Most people have heard that black holes slowly lose mass through cosmic decay, radiating tiny amounts of energy. This idea has circulated for decades and suggests that nothing is truly permanent.



Experts now propose that other extremely dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetar-flares-create-gold-platinum-uranium-in-seconds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">objects</a> might follow a related path. Their findings reveal a shorter timeline for everything, though not short on any human timescale.



Heino Falcke, a black hole researcher at <a href="https://www.ru.nl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Radboud University</a>, stands at the forefront of this investigation. He collaborated with quantum physicist Michael Wondrak and mathematician Walter van Suijlekom to figure out how quickly these processes might happen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-view-on-cosmic-decay">New view on cosmic decay</h2>



Scientists have long known about ideas related to black hole evaporation through a process first outlined by <a href="https://projecteuclid.org/journals/communications-in-mathematical-physics/volume-43/issue-3/Particle-creation-by-black-holes/cmp/1103899181.full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stephen Hawking</a>. The classic picture involves a black hole shedding mass over an incredibly long interval, eventually leaving no trace. 



Recent <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.14734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> suggests that dense objects like neutron stars and white dwarfs might follow similar decay patterns, though at a snail’s pace.



Researchers wondered how these timelines compare to old predictions. They took the mathematics behind black hole evaporation and applied it to other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-space-cosmic-rays-from-supernova-sparked-rapid-earth-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">celestial bodies</a>. The ultimate result? Those bodies still vanish, just more rapidly than many figured before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-fade-for-dense-objects">Faster fade for dense objects</h2>



“So the ultimate end of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monster-in-the-shadows-giant-black-hole-emerges-from-cosmic-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a> comes much sooner than expected, but fortunately it still takes a very long time,” said Heino Falcke. 



That statement might sound contradictory at first, but it sums up the team’s surprising takeaway. Ultimately, for everyday life, these timescales are beyond huge.



There is even a calculation for the disappearance of the Moon. The process would drag on for around 10^90 years. The details rest on <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/physics/research/gravitational-physics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravitational physics</a> equations and the idea that curving spacetime might gradually convert mass into particles that eventually slip away.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-neutron-stars-and-white-dwarfs-reveal">What neutron stars and white dwarfs reveal</h2>



Neutron stars have densities so immense that a teaspoon of their material on Earth would outweigh a mountain. Given their density, cosmic decay could affect these stellar remnants, causing them to evaporate too.



The group uncovered that neutron stars might take about the same time to fade as <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/universe/black-holes/types/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stellar black holes</a> in the same mass range.



These results highlight a fresh perspective on gravitational physics. They show that events at a star’s surface could mirror those at the fringes of a black hole’s boundary, with subtle differences in how each body might reabsorb part of its own radiation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-denser-objects-lose-mass-faster">Why denser objects lose mass faster</h2>



Dense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blazar-cosmic-objects-defy-classification-can-rapidly-change-its-identity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">objects</a> lose mass through minute particle streams. More density means an object’s gravitational pull is stronger, which changes how energy flows away. 



Draining that stored energy requires creative math, plus insights from quantum mechanics and general relativity.



A white dwarf, much less dense than a neutron star, might hold out for around 1078 years. That timeline sounds wildly big, yet it is significantly shorter than earlier guesses in the range of 101100 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-decay-physics-and-math">Cosmic decay: Physics and math</h2>



“By asking these kinds of questions and looking at extreme cases, we want to better understand the theory, and perhaps one day, we unravel the mystery of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-hole-radiation-may-actually-be-a-catalyst-for-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hawking radiation</a>,” said Walter van Suijlekom, professor of mathematics at Radboud University.



That blend of math, astrophysics, and quantum ideas drives this line of work.



Probing new models can spur lively debates. Some wonder if there are hidden factors that might stretch these rates. 



Others note that experimental tests in labs are tricky at best because these processes are far too slow to detect directly.



Any attempt to grasp cosmic timescales boggles the mind. Changes in star systems usually unfold in billions of years. 



These calculations push things far beyond that, highlighting a universe that still has an expiration, even if it is unimaginably distant.



Better knowledge of exotic decay can guide how we interpret ancient remnants. If these estimates hold, the universe’s inventory of black holes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-two-neutron-stars-collide-kilonova-explosion-very-bad-things-happen/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutron stars</a>, and other dense bodies eventually runs out far earlier than some old predictions claimed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revising-cosmic-timelines">Revising cosmic timelines</h2>



Revising cosmic timelines does not upend everyday astronomy, since these events are so far off. Yet it refines how scientists tally the lifetime of matter. 



Anyone who assumes that a star corpse lasts forever might have to rethink that stance now.



It also raises a question about the deep structure of spacetime. If space itself nudges these bodies toward decay, the nature of gravity might be more flexible than once supposed. 



Each object’s density appears to determine how quickly it joins the dust bin of cosmic history.



The study is published in the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2410.14734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a>.



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Cosmic decay: The universe will end sooner than we thought

Most people have heard that black holes slowly lose mass through cosmic decay, radiating tiny amounts of energy. This idea has circulated for decades and suggests that nothing is truly permanent. Experts now propose that other extremely dense objects might follow a related path. Their findings reveal a shorter timeline for everything, though not short on any human timescale. Heino Falcke, a black hole researcher at Radboud University, stands at the forefront of this investigation. He collaborated with quantum physicist Michael Wondrak and mathematician Walter van Suijlekom...

New analysis from the environmental non-profit <a href="https://oceana.org/">Oceana</a> suggests that simply banning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chinas-ban-plastic-waste/">imports</a> of Russian seafood is not enforceable without further action.&nbsp;



The US imported more than $1.2 billion in seafood from Russia in 2021, and this number seemed to be growing before sanctions. In January of 2022, the US imported more than $171 million in seafood from Russia, almost double the imports from January 2021.&nbsp;



Along with other sanctions, President Biden enacted a ban of Russian seafood in March in reaction to the ongoing Ukrainian crisis. To enforce this ban, traceability is necessary to close any loopholes that Russian fisheries may use to slip through to US markets.&nbsp;



Currently, the Seafood Import Monitoring Program (SIMP) requires documentation of catch origin and traceability of seafood deemed at risk of illegal, unreported or unregulated harvest. This regulation applies to only 13 species and amounts to approximately 40 percent of the seafood imports into the US. According to data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) from 2021, only 2 out of 71 seafood products imported from Russia are covered by SIMP.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



In the end, this means that 82 percent of Russian seafood imports have the potential to slip through the cracks. This is because everything else is not required to have documentation tracing it back to point of capture.&nbsp;



Dr. Marla Valentine is Oceana's illegal fishing and transparency campaign manager.



“Oceana’s analysis reveals that Russian fishing vessels have access to ports and fishing authorizations across the globe. Withdrawing port access, denying fishing rights, and banning imports can be powerful sanctions in addition to banning seafood from Russia," said Dr. Valentine.&nbsp;



"The countries identified in Oceana’s analysis, especially those most frequented by Russian vessels, should decide whether Russia’s actions in Ukraine warrant the continued privilege of port access or fishing in their waters. For any ban on Russian seafood to be effective, there must be boat-to-plate traceability for all seafood.”



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Banning Russian seafood isn’t enough

New analysis from the environmental non-profit Oceana suggests that simply...

On Thursday, April 7, 2022, the nonprofit advocacy organization <a href="https://www.ewg.org/">Environmental Working Group</a> (EWG) released its annual “<a href="https://www.ewg.org/foodnews/dirty-dozen.php">Dirty Dozen</a>” and “Clean Fifteen” lists, which assess the amount of pesticides found on fruits and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vegetables-may-not-protect-against-cardiovascular-disease/">vegetables</a>, by using data from the Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).



According to the scientists, more than 90 percent of the strawberries, apples, cherries, nectarines,&nbsp;grapes, and spinach that were tested contained residues of two or more pesticides. Kale, collard, and mustard greens were found to have up to 21 different pesticides. Avocados, sweet corn, and pineapple led the “Clean Fifteen” list, containing the least amounts of pesticides from all the fruits and vegetables tested.



Scientists have recently linked pesticides to multiple health problems, including brain disease, cancer, hormonal imbalances, and infertility. Infants and children are especially vulnerable to these chemicals, because of the damage they can cause to the developing brain and endocrine system, and the ways in which they affect various metabolic processes.



“There's still, I think, a lot of unknown impacts,” said Alexis Temkin, a toxicologist at EWG. “If you're reducing the exposure in the first place, then the likelihood of adverse health effects occurring is going to be much less.”



Dr. Temkin and her colleagues urge people to consume more organic rather than conventionally grown products in order to avoid exposure to these dangerous chemicals. However, other scientists and policy makers disagree. For instance, Theresa Thorne – the executive director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://foodandfarming.info/">Alliance for Food and Farming</a>, a nonprofit organization representing both organic and conventional farmers – argues that conventionally grown fruits and vegetable are less dangerous than EWG claim.



“Residues on conventional-grown are already so minute if they're present at all,” she said. “The second thing is that this list has been shown again through peer-reviewed research to negatively impact consumers. When low-income consumers were exposed to this list and some of the messaging in the Dirty Dozen list, they stated they were less likely to purchase any produce, organic or conventional.”



“We have 13 million children living in food-insecure households right now. To scare people away from conventional-grown, which is the more affordable and accessible fruits and vegetables in today's environment, really needs to be better thought through,” she concluded.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dirty dozen: fruits and vegetables packed with pesticides

On Thursday, April 7, 2022, the nonprofit advocacy organization Environmental...

Fungi, found abundantly in forest litter or sprouting from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-value-of-trees-far-exceeds-their-commercial-value/">trees</a>, are solitary, silent creatures that don’t move or prey on others. However, according to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uwe.ac.uk/">University of the West of England Bristol</a> (UWE Bristol), they are more complex than previously thought, and may even be capable of a rudimentary form of language resembling, to a certain degree, our own.



Fungi transmit electrical impulses through long, underground filamentous structures called hyphae, which group in structured called mycelia. Previous studies have shown that when fungi find new food sources, the amount of electrical activity going through hyphae spikes, suggesting that these structures may have a role in notifying other fungi about new food sources. But are these processes similar in any way to more developed forms of language?



In order to investigate this, Andrew Adamatzky, a professor of Unconventional Computing at UWE Bristol, has analyzed the patterns of electrical spikes generated by four species of fungi - enoki, split gill, ghost and caterpillar fungi - by inserting tiny microelectrodes into substrates colonized by their patchwork of hyphae threads.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We do not know if there is a direct relationship between spiking patterns in fungi and human speech. Possibly not. On the other hand, there are many similarities in information processing in living substrates of different classes, families, and species. I was just curious to compare,” explained Professor Adamatzky.



The analysis shown that these spikes frequently clustered in patterns of activity resembling vocabularies of up to 50 words. The distribution of these “fungal word lengths” seemed to closely match structures present in human languages. According to Professor Adamatzky, these waves of electrical activity have a crucial role in maintaining the fungi’s integrity or reporting to other parts of their mycelia – and perhaps even to other fungi – newly discovered sources of attractants and repellants. Among the species of fungi under investigation, split gills appeared to produce the most complicated “sentences.”



While most scientists agree that the patterns discovered by Professor Adamatzky are far from random, some remain skeptical regarding their resemblance to human language. “Though interesting, the interpretation as language seems somewhat overenthusiastic, and would require far more research and testing of critical hypotheses before we see ‘Fungus’ on Google Translate,” said Dan Bebber, a mycologist at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



Further research is needed to clarify the nature and functions of this fascinating phenomenon. &nbsp;“We should not expect quick results,” Professor Adamatzky warned. “We are yet to decipher the language of cats and dogs despite living with them for centuries, and research into electrical communication of fungi is in its pure infant stage.”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.211926">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fungi may communicate using up to 50 “words”

Fungi, found abundantly in forest litter or sprouting from trees,...

A new study led by <a href="https://nmu.edu/">Northern Michigan University</a> (NMU) has found that there is a significant variation in the gut microbiome of Alaskan brown bears (Ursus arctos), depending on where the bears lived and what they usually ate. These findings shed more light on the complex relationship between wildlife <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-habitats-alien-species-threaten-native-trout/">habitat</a>, diet, and gut microbiome diversity.



“The gut microbiome is the ecosystem of microbial life that populates an animal’s digestive system – and this microbiome plays a major role in an animal’s well-being,” said study co-author Erin McKenney, an assistant professor of Applied Ecology at the <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a>. “Everything we learn about these microbiomes helps us make more informed decisions to support the health of wildlife species.”



According to study co-author Grant Hilderbrand, the associate regional director for resources for the <a href="https://www.nps.gov/state/ak/index.htm">National Park Service</a> in Alaska, the habitats of Alaskan brown bears are currently changing. “The gut microbiome serves as a new diagnostic tool for understanding the health of wildlife populations. It can also help us predict how animal health will change as the environment changes. The study we’ve done here lays the foundation for advancing our understanding of gut microbiomes in Alaska’s iconic brown bears,” he explained.



The researchers analyzed the microbial DNA found in 66 fecal samples from 51 brown bears across three national parks and preserves (Katmai, Lake Clark, and Gates of the Arctic), and found significant differences in the diversity of the bears’ microbiomes at each of the three locations.&nbsp;



“Katmai had the most diversity, and also had the most diverse array of food sources available. Gates of the Arctic, which had the most limited array of food resources, also had bears with the least diverse gut microbiomes. In other words, we found what we expected: the more diverse the diet, the more diverse the gut microbiome,” reported study lead author Sarah Trujillo, who worked on the study while a graduate researcher at NMU.



“However, while we found clear distinctions in microbiome diversity at each park, those differences could not be fully explained by diet alone. There appears to be something else at play that we don’t fully understand yet. That’s an area for future research,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0266698">PLoS ONE</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Habitat and diet shape the guts of Alaskan brown bears

A new study led by Northern Michigan University (NMU) has...

Despite their size, whales are threatened by human activity such as fishing, ship traffic, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-is-a-growing-issue-for-migratory-birds/">pollution</a>. These stressors can overlap and compound effects on whale populations. In California, the protection policies that are currently in place do not address these factors.&nbsp;



In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">UC Davis,</a> researchers set out to better understand the main causes of death among nine whale species. This includes humpback, gray, blue, fin, minke, sei, sperm, North Pacific right, and killer whales in the California Current Ecosystem, which stretches from British Columbia, Canada to Baja California, Mexico.&nbsp;



“We found that oftentimes, people single out fishing or ship strike for their roles in whale mortality,” said study co-author Eliza Oldach. “But a whole slew of human activities have collided to make the modern ocean a really tough environment for whales to survive. We’re excited about efforts that look broadly to rebuild healthy oceans.”



The experts identified five main contributors to whale mortality that are currently targeted by policy instruments. These include entanglements, vessel strikes, noise, water quality and marine debris. But three other threats - nutritional stress, disease and predation - were also identified and are not included in policy responses. Researchers argue these threats must also be considered to provide a holistic approach to managing whale deaths.



“Gray whales migrate over 5,000 miles between their foraging and breeding grounds at either end of the California Current,” said study co-author Helen Killeen. “Throughout their journey, they must pass through a gauntlet of human activities, all while contending with changes to their environment precipitated by climate change. The best conservation approach for these whales is one that addresses overlapping and interacting stressors that span geographic and jurisdictional boundaries.”



The results are timely and align with the goals of the California Ocean Protection Council to develop a plan for zero mortality for whales in the California Current Ecosystem. This would require a strong understanding of threats to whales&nbsp; as well as the opportunity for policy change and ecosystem management.



On the bright side, the research team found some cases where agencies are already working to develop policies that tackle multiple stressors for whales. "Our paper is intended to highlight that approach and urge other policymakers to think along similar lines.” said Oldach.&nbsp;



The study was funded by the <a href="https://sustainableoceans.ucdavis.edu/cmsi-coast-scholars-program#:~:text=The%20Sustainable%20Oceans%3A%20from%20Policy,coastal%20management%20and%20ecosystem%2Dbased">UC Davis Sustainable Oceans: From Policy to Science to Decisions</a> program, a National Science Foundation Research Traineeship. The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/marine-policy">Marine Policy</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The modem ocean is a tough place for whales to survive

Despite their size, whales are threatened by human activity such...

A new study considered the movement of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">rivers</a> as a cause for the diversity of birds found in the Amazon. The lowland rainforests of the Amazon River basin are the most biologically diverse terrestrial ecosystems in the world. Eighteen percent of all trees found on earth make up this biome, carrying more freshwater than the seven largest river basins combined. Researchers have long wondered the root cause of the Amazon’s rich biodiversity.&nbsp;



“Early evolutionary biologists like Alfred Russel Wallace noticed that many species of primates and birds differ across opposite riverbanks in the Amazon, and ornithologists now know that rivers are associated - in one way or another - with the origin of many avian species,” said study lead author Lukas Musher.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Moreover, accumulating geological evidence has suggested that these rivers are highly dynamic, moving around the South American landscape over relatively short time periods, on the order of thousands or tens of thousands of years.”



The research, led by the <a href="https://www.amnh.org/">American Museum of Natural History</a>, found that changes in small river systems over time spur the evolution of new species. To understand how the movement of rivers influenced the accumulation of birds, the researchers looked at the genes of six species of Amazonian birds.



“Even though birds can fly, our study confirmed that current rivers across the Southern Amazon rainforest, even relatively small ones, are highly effective at isolating populations of these six species, which leads to genomic divergence and ultimately speciation,” said study senior author Joel Cracraft.



However, because these rivers move around the landscape at different time scales, their movements can have varying outcomes for bird species: when rivers rearrange quickly, populations of birds on each side can merge before they’ve had time to differentiate; when river changes happen slowly, species have a longer time to diverge from one another; and when rivers change at intermediate rates, bird populations diverge and then join back together and co-occur when a river moves.



A startling discovery was also found when the researchers came across a previously unknown bird species at high risk of imminent extinction. In addition, birds that were considered a single species were identified as distinct populations that should be described as separate species.&nbsp;



“Though we know Amazonian biodiversity is unmatched by any other terrestrial ecosystem, we demonstrated that its species richness may be greatly underestimated even in well-studied groups such as birds,” said Musher.&nbsp;



In particular, the Amazon region is threatened by rapid and ongoing deforestation. Sadly, the diversity of species relying on this region is generally unrecognized. “Many of the distinct populations are relatively young and endemic to a small Amazonian region, meaning that a large portion of the Amazon’s birds may be threatened with loss to imminent extinction.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dynamic rivers helped the Amazon become rich in bird species

A new study considered the movement of rivers as a...

In a new study led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>, scientists report that air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/noise-pollution-is-a-major-risk-factor-for-heart-attacks/">pollution</a> has led to an increase of premature deaths in tropical cities across the world. Using observations from NASA and European Space Agency (ESA) satellites, the researchers assessed air quality for 46* future megacities in Africa, Asia and the Middle East.



The results revealed a decline in air quality and increase in urban air pollution hazardous to human health. Across all cities, a significant annual increase was identified of up to 14 percent for nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and up to eight percent for fine particles (PM2.5).&nbsp;



An increase in precursors of fine particles were also found up to 12 percent for ammonia and up to 11 percent for reactive volatile organic compounds. This has been linked to emerging industries and residential sources like road traffic, waste burning, and widespread use of charcoal and fuelwood.



“Open burning of biomass for land clearance and agricultural waste disposal has in the past overwhelmingly dominated air pollution in the tropics," said study lead author Dr. Karn Vohra. "Our analysis suggests we’re entering a new era of air pollution in these cities, with some experiencing rates of degradation in a year that other cities experience in a decade.”



The scientists also found staggering increases in urban population exposure to air pollution over the study period. Overall, 40 of the 46 cities had significant increases of nitrous oxide, while 33 cities showed an increase in fine particles. This is caused by population growth and rapid deterioration in air quality.



The increase in the number of people dying prematurely from exposure to air pollution was highest in cities in South Asia, in particular Dhaka, Bangladesh, with 24,000 deaths. As well as the Indian cities of Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Chennai, Surat, Pune and Ahmedabad - accounting for a total of 100,000 deaths.



While the number of deaths in Africa’s tropical cities are lower due to recent improvements in healthcare, researchers believe the worst health effects of air pollution can be expected in the coming decades.



“We continue to shift air pollution from one region to the next, rather than learning from errors of the past and ensuring rapid industrialisation and economic development don’t harm public health. We hope our results will incentivise preventative action in the tropics," said study co-author Dr Eloise Marais.



*Cities analyzed in the study:



<ul><li>Africa - Abidjan, Abuja, Addis Ababa, Antananarivo, Bamako, Blantyre, Conakry, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Ibadan, Kaduna, Kampala, Kano, Khartoum, Kigali, Kinshasa, Lagos, Lilongwe, Luanda, Lubumbashi, Lusaka, Mombasa, N’Djamena, Nairobi, Niamey, Ouagadougou.</li><li>South Asia – Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Chennai, Chittagong, Dhaka, Hyderabad, Karachi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Pune, Surat.</li><li>Southeast Asia – Bangkok, Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Jakarta, Manila, Phnom Penh, Yangon.</li><li>Middle East – Riyadh, Sana’a.</li></ul>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air pollution in tropical cities linked to 180,000 excess deaths

In a new study led by University College London, scientists...

The&nbsp;eastern oyster&nbsp;(Crassostrea virginica), also known as the Atlantic oyster, is a species&nbsp;of&nbsp;true oyster&nbsp;native to the eastern seaboard of the U.S., as well as to parts of eastern Canada and South America. It is an important commercial seafood that has been harvested for thousands of years but has also been severely overexploited in the past.&nbsp;



Eastern oysters are filter feeders that draw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-new-rna-viruses-identified-in-ocean-waters/">water</a> across their gills and filter out the edible organisms along with detritus. They release the cleaned water back into the environment and are known to keep bodies of water clear of suspended sediment. However, the removal of millions of tons of individual oysters over the past two centuries has reduced populations to only a small fraction of what they were prior to the arrival of European colonists.&nbsp;



Commercial harvesters did not only remove the oysters, but also the banks of accumulated shells that the oysters form as they cement themselves to the broken and disused husks of dead individuals. Shells were ground up and used in mortar, as road fill and as a source of lime in fertilizer. Gradually, the reefs that had been built along sand bars and muddy tidal flats over thousands of oyster generations were dredged out such that today only around 15 percent remain, worldwide.



However, the future of oyster reefs is not all doom and gloom. <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a> researchers, in partnership with The Nature Conservancy, have published the results of a 15-year study in which they assess the possibility of restoring reefs to their former functional glory. Their findings, published in <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1755263x">Conservation Letters</a>, demonstrate that restored reefs can match natural reef oyster populations in about six years and continue to hold strong thereafter.



“Our study shows that restoration can catalyze rapid recovery of an imperiled coastal habitat and help reverse decades of degradation,” said the study’s lead author, Rachel Smith, a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Environmental Sciences at UVA.



Since the 1990s, conservationists and government agencies have been restoring reefs by recycling oyster and clam shells from natural deposits, aquaculture farms and restaurant discards; the shells are used to form the substrate for the reefs, in the hopes that larval oysters will settle and grow on them. Unfortunately, many of these projects have not been rigorous enough to allow scientific conclusions, or they have terminated within two years or less, which is too short a time to see measurable results.&nbsp;



In the current study, the researchers monitored changes on 70 reefs, at 16 different sites in coastal Virginia. They studied the oyster populations for 15 years in order to answer the question of whether reefs that have become degraded and “functionally extinct” can be restored to health.



“In the past, answering this question has been hampered by unknown timelines for recovery, undefined benchmarks for success and uncertainty about whether restored ecosystems can match natural ones,” said study co-author Max Castorani, an assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences. “Although preventing habitat loss should be the first priority, our new findings show that restored oyster reefs can catch up within a decade.”



Smith and Castorani worked with scientist Bo Lusk at The Nature Conservancy, which has been restoring oyster reefs in Virginia’s coastal bays since 2003. The scientists conducted their experiments at the National Science Foundation’s Virginia Coast Reserve Long-Term Ecological Research site, and were able to collect extensive empirical evidence of the relatively quick rebound of the oysters, as well as the recolonization of the reef habitat by small crabs that help support the broader food web.



“We also learned that as restored reefs matured and gained oysters, they became more stable over time, which suggests that restoration can increase ecosystem resilience,” Smith added.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New hope for degraded oyster reefs along the eastern seaboard

The&nbsp;eastern oyster&nbsp;(Crassostrea virginica), also known as the Atlantic oyster, is...

At least two-thirds of drinking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-new-rna-viruses-identified-in-ocean-waters/">water</a> in the United States contains uranium, according to a new study from Columbia University's <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/">Mailman School of Public Health</a>.



The research, which was focused on metal concentrations in U.S. community water systems (CWS), also revealed patterns of inequalities. The highest levels of uranium, selenium, barium, chromium, and arsenic were found in Hispanic communities, which raises environmental justice concerns.&nbsp;



Uranium, in particular, is a known risk factor for the development of chronic diseases, even at low levels.



"Previous studies have found associations between chronic uranium exposure and increased risk of hypertension, cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and lung cancer at high levels of exposure," said Dr. Anne Nigra.&nbsp;



"Our objectives were to estimate CWS metal concentrations across the U.S, and identify sociodemographic subgroups served by these systems that either reported high metal concentration estimates or were more likely to report averages exceeding the US EPA's maximum contaminant level (MCL)."



In the United States, around 90 percent of residents rely on public drinking water systems. Most residents rely specifically on community water systems that serve the same population year-round, noted the researchers.



For the investigation, the experts analyzed EPA review records from 139,000 public water systems serving 290 million people



The goal was to determine if average concentrations of antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, mercury, selenium, thallium, and uranium exceeded the "safe" contaminant levels established by the EPA.&nbsp;



The study revealed that during compliance monitoring, uranium was detected in community water systems 63 percent of the time.



The researchers noted that the consistent association between elevated CWS metal concentrations and semi-urban, Hispanic communities implies that concentration disparities are a failure of regulatory policy or treatment rather than underlying geology.&nbsp;



"Additional regulatory policies, compliance enforcement, and improved infrastructure are therefore necessary to reduce disparities in CWS metal concentrations and protect communities served by public water systems with elevated metal concentrations," said Dr. Nigra.&nbsp;



"Such interventions and policies should specifically protect the most highly exposed communities to advance environmental justice and protect public health."



The study was supported by the US National Institutes for Environmental Health Sciences. The results are published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/home">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Uranium detected in two-thirds of U.S. drinking water

At least two-thirds of drinking water in the United States...

Modern computers may seem capable of phenomenal and awe-inspiring feats of processing, but they have nothing on the human brain. With its 100 billion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-neurons-respond-to-singing-but-not-instrumental-music/">neurons</a> and more than 1,000 trillion synapses or neuronal connections, the human brain is much more efficient than a traditional computer. In fact, computers that mimic the way in which human brains function may well be next, in terms of hardware development.&nbsp;



Currently, conventional computer systems are based on what is called the von Neumann architecture. They consist of an input, usually from a keyboard and mouse, and an output, such as to a monitor. They also involve a CPU, or central processing unit, and RAM, or memory storage. Transferring data through all these mechanisms from input to processing to memory to output takes a lot of power, at least compared to the human brain.&nbsp;



For instance, the Fugaku supercomputer uses upwards of 28 megawatts, roughly equivalent to 28 million watts, to run while the brain uses only around 10 to 20 watts. In addition, this conventional computer architecture does not allow for an instruction fetch and a data operation to take place at the same time, as both transfers of information share a common&nbsp;bus. This is referred to as the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture#Von_Neumann_bottleneck">von Neumann bottleneck</a>, and it can limit the performance of the system. In contrast, human brain neurons can both process and store data, which makes them more efficient.



Computer engineers are now trying to design computing systems that mimic the way neurons and synapses work in the human brain. They are developing components for these neuromorphic systems and are trying to do so in environmentally friendly ways. Hailed by some as the future of computing, neuromorphic systems are much faster and use much less power than traditional computers.&nbsp;



In a recent study, engineers at <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> have demonstrated how to make an environmentally friendly memristor, a component similar to a transistor that can not only process but also store data in memory. One of the important components of the memristor is a thin layer of solid honey layered between two metal electrodes.&nbsp;



“This is a very small device with a simple structure, but it has very similar functionalities to a human neuron,” said Feng Zhao, associate professor of WSU’s School of Engineering and Computer Science, and corresponding author on the study.&nbsp;“This means if we can integrate millions or billions of these honey memristors together, then they can be made into a neuromorphic system that functions much like a human brain.”



For the study, Zhao and first author Brandon Sueoka, a WSU graduate student in Zhao’s lab, created memristors by processing honey into a solid form and sandwiching it between two metal electrodes, making a structure similar to a human synapse. They then tested the honey memristors’ ability to mimic the work of synapses with high switching on and off speeds of 100 and 500 nanoseconds respectively. The memristors also emulated the synapse functions known as spike-timing dependent plasticity and spike-rate dependent plasticity, which are responsible for learning processes in human brains and for retaining new information in neurons.



Currently the memristors have been developed at the micro scale, and so are approximately the size of a human hair. Zhao plans to make further changes in future, so that these components are sized at the nano scale and are comparable to about 1/1,000 of a human hair. In this case, many millions or even billions of these components could be bundled together, just like neurons in a nerve, to make a full neuromorphic computing system.



Several companies, including Intel and IBM, have already released neuromorphic chips which have the equivalent of more than 100 million “neurons” per chip; this may sound impressive, but it is not yet near the number of these structures found in the brain.&nbsp;



In developing the memristors, Zhao and his team have focused on looking for biodegradable materials to use in order to address the current ecological challenges of electronic waste. While many developers are still using the same nonrenewable and toxic materials that are currently used in conventional computer chips, Zhao’s investigations have led him to test various proteins, as well as the sugars in honey and in Aloe vera leaves for use in the memristors.&nbsp; He has found that honey has great potential for this task.&nbsp;



“Honey does not spoil,” he said. “It has a very low moisture concentration, so bacteria cannot survive in it. This means these computer chips will be very stable and reliable for a very long time.”



The honey memristor chips developed at WSU should tolerate the lower levels of heat generated by neuromorphic systems which do not get as hot as traditional computers. The honey memristors will also cut down on electronic waste.



“When we want to dispose of devices using computer chips made of honey, we can easily dissolve them in water,” said Professor Zhao. “Because of these special properties, honey is very useful for creating renewable and biodegradable neuromorphic systems.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0022-3727">Journal of Physics D</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honey may be used in computer chips that work like brain cells

Modern computers may seem capable of phenomenal and awe-inspiring feats...

A new study published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-child-language">Journal of Child Language</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-infants-recognize-words-using-similar-brain-regions/">words</a> used to direct caregivers, known as demonstratives, are likely to be among the first words a child learns and uses most frequently.&nbsp;



"Sharing attention is the infrastructure for the rest of language and social interaction," said Amalia Skilton, a linguistics scholar and Klarman Fellow in the College of Arts and Sciences at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>.



We already know that early speakers of Mandarin, English, and Spanish use words such as "this" and "that." However, these languages have a relatively simple structure. Skilton wanted to see if there was a strong drive to use these types of words in languages that were different in structure and social context.&nbsp;



Skilton observed 45 Ticuna speakers in Peru and found that their children followed the same pattern even though the language is distinct from the other languages studied.&nbsp;&nbsp;



There are only two primary demonstratives in English ("this and "that"). However, Ticuna, an indigenous language spoken by people living along the Amazon/Solimões River in Peru, Colombia, and Brazil has six demonstratives. The four most common demonstratives were examined.



During her year in Peru, Skilton found that most of the one-year-olds she monitored said "this/that" or "here/there," indicating a universal desire to share attention. Based on this finding, she suggests that children should start using that vocabulary at roughly 12-18 months, regardless of language.&nbsp;



While young children are eager to share attention, Skilton points out that they find it difficult to understand other people's perspectives.&nbsp;



Observations have shown that children struggle to comprehend what others believe. Skilton's research adds to these findings because it demonstrates that they also have difficulty understanding how others think about objects in space.



Skilton explains that caregivers should not be concerned if a child under three years old misuses the words.



"While adults think of these words as simple, their meanings are fairly challenging for children to understand at young ages and having trouble with them is a typical part of child development."



Skilton plans on continuing her research in Peru, where she hopes to look at how children use pointing gestures to direct adults' attention.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many of a child's first words are used to direct caregivers

A new study published in the Journal of Child Language...

According to a <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/increase-in-atmospheric-methane-set-another-record-during-2021">preliminary analysis</a> led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">NOAA</a>), increases in atmospheric methane hit a new record in 2021, averaging 1,895.7 parts per billion (ppb) during last year – which is 15 percent higher than in the 1984-2006 period, and around 162 percent greater than pre-industrial levels.



Although carbon dioxide remains the biggest contributor to anthropogenic global warming, methane is roughly 25 times more powerful at trapping heat in the atmosphere, and thus has a major short-term impact on the rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-droughts-are-coming-on-faster-due-to-climate-change/">climate change</a>. This gas is emitted by oil and natural gas production, as well as by livestock farming and wetlands, whose microbe-rich soils are ideal for naturally producing and emitting methane.



In November, 2021, over 100 countries signed a “<a href="https://www.state.gov/united-states-european-union-and-partners-formally-launch-global-methane-pledge-to-keep-1-5c-within-reach/">Global Methane Pledge</a>” to cut methane emissions by 30 percent until the end of this decade. However, some major emitters such as Russia and China have not signed this pledge yet, and NOAA’s analysis suggests that even in countries that signed it, the rates of emissions remain extremely high.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our data show that global emissions continue to move in the wrong direction at a rapid pace. The evidence is consistent, alarming, and undeniable,” said NOAA administrator Richard Spinrad. “Reducing methane emissions is an important tool we can use right now to lessen the impacts of climate change in the near term, and rapidly reduce the rate of warming.”



Since a large part of methane emissions originate from unintentional leaks from industrial wells and pipelines, fixing these problems should be relatively easy. “Reducing methane emissions from fossil fuel is an important step, and a low-hanging fruit to reduce atmospheric methane levels,” said Xin “Lindsay” Lan, a research scientist at NOAA’s <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/">Global Monitoring Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



“The latest increases in methane concentrations reinforce the critical importance of reducing human-caused methane emissions if we are going to slow the rate of increase in warming,” confirmed Steven Hamburg, a chief scientist at the <a href="https://www.edf.org/">Environmental Defense Fund</a>. “There is agreement in the scientific community that the majority of methane emissions are human caused and account for more than a quarter of the warming we are currently experiencing.”



However, other factors such as the massive rains in tropical areas that have flushed huge quantities of methane from wetlands, or the major role livestock play in methane emissions, could be more difficult to control and mitigate. Nevertheless, slashing these emissions as much as we can remains the fastest and cheapest way to reduce global warming in the short term.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Methane emissions hit a new record in 2021

According to a preliminary analysis led by the National Oceanic...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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