Using ancient DNA recovered from prehistoric bones and teeth, scientists have built a 37,000‑year timeline of human infections, stretching from the icy mammoth camps of Siberia to medieval graveyards in Denmark. 



The new <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09192-8">genetic map</a> shows how early microbes began shaping human history. The scientists sequenced remains from 1,313 individuals and found genetic traces of 214 different pathogens. These range from hepatitis B viruses to the bacterium that causes plague.



The scale of the study provides an opportunity for researchers to test ideas about how culture, climate, and migration changed disease pressure over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skeletons-hold-disease-secrets">Skeletons hold disease secrets</h2>



The study was led by evolutionary geneticist Eske Willerslev of the <a href="https://globe.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a> and the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>.



“We’ve long suspected the transition to farming and animal husbandry opened the door to a new era of disease," Willerslev said. "Now DNA shows us it happened at least 6,500 years ago.” 



His team sifted through more than 400 billion sequencing reads and used chemical damage patterns to confirm which fragments truly came from ancient microbes. 



The analysis uncovered infections in roughly three‑quarters of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-decipher-the-genetic-history-of-400-medieval-skeletons/">skeletons</a>, indicating that illness was a constant companion rather than a rare ordeal. The oldest sample, dating back about 37,000 years, contained mostly oral bacteria still common today. 



The results revealed that blood-borne infections didn’t show up until people began settling down, storing grain, and living closely with sheep, goats, and cattle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-sparked-new-infections">Farming sparked new infections</h2>



Livestock pens and crowded villages arrived in Eurasia around 8,000 years ago, and the genomic record registers an immediate uptick in disease. 



A clear inflection point appears at 6,500 years ago, the moment when <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7563794/">zoonotic pathogens</a>, the kind that jump from animals to humans, first show up consistently.



One notorious example is <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(15)01322-7">Yersinia pestis</a>, the plague bacterium, whose oldest genetic trace dates back to about 5,500 years ago in western Russia. 



This pushes the timeline of plague back two millennia and shows the microbe shadowing early farmers long before recorded pandemics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-waves-of-new-infections">Waves of new infections</h2>



A second surge of infection follows the migration of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14507">steppe pastoralist</a> groups roughly 5,000 years ago, when horse‑drawn wagons carried people, livestock, and microbes across the continent.



Skeletons from that period revealed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-farming-population-decimated-by-plague-dna-skull/">plague</a>, relapsing‑fever spirochetes, and the parasites that cause vivax malaria.



Such waves of infection probably devastated local communities, clearing ecological space for newcomers and turning pathogens into unlikely allies of conquest.



Ancient immune‑gene data hint at strong selection beginning in the Bronze Age - a genetic fingerprint of relentless pressure from emerging pathogens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-infections-from-animals">Human infections from animals</h2>



The catalog reveals that cowpox relatives, leptospirosis bacteria, and meat-borne yersiniosis showed up soon after pigs, sheep, and goats were domesticated. 



This finding aligns with estimates that around 60 percent of emerging infections come from animals. Close contact clearly reshaped the disease landscape.



The researchers also found skeletons that harbored two or more bugs at once, and these co-infections can worsen outcomes. An ancient Viking‑Age skull carried both hepatitis B and plague DNA, demonstrating how mixed infections may have driven sudden mortality spikes.



Curiously, no clear evidence of tuberculosis surfaced, probably because its bacteria rarely circulate in high numbers in healthy blood. But as the team notes, absence of proof doesn’t mean ancient lungs were safe - only that some microbes leave fewer traces in the molecular record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-ancient-infections-teach-doctors">What ancient infections teach doctors</h2>



“Mutations that were successful in the past are likely to reappear,” said lead author Martin Sikora. She noted that the ancient genomes can help scientists anticipate future mutations.&nbsp;



Vaccine makers already test candidate antigens against panels of modern strains - a practice encouraged by the <a href="https://www.who.int/teams/health-product-policy-and-standards/standards-and-specifications/norms-and-standards/vaccine-standardization/regulation-and-quality-control-of-vaccines">World Health Organization</a> - and prehistoric DNA provides a deeper benchmark. Comparing lineages over millennia highlights which protein targets stay stable and which drift.



Old plague sequences, for instance, are missing the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8547695/">ymt gene</a> that helps modern strains survive in fleas. This points to the key step that turned a local infection into a global pandemic threat. 



Similar evolutionary tipping points could lurk in viruses still endemic in bats or rodents. Public‑health planners can combine the new database with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-tipping-points-how-close-are-we-to-irreversible-change/">climate</a> and land‑use models to gauge spillover risk. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pathogens-rewrote-human-genes">Pathogens rewrote human genes</h2>



The skeletal archive captures natural selection in action. It shows that human alleles linked to inflammatory responses became more common after farming took hold. 



The same alleles, still common today, now raise the risk of autoimmune disorders in industrialized nations.



Immunologists argue that this trade‑off is the cost of survival: genes that helped ancestors fight livestock‑borne bugs can misfire in cleaner modern environments. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oldest-human-dna-ever-found-tells-story-of-lost-branch-on-human-neanderthal-family-tree/">Ancient DNA</a> provides the infection history that scientists need to test that idea.



"Infectious diseases have left lasting impressions on human genomes, as selective pressures from pathogens have continuously shaped human genetic variation," wrote the researchers.



"Where and when different human pathogens first emerged, how and why they spread, and how they affected human populations are important but largely unresolved questions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09192-8">Nature</a>.



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Ancient DNA reveals 37,000 years of hidden human infections

Using ancient DNA recovered from prehistoric bones and teeth, scientists have built a 37,000‑year timeline of human infections, stretching from the icy mammoth camps of Siberia to medieval graveyards in Denmark. The new genetic map shows how early microbes began shaping human history. The scientists sequenced remains from 1,313 individuals and found genetic traces of 214 different pathogens. These range from hepatitis B viruses to the bacterium that causes plague. The scale of the study provides an opportunity for researchers to test ideas about how culture, climate,...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.aalto.fi/en">Aalto University</a> in Finland has found that food production – already one of the largest stressors on our planet – is made substantially more challenging by the interaction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-just-experienced-its-shortest-day-on-record/">Earth</a> system processes, defined as the natural activities that keep the planet in a habitable and useful state, such as carbon sequestration in forests or nutrient run off into freshwater systems. According to the scientists, the complex interactions between these processes challenge their boundaries, and affect how well they function.



“Food production is a major cause of environmental stress, impacting on biodiversity loss, the climate, and overexploitation of marine resources,” said study co-author Steven Lade, an expert in Sustainable Development at the<a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/"> Australian National University</a> (ANU). “We need to start producing food in a sustainable way. By assessing the interaction of Earth system processes we can ensure they are considered when designing and implementing food production and agriculture policy.”



By examining and characterizing various Earth system processes, the researchers highlighted how they can be used in order to develop more sustainable food production techniques. The investigation revealed several pivotal interactions which are frequently overlooked, such as the impact of “green water” on food production and biodiversity.



“Green water refers to the water stored in soil that is available for plants to grow. It has a central role to play in interacting with, and regulating all the other processes like land, biodiversity, and water flow,” Dr. Lade explained. “Ensuring we address these various interactions will require action. We need better communication, meaning that authorities responsible for areas like agriculture policy and marine policy need to talk to each other.”



“We need to take a holistic approach when it comes to managing sustainable food production so that it doesn’t strain the boundaries of our natural systems. We need to look beyond just water and land as inputs for food production.”



The scientists argue that most challenges stem from a complex web of interactions between the ocean, freshwater, and land biospheres. Acknowledging these interactions and boundaries is crucial for maintaining stability and resilience in the Earth’s systems. “System interactions make sustainable food production more challenging. However, the interconnected nature means taking positive actions can have extensive flow on effects,” Dr. Lade concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-00940-6">Nature Sustainability</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Food production affects Earth’s natural processes

A new study led by the Aalto University in Finland...

While many mammals have the ability to detect sugars, most birds are insensitive to them. Recent studies have found evidence that both hummingbirds and songbirds have regained their ability to sense sugars by repurposing their savory receptor to detect carbohydrates in nectar and fruits. How other bird species sense sugars - and the extent to which taste receptor responses track the vast dietary diversity of birds - is still unclear.&nbsp;



Now, an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.bi.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence</a> has set out to investigate this question by focusing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/woodpeckers-recognize-pecking-patterns/">woodpeckers</a>. Their analyses revealed that, although most woodpeckers have also regained sweet taste, wrynecks – specialized ant-eating woodpeckers – selectively reversed this gain through a simple yet unexpected change in their taste receptors.



Using behavioral tests of wild birds, as well as functional analyses of their taste receptors, the scientists discovered that woodpeckers clearly prefer sugars and amino acids over water, and their taste receptors are highly sensitive to sugars. Surprisingly though, wrynecks displayed preference for amino acids but not for sugars.



According to the researchers, the common ancestor of woodpeckers and wrynecks already possessed a modified savory receptor capable of responding to sugars.&nbsp;



“This finding unveiled a third case of independent sugar-sensing evolution via modification of the savory receptor in birds,” said study first author Julia Cramer, a doctoral student in Ecology and Evolution at the Max Planck Institute. “Yet, what was even more exciting was the implication that wrynecks subsequently lost the receptor’s new function.”



By meticulously investigating the differences between wryneck and woodpecker receptors, Cramer and her colleagues showed that changes in a single amino acid in the wryneck receptor selectively turned off sugar-sensing. These findings trace an evolutionary history in which an early gain of sugar sensing in woodpeckers’ ancestors was followed by its reversion when the wryneck receptor was altered.&nbsp;



“We were very surprised to find that this reversion is caused by changes in only one single amino acid, acting as a molecular switch to selectively regulate sugar sensitivity in wrynecks,” Cramer explained. “Unexpectedly, the result of this small change is that wrynecks are now again unable to detect sugar in their food but have retained the receptor’s ability to gather information on specific amino acid content. This makes a lot of sense when most of your diet is made up of ants.”



Further research is needed to clarify how specific changes in taste receptors, as well as in other sensory and physiological systems, are related to the rich dietary diversity observed across bird species.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.07.059">Current Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Woodpeckers and other birds can taste sugar - but how?

While many mammals have the ability to detect sugars, most...

Scientists have long known about the massive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-building-blocks-of-life-may-come-from-asteroids/">asteroid</a> impact crater on what is now the Gulf of Mexico, which wiped out the dinosaurs and most other organisms on our planet 66 million years ago. Now, the discovery of what appears to be a second impact crater on the other side of the Atlantic - about 400 kilometers off the coast of Guinea, West Africa - raises the question of whether more than one giant meteorite bombarded the Earth on that fateful day.



The Nadir Crater, located 300 meters below the seabed, was discovered accidentally by Dr. Uisdean Nicholson, a geoscientist at the <a href="https://www.hw.ac.uk/">Herriot-Watt University</a>, while he was analyzing seismic survey data to better understand past climatic changes.&nbsp;



“These surveys are kind of like an ultrasound of Earth. I’ve spent probably the last 20 years interpreting them, but I’ve never seen anything like this,” Dr. Nicholson reported. “Nadir’s shape is diagnostic of an asteroid impact. It's got a raised rim surrounding a central uplift area, and then layers of debris that extend outwards.”



While the asteroid that created the Chicxulub Crater in the Gulf of Mexico is estimated to measure over 12 kilometers in diameter, simulations suggest that the one responsible for the Nadir Crater was only about 400 meters wide.&nbsp;



However, according to Veronica Bray, a planetary scientist at the University of Arizona, the impact would have generated a tsunami over one kilometer high, as well as an earthquake with a magnitude of about 6.5. "The energy released would have been around 1,000 times greater than that from the January 2022 eruption and tsunami in Tonga,”said Bray.



Yet, how closely related in time the two asteroid impacts were remains an open question. The analysis of fossils of known age drilled from a borehole near the Nadir Crater suggest that the impact may have occurred at a similar date with that in Mexico, but further examinations of rocks from the crater are needed to draw clear conclusions.&nbsp;



Geologist Sean Gulick argues that while the asteroid might have fallen to Earth on the same day, it is also possible that it struck our planet a million years before or after the Mexican cataclysm. “A much smaller cousin, or sister, doesn’t necessarily add to what we know about the dinosaurs’ extinction, but it does add to our understanding of the astronomical event that was Chicxulub,” he said.&nbsp;



“Was this a break-up of a parent body that had multiple fragments that hit the Earth over time? Was Chicxulub a double asteroid where a smaller object orbited a bigger one? These are interesting questions to pursue, because to learn that Chicxulub might have this extra excitement of a second crater at the same time changes the story a little bit about how Chicxulub came to be.”



The discovery of the Nadir Crater is reported in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abn3096">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

New impact crater dates back to the end of the dinosaurs

Scientists have long known about the massive asteroid impact crater...

The American Midwest is an important summer breeding ground for eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-are-officially-listed-as-endangered/">monarch butterflies</a>, which – over the course of one year and four generations – migrate between central Mexico and parts of the United States and southern Canada. However, between 1996 and 2014, the eastern monarch population has declined by over 80 percent – with climate change considered the main culprit - leading the <a href="https://www.iucn.org/">International Union for the Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) to place these fascinating insects on its list of endangered species.&nbsp;



Now, by using extensive data sets and established climate models, a team of researchers from <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> (MSU) has forecasted which counties in the midwestern U.S. and Ontario, Canada, are most likely to offer the best breeding grounds for monarchs.



“These projections let us look at how monarch populations will change across the Midwest and say, ‘Here’s where they’ll likely do a little better, here’s where they might do a little worse,’” said study lead author Erin Zylstra, a former postdoctoral fellow in Quantitative Ecology at MSU.&nbsp;



“Climate change is a huge global problem that requires nations working together to solve. When we talk about conservation, though, we tend to want to know what we can do in our local communities. If we can find the places where the impacts of climate change aren’t expected to be so bad, those could become the areas where we invest our resources.”



In their analysis, Dr. Zylstra and her colleagues took into consideration four climate change scenarios in order to forecast monarch population changes in counties throughout the summer breeding grounds, as well as on the overwintering grounds in Mexico. In each of the scenarios, the eastern monarch population is expected to decline, which is not surprising considering their current trajectory. However, identifying the local areas where populations are growing or at least remaining constant offers new hope that their decline could be slowed or even reversed.



“We’re answering scientific questions that we think are important, but we are also working with on-the-ground individuals and agencies that can use our work to implement strategic conservation,” said study senior author Elise Zipkin, an associate professor of Quantitative Ecology at MSU. “The Midwest Climate Adaptation Science Center helps us get our research directly into the hands of those people who are thinking about next steps.”



“Monarchs are special. They’re beautiful, easy to identify, widely distributed and they get people to care about conservation in general. Absolutely, with action, we can protect our planet, we can protect other migratory species, we can protect pollinators and we can protect monarchs,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16349">Global Change Biology</a>.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Scientists forecast the future of monarch butterflies

The American Midwest is an important summer breeding ground for...

Researchers have discovered that a mysterious microscopic creature - from which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-prevent-a-catastrophic-meltdown-of-the-worlds-largest-ice-sheet/">humans</a> were thought to descend - is part of a different family tree altogether. Saccorhytus shares the primitive feature of a large mouth surrounded by spines and holes of the deuterostome group, from which our own deep ancestors emerged.



However, a new analysis of 500 million year old fossils from China has shown that the holes around the mouth are bases of spines that broke away during the preservation of the fossils, revealing the evolution of the microfossil Saccorhytus.



“Some of the fossils are so perfectly preserved that they look almost alive,” said Professor Yunhuan Liu of Chang’an University in China. “Saccorhytus was a curious beast, with a mouth but no anus, and rings of complex spines around its mouth.”



The findings make important amendments to the early phylogenetic tree and the understanding of how life developed. The story of Saccorhytus’ ancestry lies in the microscopic internal and external features of this tiny fossil.&nbsp;



By taking hundreds of X-ray images, the experts reconstructed a detailed 3D digital model of the fossil. This revealed that pores around the mouth were closed by another layer, creating spines around the mouth.



&nbsp;“We believe these would have helped Saccorhytus capture and process its prey,” said study co-author Huaqiao Zhang from the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology.



The researchers believe that Saccorhytus is in fact an ecdysoszoan: a group that contains arthropods and nematodes.&nbsp;



“We considered lots of alternative groups that Saccorhytus might be related to, including the corals, anemones and jellyfish which also have a mouth but no anus,” said study co-lead author Professor Philip Donoghue of <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>.



Saccorhytus’ lack of anus is an intriguing and important feature for a fundamental reason of evolutionary biology. How the anus arose – and sometimes subsequently disappeared – contributes to the understanding of how animal body plans evolved. Moving Saccorhytus to the ecdysozoan group means striking the feature of a disappearing anus off the deuterosome case history, and adding it to the ecdysozoan one.



“This is a really unexpected result because the arthropod group have a through-gut, extending from mouth to anus. Saccorhytus’s membership of the group indicates that it has regressed in evolutionary terms, dispensing with the anus its ancestors would have inherited,” said Shuhai Xiao from Virgina Tech. “We still don’t know the precise position of Saccorhytus within the tree of life but it may reflect the ancestral condition from which all members of this diverse group evolved.”



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Mysterious creature with no anus is not a human ancestor

Researchers have discovered that a mysterious microscopic creature - from...

Great,White,Sharks,By,Watersurface,View,From,Bottom

By using sophisticated electronic tags, a team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> has assembled a large biologging dataset to better understand how elasmobranchs – a group of marine animals including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-important-deserve-protections/">sharks</a>, rays, and skates – use the ocean depths.&nbsp;



The analysis revealed that, while some species spend their entire lives in shallow waters close to the shores, others plunge hundreds of meters under water. Clarifying how elasmobranchs use the ocean will enable resource managers and policymakers to examine the threats these animals face, and devise better future management and conservation plans.



The researchers compiled two decades of satellite data and archival tags to track the movements of 38 species of elasmobranchs in oceans across the globe.&nbsp;



“For the first time, we have a standardized, global database that we used to fill important knowledge gaps about the diving behaviors of sharks and rays,” said study co-lead author Samantha Andrzejaczek, a postdoctoral fellow in Marine Biology at Stanford. “This will enable better understanding of what fisheries interact with elasmobranchs and how to improve management of many of these long-lived animals.”



According to the scientists, one of the most common movements among elasmobranchs appears to match up with the ocean’s diel (twice per day) vertical migration. At dawn, small fish and invertebrates begin migrating from the ocean’s surface to the safety of darker, deeper waters, where they are followed by their predators. At night, they swim back to the surface to feed.&nbsp;



“We think that sharks and rays in their diel migrations are following food resources up and down the water column,” reported Dr. Andrzejaczek. &nbsp;



About one-third of elasmobranch species frequently dive to deep water. For instance, white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) were found to dive deeper than 1,200 meters, while whale sharks (Rhincodon typus) have reached a staggering 1,896 meters-deep.&nbsp;



“Deep divers might be looking for food in deeper water or avoiding hunters themselves as potential prey,” said Dr. Andrzejaczek. “Some sharks and rays are small, and some of the biggest sharks and rays will feed on them. We found that 13 species had individuals that dive to more than 1,000 meters, which is extremely deep.”&nbsp;Some of these animals may dive into the depths not only in search of prey, but also to cool down after spending too much time in the warm surface waters.



The scientists also identified overlaps among species in the same vertical spaces, mainly driven by predator-prey dynamics. For example, the oceanic manta ray and whale shark both feed on plankton, and the tiger shark is known to predate on both of these species.



These findings could help elasmobranch conservation efforts by identifying areas where they might be at risk of bycatch or other hazards.&nbsp;



“Human beings are unaccustomed to thinking of habitat in the vertical dimension. We hope this study can make people realize that we need management strategies that incorporate this overlooked dimension of elasmobranch behavior. For example, we could use these data to better understand how sharks and human fisheries interact,” Dr. Andrzejaczek concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abo1754">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Scientists reveal how sharks use the oceans

By using sophisticated electronic tags, a team of researchers led...

The largest mass extinction in Earth's history marked the end of the Permian period, some 252 million years ago. Over 80 percent of all species around at the time disappeared forever from the fossil record. This changed the nature of life on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-fruit-eating-animal-in-earths-history-identified/">Earth</a> and ushered in a new era in which the reptiles evolved and proliferated. In the past, biologists have understood that this rapid radiation of reptiles was driven by the plethora of ecological niches made available by the extinction of Permian species, but new research has now proposed that climate change was also a significant factor behind the spectacular evolution and expansion of reptiles at this time.&nbsp;



“We found that these periods of rapid evolution of reptiles were intimately connected to increasing temperatures. Some groups changed really fast and some less fast, but nearly all reptiles were evolving much faster than they ever had before,” said lead author Tiago R Simões, postdoctoral fellow at the Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>.



For the investigation, Simões and senior author Professor Stephanie E. Pierce (also from Harvard) worked alongside collaborators Professor Michael Caldwell (University of Alberta, Canada) and Dr. Christian Kammerer (North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences) to examine early amniotes. These animals represent the forerunners of all modern mammals, reptiles, birds, and their closest extinct relatives, at the initial phase of their evolution. At this point in time, the first groups of reptiles and mammal ancestors were splitting from each other and evolving along their own separate evolutionary paths.



“Reptiles represent an ideal and rare terrestrial system to study this question as they have a relatively good fossil record and survived a series of climatic crises including the ones leading up to the largest extinction in the history of complex life, the Permian-Triassic mass extinction,” said Simões.



During the Permian period, it was the synapsids that dominated the vertebrate fauna. These were not reptiles, but the ancestors of mammals, known as stem mammals or proto-mammals. Most of them perished during the end Permian extinction, their ecological niches being taken over by reptiles, including numerous dinosaur species, that evolved and radiated rapidly during the Triassic Period (252-200 million years ago).



The new study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>, makes use of morphological data from more than 1,000 fossil specimens from 125 species of reptiles, synapsids, and their closest relatives during approximately 140 million years before and after the Permian-Triassic extinction. This data set is 40 percent larger than the previous largest data set and most of the measurements were made by direct observations and micro-CT scans.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed this data to identify when these fossil species first originated and how fast they were evolving, using state-of-the-art analytical techniques such as Bayesian evolutionary analysis, which is also used to understand the evolution of viruses such as SARS-COVID 19. They then combined the morphological data with information on body size and with global temperature data that spanned millions of years in the geological record, to provide a broad overview of the animals’ major adaptive responses towards climatic shifts.



The experts found that the appearance of new species, increases in the rates of morphological change and alterations in geographical distributions corresponded to periods of rapidly changing climatic conditions, including global warming and cooling,



“Our results reveal that periods of fast climatic shifts and global warming are associated with exceptionally high rates of anatomical change in most groups of reptiles as they adapted to new environmental conditions, and this process started long before the Permian-Triassic extinction, since at least 270 million years ago, indicating that the diversification of reptile body plans was not triggered by the P-T extinction event as previously thought, but in fact started tens of million years before that," said Professor Pierce.



“One reptile lineage, the lepidosaurs, which gave rise to the first lizards and tuataras, veered in the opposite direction of most reptile groups and underwent a phase of very slow rates of change to their overall anatomy,” said Simões, “essentially, their body plans were constrained by natural selection, instead of going rogue and radically changing like most other reptiles at the time.” The researchers suggest this is due to pre-adaptations on their body size to cope better with high temperatures.



“The physiology of organisms is really dependent on their body size. Small-bodied reptiles can better exchange heat with their surrounding environment. The first lizards and tuataras were much smaller than other groups of reptiles, not that different from their modern relatives, and so they were better adapted to cope with drastic temperature changes. The much larger ancestors of crocodiles, turtles, and dinosaurs could not lose heat as easily and had to quickly change their bodies in order to adapt to the new environmental conditions.”



According to Professor Pierce, large-sized reptiles basically took two routes to deal with these climate shifts - they either migrated closer to temperate regions or invaded the aquatic world where they didn’t need to worry about overheating because water can absorb heat and maintain its temperature much better than air.



“This strong association between rising temperatures in the geological past and a biological response by dramatically different groups of reptiles suggests climate change was a key factor in explaining the origin and the explosion of new reptile body plans during the latest Permian and Triassic,” said Simões.



“We show that the origin and phenotypic radiation of reptiles was not solely driven by ecological opportunity following the end-Permian extinction, as previously thought, but was also the result of multiple adaptive responses to climatic shifts spanning 57 million years," concluded the study authors.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Past climate change drove the rapid evolution of reptiles

The largest mass extinction in Earth's history marked the end...

Small mammals will have a hard time surviving the stressors associated with climate change, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a>. The experts found that large, long-lived animals are better able to cope with extreme weather such as prolonged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/europe-is-experiencing-its-worst-drought-in-500-years/">drought</a> and heavy rainfall.



The researchers analyzed historical population fluctuations among 157 mammal species from around the world. These fluctuations were compared with weather and climate data from the same time period.&nbsp;



The results are providing new insight into how animals respond to extreme weather. In particular, the experts have identified which animal populations will be the hardest hit by climate change.



"We can see a clear pattern: Animals that live a long time and have few offspring are less vulnerable when extreme weather hits than animals that live for a short time and have many offspring," said study co-author Professor Owen Jones.



Large animals that live longer can cope better with an extreme event such as a persistent drought because these animals have the option to wait until conditions improve to reproduce. The same weather event would affect small mammals differently, as food sources like insects, flowers, and fruits would disappear quickly.&nbsp;



On the other hand, populations of small mammals may also take advantage when weather conditions improve by producing many offspring.



"These small mammals react quickly to extreme weather, and it goes both ways. Their vulnerability to extreme weather should therefore not be equated with a risk of extinction," said study co-author John Jackson.&nbsp;



Some of the animals that will be the most affected by climate change include: Azara's grass mouse, olive grass mouse, elegant fat-tailed mouse opossum, Canadian lemming, Tundra vole, Arctic fox, and the common shrew.



Meanwhile, larger-bodied animals such as African elephants, Siberian tigers, chimpanzees, greater horseshoe bats, llamas, and grizzly bears will be less impacted by extreme weather conditions.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, the results of the study may help experts make predictions about animals they do not know much about.&nbsp;



"We expect climate change to bring more extreme weather in the future. Animals will need to cope with this extreme weather as they always have. So, our analysis helps predict how different animal species might respond to future climate change based on their general characteristics – even if we have limited data on their populations," said Professor Jones.



Jackson emphasized that the ability of an animal species to withstand climate change is not the only factor to consider when assessing the species’ vulnerability to extinction:



"Habitat destruction, poaching, pollution and invasive species are factors that threaten many animal species - in many cases even more than climate change," said Jackson.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Which animals are most affected by extreme weather?

Small mammals will have a hard time surviving the stressors...

Plants use carbon dioxide (CO2) during photosynthesis to produce food for themselves, and the availability of this gas can be a limiting factor for their growth. The current rise in levels of CO2 due to burning fossil fuels and other human activities might therefore be seen as a good thing for plant growth, and for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-quality-can-help-crops-survive-rising-temperatures/">crop</a> yields in particular. However, research from a team of scientists from six different countries indicates that the effects of global warming may not be as straightforward as this. For one, wheat plants don’t tolerate high temperatures very well.



The researchers estimated the comprehensive impact of climate change and extreme climate events on global wheat supply and the demand chain in a 2℃&nbsp;warmer world by using a novel climate-wheat-economic ensemble modelling approach, where they consider the impact of increasing temperatures on wheat price, livelihoods and agricultural markets.&nbsp;



The experts agree that CO2&nbsp;enrichment in the atmosphere could cancel out the effects of temperature stress on crops, and that a slightly higher wheat yield could result under a 2 ℃&nbsp;warming scenario. However, increases in global yield do not necessarily result in lower consumer prices. Indeed, the modelling results suggest that global wheat price spikes would become higher and more frequent, thus placing additional economic pressure on millions of people around the world.&nbsp;



“This counterintuitive result is initially driven by uneven impacts geographically. Wheat yields are projected to increase in high-latitude wheat exporting countries but show decreases in low-latitude wheat importing countries,”&nbsp;said lead author Zhang Tianyi, an agrometeorologist at the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>.



“This leads to higher demand for international trade and higher consumer prices in the importing countries, which would deepen the traditional trade patterns between wheat importing and exporting countries," explained study co-author Karin van der Wiel, a climate scientist at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute,



It is possible that trade liberalization, the removal of restrictions on the exchange of goods between countries, could help to mitigate climate stress via improving market mobility. The current research team revealed that such policies could indeed reduce the costs of wheat products to consumers, but the impact on farmers would be mixed. For example, the promotion of free trade in wheat under 2 ℃&nbsp;warming could stabilize or even improve farmers’&nbsp;income in wheat exporting countries but would reduce income for farmers in wheat importing countries.



“These results would potentially cause a larger income gap, creating a new economic inequality between wheat importing and exporting countries,”&nbsp;said WEI Taoyuan, co-author and an economic scientist at the CICERO Center for International Climate Research. Zhang further explained that more dependence on imports could lower the wheat self-sufficiency ratio, thus causing a “vicious negative cycle”&nbsp;for wheat importing and less-developed countries in the long term.



“This study highlights that effective measures in trade liberalization policies are necessary to protect grain food industries in importing countries, support resilience, and enhance global food security under climate change,”&nbsp;said study co-author Frank Selten, a researcher at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.oneearth.org/">One Earth</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wheat prices will spike as climate changes

Plants use carbon dioxide (CO2) during photosynthesis to produce food...

A humble shrimp is raising an alarm about climate change. A study published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2022.960881/full?&amp;utm_source=Email_to_authors_&amp;utm_medium=Email&amp;utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&amp;utm_campaign=Email_publication&amp;field=&amp;journalName=Frontiers_in_Marine_Science&amp;id=960881">Frontiers in Marine Science</a> has verified <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/press-room/news-release/warming-oceans-are-getting-louder/">previous observations</a> that two species of snapping shrimp snap louder and more frequently in warmer water.&nbsp;



Scientists from <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI), Ashlee Lillis and T. Aran Mooney, were able to draw a clear connection between warming and snapping by analyzing shrimp off the coast of North Carolina.&nbsp;



The researchers observed that for every one degree (C) increase in water temperature, the shrimp snapped one to two decibels higher and increased in frequency by 15 to 60 percent. The researchers also discovered that the frequency of snaps more than doubled when the water was between 68 and 86 degrees Fahrenheit.



This behavior change is important because these tiny shrimp have a tremendous influence on the environment. Whales and dolphins use their sounds to navigate coastal areas, and the snapping attracts fish, shellfish, and coral larvae to good settling areas.



"These shrimp are the most ubiquitous sound producer in the ocean, and now we have evidence that temperature has a huge impact on their behavior and the overall soundscape," said Lillis, principal scientist at Sound Ocean Science. "That's relevant to everything from migrating whales to larvae trying to use the soundscape, or humans who use the sea for extractive or military purposes."



Mooney points out that although it's crucial for functioning ocean systems, crustacean behavior - as it affects the larger ecosystem - is often ignored when considering the consequences of climate change.&nbsp;



The research was conducted during a short-term heatwave, and the study authors stress that there are still many unanswered questions.&nbsp;



"Climate change is impacting the marine soundscape in fundamental ways," Mooney said. "Warming waters can influence how animals are physically able to communicate and use sound to reproduce and attract mates. We don't yet know what happens to the ecosystem when background noise levels are higher, but there are far-reaching implications."



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Snapping shrimp are getting louder as the ocean warms

A humble shrimp is raising an alarm about climate change....

Nightclub,Dj,Rave,Party,With,Crowd,Of,People,Hands,Up

Using data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), researchers at the Columbia University <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/">Mailman School of Public Health</a> have determined that over 5.5 million American adults have used hallucinogens since 2002. While hallucinogen use has increased among adults aged 26 and older, fewer adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 seem to be consuming these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marijuana-use-reduces-demand-for-prescription-drugs/">drugs</a>. 



The study also showed that while the use of LSD increased for all age groups between 2002 and 2019, the use of PCP and ecstasy has decreased. Although hallucinogens may be beneficial in some cases, the researchers stress that these drugs present risks such as high blood pressure, decreased appetite, and seizures.



"While new findings suggesting benefits from use of certain hallucinogens among a range of cognitive areas are being published at a rapid rate, there are still gaps in knowledge concerning safe hallucinogen use, and evidence for potential adverse effects even with professionally supervised use that warrant attention." said study first author Dr. Ofir Livne.&nbsp;



The researchers are particularly concerned about the increased use of LSD and the perception that it's not dangerous.&nbsp;



"Our finding of an upward trend in 12-month LSD use, overall and by age, matches our finding of a downward trend in perception of LSD as risky," said senior author Dr. Deborah Hasin. "Factors such as changes in risk perception, in the specific types of drugs available and in expectations of beneficial effects of 'microdosing' may all have led to increased use of certain hallucinogens in recent years."



Given the increasing popularity and positive media coverage, the authors are concerned about public safety and believe that the use of hallucinogens should be continually monitored.&nbsp;



"In light of popular media reports of a forthcoming 'psychedelic revolution' with commercialization and marketing that may further reduce public perception of any risk, researchers, clinicians and policymakers should increase their attention to the rising rates of unsupervised hallucinogen use among the general public," said Dr. Hasin.



"Our results highlight such use as a growing public health concern and suggest that the increasing risk of potentially unsupervised hallucinogen use warrants preventive strategies."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/add.15987">Addiction</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

More than 5.5 million American adults have used hallucinogens

Using data from the National Survey on Drug Use and...

Top,View,Aged,Woman,Lying,On,Bed,Woke,Up,At

According to new research led by the <a href="https://www.ucla.edu/">University of California, Los Angeles</a> (UCLA), global warming is reducing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poor-sleep-quality-is-associated-with-mental-illness/">sleep quality</a> – a feature that makes it harder for the body to fend off infections or to produce sufficient quantities of antibodies after vaccinations. These findings regarding the deep connection between high temperatures, poor sleep, and reduced immune responses could contribute to our understanding and fight against current health hazards such as Covid-19, the recent monkeypox outbreak, or the resurgence of polio in places such as London or New York.



“No one has previously put together this notion that the ongoing climate crisis is contributing to sleep disturbance and that it’s possibly contributing to the altered risk of infectious disease we’re seeing,”&nbsp;said study author Michael Irwin, a professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at UCLA.



According to Professor Irwin, there is a strong correlation between sleep and thermoregulation. Experimental studies have provided evidence that reducing air temperature improve sleep quality by maintaining a normal body temperature without expanding excess energy, while increases in air temperature result in increased wakefulness.&nbsp;



High-quality sleep helps prepare the body’s responses to possible injuries or infections which may occur the following day, while disrupted sleep contributes to increases in inflammation and dampens the body’s ability to fend off infections. In addition, sleep duration is also strongly associated with infectious disease risks. Longer sleep duration decreases viral or bacterial load, and improves survival rates in a variety of infectious disease models.



Moreover, previous studies have shown that poor sleep could also result in decreased responses to vaccination. For instance, people who had four consecutive nights of low-quality sleep before receiving a trivalent influenza vaccine had a 50 percent reduction in antibody levels. Finally, recent studies on Covid-19 outcomes have found that significant sleep disturbances are associated with an over two-fold increase in the mortality risks for patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. 



Future research is needed to evaluate how altering ambient temperatures affects sleep and, consequently, immune responses. Moreover, studies assessing how rising temperatures may be affecting diverse and disadvantaged communities – such as low-income people without access to air conditioning – should be urgently conducted.



“Just like the pandemic is impacting socioeconomically disadvantaged and ethnic groups disproportionately with more morbid outcomes, it might be that the increases in ambient temperature we’re seeing are further exaggerating those risk profiles,” Professor Irwin concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23328940.2022.2109932">Temperature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Global warming reduces sleep quality, elevates disease risk

According to new research led by the University of California,...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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