The Moon faces a constant spray of charged particles from the Sun, yet it keeps a whisper thin envelope of atoms swirling above its dusty plains. 



Two rival explanations, blasts from micrometeorites and the steady pickoff from the solar wind, have battled for decades.



New experiments with Apollo 16 samples now show that sunlight’s particle stream is far less efficient at stripping atoms than assumed, reshaping the story of how the Moon maintains its scant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-meteorites-provide-a-window-into-the-early-solar-system/">atmosphere</a>. The finding forces scientists to rethink long-held estimates of erosion rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-look-at-moon-dust">A new look at Moon dust</h2>



Professor Friedrich Aumayr of the Institute of Applied Physics at <a href="https://www.tuwien.at/en/phy/iap" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TU Wien</a> led the new study, which drilled into the physics of ion bombardment. His team combined lunar dust tests with detailed computer models to expose hidden quirks in the rock’s texture.



Earlier models treated the surface of the Moon as a smooth glassy slab, so every incoming particle knocked something loose. 



Real lunar soil is a messy mix of sharp grains and tiny gaps, making it hard for ions to travel. Instead of blasting atoms into space, they bounce around and quickly lose energy.



That nuance matters because the team measured sputter yields up to ten times lower than the textbook value, a shift great enough to topple decades of balance sheets. It means a smaller share of the exosphere comes from ion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-earth-got-its-water-meteorite-reveals-surprising-new-clues/">impacts</a> than models predicted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solar-wind-doesn-t-remove-much-dust">Solar wind doesn’t remove much dust</h2>



In space science slang, sputtering is the ping pong ejection of atoms when fast ions strike a surface. The effect shapes everything from comet tails to Europa’s glow, yet its efficiency depends on the microscopic landscape it meets and has proven devilishly hard to pin down.



“Using a specially developed quartz crystal microbalance, we were able to measure the mass loss of lunar material due to ion bombardment with extremely high accuracy,” said Johannes Brötzner, lead author of the study. 



Researchers bombarded Apollo grains with helium ions at roughly 135 miles per second, mirroring average <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meteorite-from-the-moon-tells-a-detailed-story-about-lunar-volcanoes/">solar</a> wind speeds.&nbsp;



The experiment fed into 3D models that traced every collision inside the dust’s labyrinth. Most ions got trapped, so only about 0.01 atoms escaped per helium ion - a much lower sputter yield.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moon-s-atmosphere-comes-from-dust">Moon’s atmosphere comes from dust</h2>



The lower yield dovetails with a 2024 isotopic study that analyzed potassium and rubidium in Apollo samples and declared micrometeorite impacts the main gas supplier. 



Independent agreement between laboratories using such different tools is rare in planetary science and strengthens the verdict.



Together, the papers imply that tiny dust bullets vaporize far more material than the solar wind can sputter during quiet solar periods. Impact vaporization also lofts atoms with lower energies, matching density patterns recorded by NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/ladee/in-depth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LADEE</a> orbiter during its 2013-2014 mapping campaign.&nbsp;



Shelf life estimates now show that the exosphere would bleed away in just a few lunar days if micrometeorites paused, confirming how transient each atom really is. 



The result gives mission planners an environmental baseline for predicting dust behavior around future landers and rovers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-future-missions">Lessons for future missions</h2>



The timing is handy for NASA’s Artemis campaign, which aims to send astronauts to the lunar south pole later this decade. 



Accurate erosion rates help engineers judge how solar arrays, optical sensors, and habitat seals will fare during prolonged stays under relentless particle weather.



A better grasp of sputtering also guides remote sensing, because instruments that sniff sodium or helium must subtract the solar wind component before inferring recent impacts. Without that correction, mission scientists could mistake a quiet patch of sky for a lull in incoming dust.



The same physics applies beyond the Moon. When ESA and JAXA’s BepiColombo probe begins full science operations at Mercury in 2027, its instruments will need to separate signals from both sputtering and impacts. 



The new sputter yield curve will help scientists translate those signals into details about Mercury’s surface chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-moon-s-dynamic-atmosphere">The Moon's dynamic atmosphere</h2>



By trimming the solar wind contribution, the study revises timelines for how quickly space weather alters the Moon’s atmosphere, darkens surface dust, and erases tracks or tool marks.



Equipment left by Apollo crews may thus last longer unaltered, offering historians and tourists clearer snapshots of early human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-meteorites-can-be-traced-to-three-asteroid-families/">exploration</a> on future visits.



Solar storms can boost ion levels 100-fold, making sputtering briefly dominant again. Tracking those surges will be a task for upcoming CubeSats that hitch rides on Artemis rockets, offering real time context for surface experiments.



Aumayr is already eyeing similar tests with dust from volcanic mare regions to see whether glassy beads behave differently. His group is also adapting the setup for icy terrain, which could refine erosion estimates for moons like Europa and Enceladus.



“Our study provides the first realistic, experimentally validated sputtering yields for actual lunar rock,” said Aumayr. Planetary scientists outside the project are taking note, saying the work turns a page in space weather textbooks.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02546-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Apollo samples reveal what really created the Moon’s atmosphere

The Moon faces a constant spray of charged particles from the Sun, yet it keeps a whisper thin envelope of atoms swirling above its dusty plains. Two rival explanations, blasts from micrometeorites and the steady pickoff from the solar wind, have battled for decades. New experiments with Apollo 16 samples now show that sunlight’s particle stream is far less efficient at stripping atoms than assumed, reshaping the story of how the Moon maintains its scant atmosphere. The finding forces scientists to rethink long-held estimates of erosion rates....

There was a time when the rocks high up in the Alps of Switzerland actually formed part of the bed of a shallow sea or lagoon far below. During that time, some 200 million years ago, animals that swam in the shallow, coastal seas, died and sank to the bottom, becoming fossilized as the sediments turned to rock. When the African and European tectonic plates collided, however, these sediments were pushed upwards and today form part of the Alps, almost 3,000 meters above Earth’s surface.&nbsp;



During the geological mapping of these rocks, which are known today as the Kössen Formation, scientists unearthed some remarkable fossils high up in the Swiss Alps. These include the remains of three new ichthyosaurs that are thought to be among the largest animals ever to have lived. Details of these findings, excavated by paleontologists between 1976 and 1990, are published today in a <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2021.2046017?scroll=top&amp;needAccess=true">paper</a> in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 



Ichthyosaurs are ancient, marine-dwelling reptiles that first appeared in the fossil record around 250&nbsp;million years ago. They evolved from a group of land reptiles that returned to the sea, and gradually came to resemble modern dolphins and whales as they adapted to the marine environment. Their fossils have been found in many locations around the world and represent the remains of thousands of different individuals.



The recently published findings from the Alps include details of the largest ichthyosaur tooth ever found. The width of the tooth at its root is twice the size of the tooth from a 15-meter-long ichthyosaur that previously held this record. Among the find is also the largest trunk vertebra ever found in Europe, which indicates another ichthyosaur individual that was probably at least the size of the largest marine reptile fossil known today, the 21-meter long&nbsp;Shastasaurus sikkanniensis&nbsp;from British Columbia in Canada.&nbsp;



Dr. Heinz Furrer, retired curator at the University of Zurich’s Paleontological Institute and Museum and co-author of the study said he was delighted to have uncovered “the world's longest ichthyosaur; with the thickest tooth found to date and the largest trunk vertebra in Europe!”&nbsp;



Study lead author P. Martin Sander of the University of Bonn hopes that maybe there are more remains of the giant sea creatures hidden beneath the glaciers.



“Bigger is always better,” said Sander. “There are distinct selective advantages to large body size. Life will go there if it can. There were only three animal groups that had masses greater than 10–20 metric tons: long-necked dinosaurs (sauropods); whales; and the giant ichthyosaurs of the Triassic.”



Ichthyosaurs have anatomical features that resemble those of fish, reptiles and marine mammals, and their fossils have been variously identified during the past two centuries as belonging to crocodiles, humans, giant amphibious lizards and fish. Most of them were nowhere as large as the latest specimens unearthed in the Alps, but all were thought to be marine predators that prowled the world’s oceans in search of prey.&nbsp;



Ichthyosaurs first emerged after the Permian extinction some 250 million years ago, when about 95 percent of marine species died out. The group reached its greatest diversity in the mid-Triassic and a few species persisted into the Cretaceous Period. Their fossils have been found mostly in North America and Europe, but also in South America, Asia, and Australia. Giant species have mostly been located in North America, so the discovery of the new oversized individuals in Switzerland represents an expansion of their known range.



Despite the abundance of ichthyosaur fossils, very little is known about the habits of these giant species. "It amounts to a major embarrassment for paleontology that we know so little about these giant ichthyosaurs despite the extraordinary size of their fossils," said Sander. "We hope to rise to this challenge and find new and better fossils soon.”



These new specimens probably represent the last of the leviathans. “In Nevada, we see the beginnings of true giants, and in the Alps the end,” said Sander, who also co-authored a paper last year about an early giant ichthyosaur from Nevada’s Fossil Hill. “Only the medium-to-large-sized dolphin- and orca-like forms survived into the Jurassic.”



The large fossilized tooth found in the Alps could easily be identified as belonging to an ichthyosaur because of a peculiarity in its dental anatomy. “Ichthyosaurs have a feature in their teeth that is nearly unique among reptiles: the infolding of the dentine in the roots of their teeth,” explained Sander. “The only other group to show this are monitor lizards.”



Smaller ichthyosaurs typically had conical teeth, similar to those of crocodiles, but the larger specimens appear to have been toothless. The large tooth described in the current paper is only the second instance of a giant ichthyosaur with teeth. Sander suggests that these species probably fed on smaller ichthyosaurs and large fish and occupied similar ecological niches to modern sperm whales and killer whales. Indeed, the teeth are curved inwards like those of their mammalian successors, indicating a grasping mode of feeding conducive to capturing prey such as giant squid.



Apart from the fossilized tooth, the two sets of skeletal remains, which consist of vertebrae and rib fragments, have been classified in the family Shastasauridae, which contains the other ichthyosaur giants&nbsp;Shastasaurus,&nbsp;Shonisaurus, and&nbsp;Himalayasaurus. Comparison of the vertebrae from one fossilized skeleton suggests that the animal may have been the same size or slightly smaller than the 21-meter long S. sikkanniensis.&nbsp;



The measurements are, however, probably inaccurate because the fossils have been squashed and deformed by pressure as the tectonic plates collided and the rock in which the fossils were embedded was forced from the former sea or lagoon floor to the top of a mountain.



Most ichthyosaurs are thought to have inhabited the open oceans where their large body size would have been a useful adaptation. The fact that the three individuals in the current study died in shallow coastal or lagoon waters, where their large bodies would have been a disadvantage, adds more understanding of their behaviour. “We think that the big ichthyosaurs followed schools of fish into the lagoon. The fossils may also derive from strays that died there,” suggests Furrer.



The researchers worked under taxing conditions while excavating these new ichthyosaur finds. They had to pick through frozen rocks, high up in the Alps, in order to retrieve the fossilized pieces of the marine giants and bring them down almost to sea level again for scientific processing.&nbsp;



“You have to be kind of a mountain goat to access the relevant beds,” said Sander. “They have the vexing property of not occurring below about 8,000 feet, way above the treeline.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Massive marine ichthyosaur fossils found high in the Alps

There was a time when the rocks high up in...

A new study from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a> has found that endangered and threatened insects, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-spiders-catapult-away-from-sex-partners-to-avoid-being-eaten/">spiders</a>, and common species that provide ecological services can be easily purchased – without oversight – online. For example, a rare and endangered butterfly known as the Luzon peacock swallowtail, illegal to trade, was found available to purchase from Amazon, pinned in a display box for $110.



It was also discovered that species such as live tarantulas, who are not endangered but whose trade is strictly controlled, were available for sale without any oversight or enforcement.



Around the world, insects are in steep decline due to habitat loss, pesticides, invasive species, urbanization, pollution, and climate change. It has been estimated that the Earth is losing about 10 to 20 percent of insect species every decade. Researchers say the survival of insects and spiders are greatly impacted when they are collected and sold.



“We surveyed the web to determine if there were species available for sale that are rare, threatened, or for which commerce is in some way regulated,” said study lead author Professor John Losey.



“As they get rarer and rarer, they become more and more valuable to collectors, and then the amount of collecting and sale, if not done sustainably, has greater impact on those species.”



The most expensive insect the team found for sale was a birdwing butterfly species named Ornithoptera allottei, listed on eBay for $3,850.



Species that provide ecological services, such as ladybugs released for pest control and pollinators, were also found for sale. This is a concern as these insects should only be purchased through regulated sources. If they are released in areas that are unfamiliar, they could impact the larger population and have negative effects on the services they provide.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Hopefully, our findings will lead to better enforcement of the illegal online sale of rare insects and protect those species in the wild,” said study senior author Paul Curtis, extension wildlife specialist in the Department of Natural Resources and the Environment.



The study results have been shared with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, an agency which enforces illegal trade of species. Despite existing enforcement, there is a lack of resources to monitor commerce.&nbsp;



The experts hope to contribute to the issue by working with student specialists who monitor the web for illegal sales and report findings.&nbsp;



A long term goal of the research team is to have&nbsp; insects included as livestock so that their unregulated sale could then be monitored by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.&nbsp;



To learn more about this research, visit the <a href="https://news.cornell.edu/stories/2022/04/rare-endangered-insects-illegally-sale-online">Cornell Chronicle story</a>.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-ecology-and-conservation">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Endangered insects are easy to purchase illegally online

A new study from Cornell University has found that endangered...

Archaeologists are often interested in the extent to which human populations are impacted by environmental perturbations, such as floods, famines, heat waves and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avocados-substantially-reduce-the-risk-of-heart-disease/">disease</a>. They propose that events such as the Plague of 1347-1351, the 1815 eruption of Tambora in Indonesia, and the climatic downturns of the Little Ice Age affected human populations through changes in food availability, agriculture and population migrations. 



However, evaluating the long-term impacts of environmental change on past societies is often not possible through examination of the archaeological record because this usually lacks the temporal and spatial resolution to link such changes to exact historical events. We like the idea that climate change leads to social and cultural transformations, but there has not been a lot of evidence to support this.



Now, in a new study published today in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLoS ONE</a>, Gill Plunkett and Graeme Swindles of Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Ireland, challenge the perception that human societies have been vulnerable to past environmental change. The researchers investigated an upland site on the Antrim Plateau in the north of Ireland that was inhabited for over 1,000 years and, by reconstructing the paleoenvironmental and land use history of the site, show that human populations can be resilient in the face of environmental changes.



The researchers analyzed the uppermost horizons of a peat core, collected from a marginal site at the Slieveanorra bog in 2003. The core was 5mm in diameter and the section analysed spanned the past millennium in terms of time. They were able to infer past environmental and human occupation changes from the evidence of microbes and the pollen of natural plants and crop plants present in the peat. The experts were also able to use historically-dated volcanic ash markers and historical accounts to identify precisely the timing of past calamities such as the Black Death and the Great Potato Famine.&nbsp;



The last millennium was a difficult time for Irish people in this location. They experienced many climate swings, along with epidemics, famines, skirmishes and invasions. And yet the researchers’ record from the upland site reveals no evidence of long-term disruption to human occupation related to environmental changes.



Instead, the Slieveanorra pollen record shows a long tradition of land use in the Antrim uplands that extends as far back as the 12th century. According to the study authors, the occupation of the area continues through several major climate fluctuations, including the severest centuries of the Little Ice Age. This reveals that “the community occupying this seemingly remote and marginal environment in northeast Ireland was resilient to a range of climatic, environmental and social challenges during the last millennium,” they explained.



The results reflect a community that was able to either escape the effects of environmental change, or to rebound quickly. This surprising resilience from a relatively remote location was likely the result of social factors – such as agricultural and trade practices – which made the community flexible and adaptable.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that, in the face of environmental change, not all human communities respond the same way, and this variation is likely to be linked to social conditions prevalent for each respective population. Understanding this complexity is key to understanding what conditions make communities vulnerable to cultural collapse in the face of environmental change.



“Ireland’s uplands today seem barren, but they were occupied and farmed for centuries, despite climate change, famines and plague," said the study authors.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Irish community survived a thousand years of environmental change

Archaeologists are often interested in the extent to which human...

According to new research led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a>, anthropogenic climate change will make strong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-reveal-the-hidden-death-burden-of-tropical-cyclones/">tropical cyclones</a> twice as frequent by 2050, putting many parts of the world at risk. Experts argue that maximum wind speeds associated with these cyclones could increase by about 20 percent.



Although they are among the world’s most destructive extreme weather events, tropical cyclones are relatively rare, with only about 80 to 100 forming annual around the globe. By combining historical data with global climate models, the scientists generated hundreds of thousands of “synthetic tropical cyclones” in order to predict the frequency with which such events may occur around the world over the next decades, while climate change intensifies.



The results suggest that the frequency of the most intense tropical cyclones (from Category 3 or higher) will double globally, while weaker tropical cyclones and storms will become less common in many areas of the world. An important exception may be the Bay of Bengal, where the scientists project a decrease in the frequency of intense cyclones.



Many of the areas highly at risk for such extreme events will be lower-income countries, such as Cambodia, Mozambique, Laos, and many Pacific Island Nations, including Tonga and the Solomon Islands. Asia will most probably see the largest increase in the number of people exposed to tropical cyclones, with millions of people facing severe risks in China, Japan, Vietnam, and South Korea.



“Of particular concern is that the results of our study highlight that some regions that don’t currently experience tropical cyclones are likely to in the near future with climate change,” said study co-author Ivan Haigh, an associated professor of Coastal Oceanography at the University of Southampton. “The new tropical cyclone dataset we have produced will greatly aid the mapping of changing flood risk in tropical cyclone regions.”



“Our results can help identify the locations prone to the largest increase in tropical cyclone risk,” added study lead author Nadia Bloemendaal, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://vu.nl/en">Free University of Amsterdam</a>. Local governments can then take measures to reduce risk in their region, so that damage and fatalities can be reduced. With our publicly available data, we can now analyse tropical cyclone risk more accurately for every individual coastal city or region,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abm8438">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Intense tropical cyclones are set to double by 2050

According to new research led by the University of Southampton,...

A new study published in the journal <a href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abl7161?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D49172270223902357213481499257602856343%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1651047378&amp;_ga=2.150076022.1995947671.1650977792-2046344334.1629960599">Science Advances</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-carbon-costs-of-wildfires/">wildfires</a> occurring in the United States and Canada boreal forests between now and 2050 could increase by as much as 169 and 150 percent, respectively. This would release nearly 12 gigatons of net carbon emissions (the equivalent of the annual emissions of 2.6 billion cars) - which represents about three percent of the remaining global carbon budget.



“Wildfires in boreal forests can be especially harmful in terms of the amount of emissions they release into the atmosphere since they store about two-thirds of the world’s forest carbon, most of which is contained in the soil and has accumulated over hundreds or even thousands of years,” said study lead author Dr. Caryl Phillips, a climate scientist at the Union of Concerned Scientists’ <a href="https://www.ucsusa.org/about/programs/climate-energy">Climate &amp; Energy Program</a>. 



“If not properly contained, heat-trapping emissions from wildfires in boreal forests could dramatically increase, jeopardizing nations’ ability to limit warming in line with the Paris Agreement.”



According to study co-author Dr. Peter Frumhoff, a global change ecologist at <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a>, while governments prioritize rapid suppression of wildfires that occur near heavily populated areas and crucial infrastructure, they often allow other regions that hold large amounts of carbon to burn unabated. This is a highly hazardous practice to the health and safety of Alaskan and Canadian communities. 



“Expanding fire management to keep wildfires near historical levels across boreal North America would provide multiple benefits and leave us far better positioned to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement,” said Dr. Frumhoff.



Although wildfires in the U.S. and Canadian boreal forests release a massive amount of carbon emissions, fire suppression efforts in these areas are given a disproportionate amount of funding. For instance, while Alaska accounts for roughly 20 percent of burned land area and half of U.S. fire emissions annually, it only receives four percent of federal fire management funding.



“Reducing boreal forest fires to near-historical levels and keeping carbon in the ground will require additional investments,” said&nbsp;study co-author Dr. Brendan Rogers, an associate scientist at the <a href="https://www.woodwellclimate.org/">Woodwell Climate Research Center</a>. 



“These funds are comparatively low and pale in comparison to the costs countries will face to cope with the growing health consequences exacerbated by worsening air quality and the more frequent and intense climate impacts that are expected if emissions continue to rise unabated. They can also ensure wildlife, tourism, jobs, and many other facets of our society can persevere in a warming world,” he concluded.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfires will release massive amounts of carbon by mid-century

A new study published in the journal Science Advances has...

Together, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-use-edna-to-measure-reef-fish-diversity/">DNA</a> and RNA have five informational units that spell out the language of life, or at least life on Earth. Previously, three of these five have been found in meteorites. Researchers have now discovered the last two remaining informational units. This means that the chemicals that make up life on Earth could have possibly come from off the planet.   



The informational units, technically called nucleobases, are all part of two types of organic compounds - pyrimidines or purines. Professor Yasuhiro Oba of Hokkaido University led the team that finally discovered the last two nucleobases. He questioned why it took so long to find them in the first place.



“I wonder why purines and pyrimidines are exceptional in that they do not show structural diversity in carbonaceous meteorites unlike other classes of organic compounds such as amino acids and hydrocarbons,” said Oba. “Since purines and pyrimidines can be synthesized in extraterrestrial environments, as has been demonstrated by our own study, one would expect to find a wide diversity of these organic molecules in meteorites.”



“We now have evidence that the complete set of nucleobases used in life today could have been available on Earth when life emerged,” said study co-author Danny Glavin of the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a>.



The newly found nucleobases thymine and cytosine have probably been missed so far because they’re quite fragile. In other studies, meteorite pieces have been put into hot water to extract the chemicals to then analyze them.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We study these water extracts since they contain the good stuff, ancient organic molecules that could have been key building blocks for the origin of life on Earth,” said Glavin.



“This group has managed a technique that is more like cold brew than hot tea and is able to pull out more delicate compounds,” said study co-author Jason Dworkin. “I was amazed that they had seen cytosine, which is very fragile.”&nbsp;



This new study shows that life could be widespread across the universe and that the building blocks of this life could be introduced from space.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The building blocks of life may come from asteroids

Together, DNA and RNA have five informational units that spell...

A new study has found evidence of zoonotic spread between hospital patients and Danish pigs. The researchers analyzed samples of the superbug Clostridioides difficile across 14 pig farms in Denmark and confirmed the circulation of multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-can-jump-between-healthy-pets-and-owners/">antibiotic-resistance</a> genes between pigs and humans. The findings provide the latest evidence that animal to human (zoonotic) transmission is possible.



“Our finding of multiple and shared resistance genes indicate that C. difficile is a reservoir of antimicrobial resistance genes that can be exchanged between animals and humans," said Dr. Semeh Bejaoui from the University of Copenhagen.&nbsp;



“This alarming discovery suggests that resistance to antibiotics can spread more widely than previously thought, and confirms links in the resistance chain leading from farm animals to humans.”



C. difficile infects the human gut and is resistant to all but three antibiotics. Some strains contain genes that produce toxins that cause damaging inflammation, leading to life-threatening diarrhea.&nbsp;



This bacteria strain is one of the biggest antibiotic resistance threats in the USA. In 2017, C.difficile caused an estimated 223,900 infections and 12,800 deaths at a healthcare cost of more than $1 billion.



A strain of C. difficile that can cause more serious disease is associated with a rising number of infections in young and healthy individuals. Farm animals have recently been identified as carriers of this strain.&nbsp;



In this study, Danish scientists investigated the prevalence of C. difficile strains in pigs. They also looked at the potential for zoonotic spread of antimicrobial resistance genes by comparing the pig samples to Danish hospital patients.



Stool samples were collected from 514 pigs in two batches. Batch A included 330 samples from sows, piglets and slaughter pigs from fourteen farms in 2020. The 184 samples in batch B were collected during slaughtering in 2021.



The results showed that C. difficile was detected in 54 of the pigs sampled. Further analyses of 40 samples revealed that C. difficile was more common in piglets and sows than slaughter pigs. This could be because of the difference in age between piglets and adult pigs, as younger pigs are more susceptible to infection.



In total, thirteen sequence types found in animals matched those found in the human stool samples. All of the animal samples were positive for the toxin genes, and ten had an even greater capacity to cause disease.



Overall, 38 isolates from the animals contained at least one resistance gene. Resistance was predicted for seven classes of antibiotics that treat severe bacterial infections.



The findings demonstrate how overuse of antibiotics in human medicine and farms are now impacting the ability to cure bacterial infections



“This study provides more evidence on the evolutionary pressure connected with the use of antimicrobials in animal husbandry, which selects for dangerously resistant human pathogens," said Dr. Bejaoui. "This highlights the importance of adopting a more comprehensive approach, for the management of C. difficile infection, in order to consider all possible routes of dissemination."



The researchers were unable to determine the cause or direction of transmission. This is because the strains found in human and animal samples were identical, suggesting that they could be shared between groups.&nbsp;



The experts empathize the importance of deeper analysis to better understand how the bacteria is continuously exchanged between the human population and farm animals.&nbsp;



The research was presented at this year’s <a href="https://www.eccmid.org/">European Congress of Clinical Microbiology &amp; Infectious Diseases</a> (ECCMID) in Lisbon, Portugal.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pigs and humans are sharing antibiotic-resistance genes

A new study has found evidence of zoonotic spread between...

Experts at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">UT Austin</a> have created an enzyme variant that has the potential to eliminate billions of tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-in-landfills-produce-valuable-methane/">landfill</a> waste. In just 24 hours, the enzyme can break down plastics that typically take centuries to degrade.



According to the researchers, the enzyme could supercharge recycling on a large scale that would allow major industries to reduce their environmental impact by reusing plastics at the molecular level.



“The possibilities are endless across industries to leverage this leading-edge recycling process,” said Professor Hal Alper. “Beyond the obvious waste management industry, this also provides corporations from every sector the opportunity to take a lead in recycling their products. Through these more sustainable enzyme approaches, we can begin to envision a true circular plastics economy.”



Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a polymer found in most consumer packaging, such as soda bottles, that makes up 12 percent of all global waste.



A team of experts in the Cockrell School of Engineering and College of Natural Sciences used machine learning to develop a new variant of the natural enzyme PETase. The enzyme variant, called FAST-PETase, allows bacteria to degrade PET plastics.&nbsp;



The researchers demonstrated the effectiveness of FAST-PETase to help break down dozens of post-consumer plastic containers, five different polyester fibers and fabrics, and water bottles that were all made from PET.



“This work really demonstrates the power of bringing together different disciplines, from synthetic biology to chemical engineering to artificial intelligence,” said Professor Andrew Ellington.



Going forward, the team plans to scale up enzyme production to prepare for industrial and environmental application, such as cleaning up landfills and polluted sites.&nbsp;



“When considering environmental cleanup applications, you need an enzyme that can work in the environment at ambient temperature," said Alper. "This requirement is where our tech has a huge advantage in the future."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New enzyme has potential to supercharge plastic recycling

Experts at UT Austin have created an enzyme variant that...

New evidence has linked exposure to green space as a potential approach to improving overall cognitive function and helping to prevent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-dementia-cases-may-triple-by-2050/">dementia</a>.



Cognitive function at middle age is a strong predictor of whether a person may develop dementia later in life. A new study from the <a href="https://www.bu.edu/sph/">Boston University School of Public Health</a> (BUSPH) has found that increasing green space in residential areas could help improve cognition function in middle-aged women. Exposure to green space can also reduce depression, which is also a risk factor for dementia.



From 2014 to 2016, the researchers estimated residential green space and measured psychomotor speed, attention, learning, and working memory among 13,594 women aged 61.



Adjusting for age, race, and individual and neighborhood socioeconomic status, the experts found that green space exposure was associated with psychomotor speed and attention.



To understand the association between greenspace and cognitive function, air pollution and physical activity was also examined. The team was surprised to find evidence of depression as the only mediating factor.



“We theorize that depression might be an important mechanism through which green space may slow down cognitive decline, particularly among women, but our research is ongoing to better understand these mechanisms,” said study co-author Dr. Marcia Pescador Jimenez.&nbsp;



“Based on these results, clinicians and public health authorities should consider green space exposure as a potential factor to reduce depression, and thus, boost cognition. Policymakers and urban planners should focus on adding more green space in everyday life to improve cognitive function.”



Overall, the study found that exposure to green space near homes and neighborhoods could improve processing speed and attention, and boost overall cognitive function. This aligns with previous research that has linked exposure to parks, community gardens, and other greenery with improved mental health.



“Some of the primary ways that nature may improve health is by helping people recover from psychological stress and by encouraging people to be outside socializing with friends, both of which boost mental health,” says Dr. Pescador Jimenez. “This study is among the few to provide evidence that greenspace may benefit cognitive function in older ages. Our findings suggest that greenspace should be investigated as a potential population-level approach to improve cognitive function.”



For this study, the green space metric used did not differentiate between specific types of vegetation. In a new project, Dr. Pescador Jimenez will apply deep learning algorithms to Google Street View images to better understand the elements of greenery, such as trees or grass, that could be the driving factors for health.



To further assess associations with cognitive decline, the research team hopes that their study is replicated among other ethnic populations. This is because green spaces in cities are not distributed equally, especially in urban cities.&nbsp;



“Increasing everyday access to vegetation across vulnerable groups in urban cities is a crucial next step to achieve health equity,” said Dr. Pescador Jimenez.&nbsp;&nbsp;



This study is published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen">JAMA Network Open</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Living near green space could prevent cognitive decline

New evidence has linked exposure to green space as a...

Many animal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-conservation-can-help-stabilize-the-climate/">species</a> around the world are currently leaving areas that are becoming too warm, and move into areas that were previously too cold. According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, wildlife watchers generally welcome species that have arrived in the United Kingdom due to climate change.



The scientists asked volunteers who contribute to wildlife recording schemes about their attitudes toward a variety of insect and bird species that have recently arrived in the UK. Participants in the survey were given examples of such species, including insects such as the mottled shieldbug or the red-eyed damselfly, and birds like the Eurasian spoonbill or the little bittern.&nbsp;



While volunteers mostly welcomed new arrivals, they were less happy with species they were not familiar with, or with those that were found to harm native wildlife. Moreover, they expressed negative attitudes toward invasive species that were introduced in the UK by humans.



“We found that wildlife recorders viewed range-shifters more as vulnerable ‘ecological refugees’ than as threatening ‘climate opportunists,’” said study senior author Regan Early, a senior lecturer in Conservation Biology at the University of Exeter. “Respondents were strongly opposed to eradicating or controlling new range-shifters, but they also did not want to see conservationists trying to boost their numbers.”



“The complex questions of how and when to manage these arrivals are becoming increasingly urgent as more establish,” added study lead author James Cranston, a doctoral student in Environmental Studies at the same university. “Scientific evidence was a key factor in respondents’ decision-making on management, but many also spoke of the ‘wow’ factor that some of these species had for them.”&nbsp;



The scientists hope that this study could be an opportunity to make more people aware of, and involved in, wildlife conservation. 



“Public opinion – especially among volunteers engaged in conservation – will play an important role in how we treat species arriving in the UK,” concluded Dr. Early.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.10325">People and Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

“Ecological refugees” are welcomed by wildlife watchers

Many animal species around the world are currently leaving areas...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.nmbu.no/en">Norwegian University of Life Sciences</a> (NMBU) has found that domestic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-to-tell-whether-you-cat-is-a-psychopath/">cats</a> that are occasionally left by their owners to wander outdoors rarely stray far away from home. In fact, most felines spent an average of 79 percent of their time outdoors within 50 meters of the owners’ homes, with only a few of them wandering farther.



The scientists GPS-marked almost 100 pets in a small town in Eastern Norway in order to track them while they were outside. “The goal was to map the movements of an entire population of pet cats within the same area,” said study lead author Richard Bischof, a wildlife ecologist at NMBU. Since the cat owners all lived within an area of about one square kilometer, the researchers managed to collect detailed data on many cats’ activities within a limited area.



The results confirmed those of previous studies in other European countries: when they go outside, most cats are literally just around the corner, at an average of 50 meters distance from their homes. The average maximum distance for all cats was found to be 352 meters. “Some individuals traveled relatively far, sometimes several kilometers, but those were the exceptions,” said Professor Bischof.



However, the findings suggest that there was a great variation between the individual cats in how they used the landscape. “This is quite typical,” said Bjarne O. Braastad, a professor emeritus of ethology at NMBU. “Cats have different personalities, and research results reflect this: there is often great variation. It is also worth noting that almost all the cats were neutered,” he added. “It will of course play an important role. Neutered cats are less likely to roam.”



Mapping the “catscape” of a specific area made it possible to show what a domestic cat population looked like in time and space. How the cats use the landscape also dictates how they interact with their environment and what effects they have on their natural surroundings.&nbsp;



“An interesting topic for further studies is of course the effects on local wildlife,” said study senior author Torbjørn Haugaasen, an expert in animal movements at NMBU. “We did not have the opportunity to include it in this project period, but in the future, we would like to take a closer look at that as well.”



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-09694-9">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Domestic cats do not usually roam too far from home

A new study led by the Norwegian University of Life...

Experts have discovered six new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-new-mammal-species-may-be-hidden-in-plain-sight/">species</a> of tiny frogs in Mexico, including one that is now officially the country's smallest frog. The frogs are only about the size of a thumbnail when they are fully grown.&nbsp;



Among the tiniest of the species - a frog named Craugastor candelariensis - the adult males grow to only 13 millimeters in length.



The new species are "direct-developing" frogs, which means that rather than hatching from eggs into tadpoles, they emerge from the eggs as perfect miniature frogs. The experts explained that their tiny size puts the frogs at the very bottom of the forest food chain.&nbsp;



The study was led by Tom Jameson, a researcher in the Department of Zoology at the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>.



“With millions of these frogs living in the leaf litter, we think they’re likely to play a hugely important role in the ecosystem as a source of food for everything else, from lizards to predatory birds,” said Jameson.



“Until now these new species have gone unnoticed because they’re small and brown and look really similar to other frogs."



“Their lifestyle is utterly fascinating. These frogs live in the dark, humid leaf litter of the forests, which is like a secret world - we don’t really know anything about what goes on there. We don’t understand their behaviour, how they socialise, or how they breed.”



The researchers collected almost 500 Mexican frog specimens from museums around the world. They used DNA sequencing to confirm the six distinctive species.&nbsp;



“Frogs in the group known as Craugastor are very difficult to tell apart, so scientists have long suspected that more species may exist. We’re really excited to have discovered six new Craugastor species that are completely new to science,” said Jameson.



The new species have been named Craugastor bitonium, Craugastor candelariensis, Craugastor cueyatl, Craugastor polaclavus, Craugastor portilloensis, and Craugastor rubinus. In particular, the name "cueyatl" means "frog" in the indigenous language Nahuatl, which is spoken in the Valley of Mexico where the species was found.



“We chose the name cueyatl to honor the rich human history of the Valley of Mexico, and the local people who have probably known these frogs far longer than we have,” said Jameson.



The frogs are possibly what is known as "micro-endemics" because they may occur only in one small area.



“We named Craugastor rubinus after the garnet mines in the hillside where they’re found,” said Jameson. “Sadly, it will only take the expansion of one mine and these frogs could be gone.”



“These frogs potentially play a really important role in the forest ecosystem. We need to make sure that they don’t just get wiped off the map because no-one even knows they’re there.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://meridian.allenpress.com/herpetological-monographs">Herpetological Monographs</a>.



Image Credit: Jeffrey W Streicher, The Natural History Museum, London



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fascinating frogs found in Mexico are the size of a thumbnail

Experts have discovered six new species of tiny frogs in...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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