes&nbsp;might be inadequate,” the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04426-5">Nature</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Changing storm surge patterns compound the issue of sea level rise

A research team led by the University of Central Florida...

The remains of a triceratops known as "Big John" have revealed some injuries to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soft-food-diet-weakens-skull-strength-in-captive-animals/">skull</a> that were likely sustained during combat with another triceratops, according to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>.



"The Late Cretaceous dinosaur Triceratops was characterized by its large neck frill, which predominantly consisted of the hyper elongated parietal and squamosal bones. It also had two large supraorbital horns and a smaller nasal horn. This cranial ornamentation of Triceratops probably served several functions," explained the study authors.



"The evolutionary predecessors of ceratopsids had a relatively developed frill, while the horns, if present, were reduced to simple protuberances. The primitive function of the frill, therefore, was that of visual display and/or species recognition."



According to the researchers, the development of the solid frill and the long horns during the evolution of Triceratops suggests that their function was to protect the cervical region of the skull from blows inflicted by individuals of the same species. This means that the cranial ornaments in Triceratops were not only used for visual display, but also as a means of attack and defense.



Study lead author Ruggero D’Anastasio from the University of Chieti–Pescara and colleagues examined the fossilized remains of Big John, which was discovered in 2014 in the Upper Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation of Montana.



The team discovered a keyhole-shaped opening, or a fenestra, in the right squamosal bone. The surrounding bone surface was irregular and showed signs of inflammation that was possibly due to infection.&nbsp;



"The lumen of this fenestra is partially filled with a ring of brownish material, which is particularly evident on the caudal and inferior edges," said the researchers.&nbsp; "The bone surface around the fenestra is irregular and characterized by plaquelike depositions of reactive bone that could resulted from periostitis; i.e., a non-specific inflammatory process, which can be triggered by different stimuli (e.g., trauma, infection)."



The analysis of samples taken from the larger margin of the fenestra revealed that the surrounding bone tissue is porous with lots of blood vessels compared to bone tissue that was collected further away from the fenestra, which indicates that the bone was newly developed.



The findings suggest that the fenestra was caused by a traumatic injury, and that the bone was healing at the time of Big John’s death. The experts believe that the injury was likely caused by the horn of another triceratops, and occurred at least six months before Big John’s death.&nbsp;



"This study confirms the existence of intraspecific fighting in Triceratops. Furthermore, although the physiological and cellular mechanisms underlying the healing process in dinosaurs are still largely unknown, it would appear to be similar to those described in humans and mammals," wrote the researchers.



"Further histological and microanalytical investigations on fossil remains with traumatic lesions might shed light on the bone physiopathology of these reptiles."



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

"Big John" had a skull injury from fighting another Triceratops

The remains of a triceratops known as "Big John" have...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> has found that adults who had at some time in their lives used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-can-safely-treat-mental-health-disorders/">psilocybin</a> – a psychoactive substance found in hallucinogenic mushrooms – are 30 percent less likely to develop opioid use disorders. These findings could pave the way towards safer and more effective therapeutic interventions in the treatment of substance abuse.&nbsp;



“Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a major public health crisis, with nearly 70,000 opioid-related deaths in the United States in 2017 alone, representing a 292 percent increase since 2001. Opioids, including heroin, fentanyl, and prescription opioid compounds, are responsible for approximately 70 percent of all overdose deaths in the United States. Additionally, over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, mortality related to opioid overdoses has reached alarming new highs, with the largest increases among members of racial and ethnic minority groups, as well as in areas of socioeconomic disadvantage,” explained the study authors.



Since OUD is currently treated through other synthetic opiate derivatives such as methadone or buprenorphine - which come with a high risk of dependence too - new treatments are urgently needed in order to mitigate the rampant opioid crisis society currently faces.&nbsp;



By using a nationally representative survey of U.S. adults comprising of 214,505 participants, the researchers investigated the incidence of opioid use disorder and prevalence of psychedelic use among the participants, and found that OUD was 30 percent less likely to occur among individuals who had used psilocybin. Moreover, psilocybin users were between 17 and 34 percent less likely to have experienced seven of the 11 symptoms of opioid abuse and dependence in the past year, compared to participants who never used this psychedelic substance. Surprisingly, no associations were found between the use of LSD, peyote, or mescaline and the likelihood of OUD.



The scientists speculate that psilocybin might protect against OUD by modulating the circulation of neurotransmitters previously found to be associated with addiction, such as serotonin and dopamine. Moreover, the mystical and spiritual experiences induced by psychedelic drugs could act as major factors in decreasing the likelihood of users developing OUD.&nbsp;



Further research is needed – including longitudinal clinical trials – to test whether this association is indeed causal, and to identify which mediators might be responsible for this correlation. Moreover, since other psychedelic substances such as mescaline or LSD do not seem to protect against OUD, more in-depth studies on the specificity of psilocybin and its differences from other psychoactive drugs are also necessary.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-08085-4">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Psilocybin seems to protect against opioid use disorders

A new study led by Harvard University has found that...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> has made a surprising discovery: the switch from hunting, gathering, and foraging to farming approximately 12,000 years ago in Europe may have had negative health effects on our ancestors, as indicated by shorter than expected heights in the earlier farmer populations. This might have been caused by poorer and less diverse diets and the prevalence of infectious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avocados-substantially-reduce-the-risk-of-heart-disease/">diseases</a> among denser populations.



“Recent studies tried to characterize the contribution of DNA to height,” said study lead author Stephanie Marciniak, an assistant professor of Anthropology at Penn State. “We started thinking about the longstanding questions around the shift from hunting, gathering, and foraging to sedentary farming and decided to look at the health effect with height as a proxy. Our approach is unique in that we used height measurements and ancient DNA taken from the same individuals.”



Professor Marciniak and her colleagues studied the skeletal remains of 167 individuals who lived from 38,000 to 2,400 years ago, thus spanning the Neolithic, Copper, Bronze, and Iron ages. By employing a new model that took into account adult height, indicators of stress observed in the bones, and ancient DNA, the scientists have found that individuals from the Neolithic period – when farming emerged as a widespread practice – were an average of 1.5 inches shorter than previous individuals and 0.87 inches shorter than subsequent ones. Moreover, heights seemed to steadily increase through the Copper, Bronze, and Iron ages in comparison to the Neolithic average (by 0.77, 1.06, and 1.29 inches, respectively).



However, when researchers took into account the variations in genetic ancestry influenced by patterns of Neolithic migrations, they found that the switch from hunting and gathering to agriculture did not always result in height loss, although the height drop around the beginning of farming was still evident.&nbsp;



“There was movement of people, generally from east to west,” Professor Marciniak said. “We wanted to account for that migration that perhaps brought different proportions of height-associated genetic variants.”



“This research requires more study with larger datasets. Our work represents a snapshot of something that is very dynamic and very nuanced. We need to do more to see what is the cause of the decrease in achieved height versus predicted genetic height during the shift to farming,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2106743119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A shift to farming may have influenced our ancestors’ height

A recent study led by the Pennsylvania State University has...

A recent study is providing new insight on the spread of Rocky Mountain spotted fever, which is transmitted from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-have-deep-emotional-connections-with-their-dogs/">dogs</a> to people through ticks. The researchers are creating models that may ultimately help to predict, or even prevent, future outbreaks of the deadly disease.



Rocky Mountain spotted fever can cause serious organ damage in humans that may lead to death if it is not caught early and treated within the first five&nbsp; days. The disease can also cause serious illness in dogs if it is not treated during the early stages.



Historically, the disease was carried by the American dog tick or Rocky Mountain wood tick. In 2003, the brown dog tick was identified as a new carrier during an outbreak in Arizona. In the years that have followed, the Rickettsia rickettsii bacteria that causes spotted fever has spread to brown dog ticks across the American Southwest and parts of Mexico.



A team of researchers led by Dr. John VandenBrooks at Midwestern University set out to investigate why the brown dog tick emerged as a new carrier. The experts conducted a detailed analysis of brown dog ticks, Rocky Mountain spotted fever&nbsp; infections in canines and humans, and climate data in Arizona, New Mexico, California and Mexico.



“Our results indicate that the spread of Rocky Mountain spotted fever involves a combination of factors and that the vectoring capacity of the brown dog tick may be spreading outside of the region,” said study co-author Kayla Allwardt. “This could put a much larger portion of the country at risk. Identifying the highest risk regions is essential to protecting canine and human health.”



For the analysis, the researchers collected dog and tick serum samples from 25 sites and mapped relevant environmental factors.



“We found three genetically distinct populations of ticks, which vary in the percentage of ticks that carry the R. rickettsii bacteria,” said study co-author Nicolette Roe. “These differences are a major contributor to the variation in Rocky Mountain spotted fever cases we see across the region.”



Importantly, the researchers discovered high rates of Rocky Mountain spotted fever infection in dogs across areas where no human cases had been reported. Of the 16 counties surveyed, the experts identified two as having a high risk for an outbreak, 10 at medium risk, and only four were at low risk.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The research was presented at the meeting <a href="https://www.experimentalbiology.org/">Experimental Biology 2022</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rocky Mountain spotted fever risk is greater than expected

A recent study is providing new insight on the spread...

The consumption of healthy plant-based foods is associated with a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes (T2D), according to a new study by experts in the <a href="https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/">Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a>. The research sheds new light on the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dirty-dozen-fruits-and-vegetables-packed-with-pesticides/">fruits</a>, vegetables, nuts, coffee, and legumes in diabetes prevention.



“While it is difficult to tease out the contributions of individual foods because they were analyzed together as a pattern, individual metabolites from consumption of polyphenol-rich plant foods like fruits, vegetables, coffee, and legumes are all closely linked to healthy plant-based diet and lower risk of diabetes," said Professor Frank Hu.



For the investigation, the researchers set out to identify the metabolite profiles related to various plant-based diets. They wanted to examine how specific metabolites may affect the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.



Since there are differences in the chemical makeup of foods, an individual’s diet is reflected in their metabolite profile. Technological advances have made it possible for experts to identify of all the different metabolites present within a biological sample by using a comprehensive analysis called metabolomics.



Type 2 diabetes is a major threat to public health. The global prevalence of the disease has more than tripled in less than two decades, reaching over 450 million cases in 2019. The burden of type 2 diabetes is increased by the numerous complications it can cause, such as kidney damage and heart disease.



Plant-based diets that are rich in high quality foods such as fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, have been known to reduce the risk of diabetes, yet the underlying mechanisms have remained unclear.



The researchers analyzed blood plasma samples and dietary intake of more then 10,000 individuals who had participated in the Nurses’ Health Study, Nurses’ Health Study II, or the Health Professionals Follow-up Study.



For the analysis, the team distinguished between healthy and unhealthy plant foods based on their association with T2D, cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, and other conditions, including obesity and high blood pressure.



The study revealed that participants who were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes had a lower intake of healthy plant-based foods. They were also more likely to have high blood pressure and cholesterol levels, have a family history of diabetes, and to be less physically active.



The metabolomics data showed that plant-based diets were associated with unique metabolite profiles. These patterns varied significantly between the healthy and unhealthy plant-based diets. Overall, the metabolite profile scores for healthy plant-based diets were associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes, regardless of diabetes risk factors such as weight.&nbsp;



“Our findings support the beneficial role of healthy plant-based diets in diabetes prevention and provide new insights for future investigation," said the study authors. "Our findings regarding the intermediate metabolites are at the moment intriguing but further studies are needed to confirm their causal role in the associations of plant-based diets and the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://diabetologia-journal.org/">Diabetologia</a>, the journal of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Healthy plant-based diets reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes

The consumption of healthy plant-based foods is associated with a...

As autotrophs, that is organisms that create their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/renewable-energy-could-replace-coal-power-in-texas/">energy</a> through photosynthesis, microscopic phytoplankton form the basis of the marine ecosystem. These miniscule organisms seem to be most abundant near shore, in the "surf zone."&nbsp;



Dr. Bob Brewin, a scientist with the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, took to his surfboard to collect phytoplankton. Now, researchers from both Exeter and Plymouth Marine Laboratory are asking kayakers, swimmers and surfers for water samples.



“Nearshore waters often have the highest levels of biodiversity in the ocean," said Dr. Brewin. "Phytoplankton are a very important component of that, but at present we struggle to monitor seasonal and longer-term changes in nearshore phytoplankton concentrations.""It's hard to take research vessels or build monitoring stations in places where waves are constantly breaking, and this leaves key gaps in our knowledge."



A new study is based off 67 samples collected by Dr. Brewin off Bovisand Beach, near Plymouth in the UK over a 12 month period. This is to be a test pilot for a broader citizen science project involving samples collected by recreationists.&nbsp;



The water samples were tested for chlorophyll-a, which gives an estimate of the phytoplankton biomass. These results are compared to those from water samples collected four miles offshore.&nbsp;



The results of the comparison showed that the biomass is similar in fall, winter and spring. In summer, however, phytoplankton have a much greater presence nearshore and much less biomass offshore.&nbsp;



The difference is likely caused by phytoplankton blooming offshore in the spring and the following depletion in nutrients. "The timing and distribution of these blooms is critical for how energy moves up the food web," explained Dr. Brewin.



"For example, fish larvae need that phytoplankton to feed - if the timing is just a little bit off, that can be devastating for the growth of the larvae."



The scientists hope that with more citizen science research, they can monitor and keep track of how climate change is affecting the nearshore ecosystem.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/oceans">Oceans</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Surfers can help sample phytoplankton near the shore

As autotrophs, that is organisms that create their energy through...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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