Methane traps more than 25 times as much heat as carbon dioxide over a century, so even modest changes in its release can tilt the climate balance.



Scientists already recognize Arctic and sub‑Arctic lakes as natural methane vents, where gas bubbles up from sediments laid down over millennia. But the exact processes controlling how much is produced and how fast it escapes have remained poorly understood.



Now, a new study led by PhD researcher Marie Bulínová from <a href="https://en.uit.no/startsida">UiT The Arctic University of Norway</a> offers fresh insight into these dynamics, revealing how lake productivity plays a central role in methane release.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-life-more-methane">More life, more methane</h2>



Bulínová and an international team cored sediments and analyzed pore‑water chemistry in ten <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-lakes-produce-less-methane-than-previously-thought/">lakes</a> scattered across Svalbard and Arctic Scandinavia. 



They then modeled how methane diffuses from the mud into the overlying water and, ultimately, into the air. The surprise wasn’t that methane was present - every lake emitted some - but that the same factors consistently drove those emissions.



“We were surprised by how clearly the productivity of the ecosystem was linked to methane production,” Bulínová said.



The researchers found that lakes with thicker mats of algae, more aquatic plants, lush shore vegetation, and shallower depths generated the most methane in their sediments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-arctic-methane-begins">Where Arctic methane begins</h2>



Across the lakes, production peaked within the upper decimeter of sediment. That thin layer is rich in freshly fallen, easily digestible organic matter and pulsing with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-activities-underground-revealed-by-new-technology/">microbial activity</a>. Beneath it, older, nutrient‑poor mud yields much less gas.



By combining concentration profiles with mass‑transfer equations, the researchers estimated diffusive fluxes between - 0.46 and 3.1 millimoles of methane per square meter per day.



Those numbers match earlier spot measurements in boreal and Arctic water bodies and are far lower than typical tropical or temperate values. Yet, given the sheer abundance of lakes across high‑latitude landscapes, the regional methane budget remains formidable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-vary-in-emissions">Lakes vary in emissions</h2>



When the team compared their data with more than sixty published estimates from lakes worldwide, a striking pattern emerged. Arctic lakes as a group emit less per unit area than tropical ones, but individual northern lakes vary wildly.



“Some release much more methane than others, depending on local factors like vegetation cover, lake shape, or sediment composition,” Bulínová noted. 



Machine‑learning models confirmed that climate variables - especially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/">temperature</a> and precipitation - rank alongside primary productivity and basin morphometry as key predictors. 



The upshot is that Arctic methane output will not rise evenly. Hot spots will appear where warming and wetter weather most strongly boost in‑lake photosynthesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-living-lakes-drive-feedbacks">Living lakes drive feedbacks</h2>



The findings dovetail with satellite observations of a “greening” Arctic: longer ice‑free seasons and warmer waters spur algae blooms, while shrubs and grasses spread along shorelines.



More plant growth means more organic carbon raining onto lake bottoms, where microbes convert it into methane. That methane, in turn, accelerates warming, potentially creating a feedback loop.



“Our work suggests that increases in ecosystem productivity - something we could think of being positive - can also increase methane release and further accelerate warming,” Bulínová warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-methane-escapes-in-many-ways">Arctic methane escapes in many ways</h2>



The study focused on diffusion, one of several pathways methane follows from mud to sky. Bubbling, or ebullition, can deliver large, sudden pulses when gas pockets overcome sediment pressure. 



Plant stems can vent methane directly, and spring ice‑out may release winter stores in a burst. Accounting for these modes will refine regional budgets. 



But diffusion is a baseline flux that operates almost continuously - and scientists can model it more easily across thousands of lakes once they understand the main controls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-to-study-more-arctic-lakes">Need to study more Arctic lakes</h2>



Because each Arctic lake tells a slightly different story, the authors emphasize breadth as well as depth. “That’s why it’s essential to study a wide range of lake types if we want to understand the Arctic’s role in future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-in-crisis-have-we-reached-a-climate-tipping-point/">climate</a> feedbacks,” Bulínová explained.



Their random‑forest approach shows promise for up‑scaling. Feed the algorithm satellite data on lake size, depth, productivity proxies, and local climate, and it can predict methane diffusion with reasonable accuracy.



The same framework could extend to boreal or even temperate basins. This would help Earth‑system models gauge how global lake emissions will shift under various warming scenarios.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-researchers-must-do-next">What researchers must do next</h2>



The study demonstrates that tallying greenhouse gases in the Arctic requires looking beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/permafrost-is-becoming-a-source-of-global-warming/">thawing permafrost</a> soils to include seemingly placid waters.



Policies aimed at limiting methane rise might need to consider land‑use changes that alter nutrient runoff into lakes or protect certain high‑productivity basins from additional disturbance. 



For scientists, the next steps include year‑round monitoring to capture seasonal swings, experiments that manipulate nutrient inputs, and integration of ebullition measurements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lakes-face-a-warming-future">Lakes face a warming future</h2>



As climate change redraws the Arctic map, lakes will likely become more productive biological engines. Paradoxically, they may also become more potent methane releasers.



The research led by Bulínová offers a first quantitative framework to anticipate that transformation. 



It reminds us that in the delicate dance of climate feedbacks, what looks like a burst of life on a warming tundra can carry an invisible, high‑powered greenhouse cost.



The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2024JG008508" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences</a>.



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Microbes in Arctic lakes are fueling a large methane surge

Methane traps more than 25 times as much heat as carbon dioxide over a century, so even modest changes in its release can tilt the climate balance. Scientists already recognize Arctic and sub‑Arctic lakes as natural methane vents, where gas bubbles up from sediments laid down over millennia. But the exact processes controlling how much is produced and how fast it escapes have remained poorly understood. Now, a new study led by PhD researcher Marie Bulínová from UiT The Arctic University of Norway offers fresh insight into these dynamics,...

Modern computers may seem capable of phenomenal and awe-inspiring feats of processing, but they have nothing on the human brain. With its 100 billion <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-neurons-respond-to-singing-but-not-instrumental-music/">neurons</a> and more than 1,000 trillion synapses or neuronal connections, the human brain is much more efficient than a traditional computer. In fact, computers that mimic the way in which human brains function may well be next, in terms of hardware development.&nbsp;



Currently, conventional computer systems are based on what is called the von Neumann architecture. They consist of an input, usually from a keyboard and mouse, and an output, such as to a monitor. They also involve a CPU, or central processing unit, and RAM, or memory storage. Transferring data through all these mechanisms from input to processing to memory to output takes a lot of power, at least compared to the human brain.&nbsp;



For instance, the Fugaku supercomputer uses upwards of 28 megawatts, roughly equivalent to 28 million watts, to run while the brain uses only around 10 to 20 watts. In addition, this conventional computer architecture does not allow for an instruction fetch and a data operation to take place at the same time, as both transfers of information share a common&nbsp;bus. This is referred to as the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture#Von_Neumann_bottleneck">von Neumann bottleneck</a>, and it can limit the performance of the system. In contrast, human brain neurons can both process and store data, which makes them more efficient.



Computer engineers are now trying to design computing systems that mimic the way neurons and synapses work in the human brain. They are developing components for these neuromorphic systems and are trying to do so in environmentally friendly ways. Hailed by some as the future of computing, neuromorphic systems are much faster and use much less power than traditional computers.&nbsp;



In a recent study, engineers at <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> have demonstrated how to make an environmentally friendly memristor, a component similar to a transistor that can not only process but also store data in memory. One of the important components of the memristor is a thin layer of solid honey layered between two metal electrodes.&nbsp;



“This is a very small device with a simple structure, but it has very similar functionalities to a human neuron,” said Feng Zhao, associate professor of WSU’s School of Engineering and Computer Science, and corresponding author on the study.&nbsp;“This means if we can integrate millions or billions of these honey memristors together, then they can be made into a neuromorphic system that functions much like a human brain.”



For the study, Zhao and first author Brandon Sueoka, a WSU graduate student in Zhao’s lab, created memristors by processing honey into a solid form and sandwiching it between two metal electrodes, making a structure similar to a human synapse. They then tested the honey memristors’ ability to mimic the work of synapses with high switching on and off speeds of 100 and 500 nanoseconds respectively. The memristors also emulated the synapse functions known as spike-timing dependent plasticity and spike-rate dependent plasticity, which are responsible for learning processes in human brains and for retaining new information in neurons.



Currently the memristors have been developed at the micro scale, and so are approximately the size of a human hair. Zhao plans to make further changes in future, so that these components are sized at the nano scale and are comparable to about 1/1,000 of a human hair. In this case, many millions or even billions of these components could be bundled together, just like neurons in a nerve, to make a full neuromorphic computing system.



Several companies, including Intel and IBM, have already released neuromorphic chips which have the equivalent of more than 100 million “neurons” per chip; this may sound impressive, but it is not yet near the number of these structures found in the brain.&nbsp;



In developing the memristors, Zhao and his team have focused on looking for biodegradable materials to use in order to address the current ecological challenges of electronic waste. While many developers are still using the same nonrenewable and toxic materials that are currently used in conventional computer chips, Zhao’s investigations have led him to test various proteins, as well as the sugars in honey and in Aloe vera leaves for use in the memristors.&nbsp; He has found that honey has great potential for this task.&nbsp;



“Honey does not spoil,” he said. “It has a very low moisture concentration, so bacteria cannot survive in it. This means these computer chips will be very stable and reliable for a very long time.”



The honey memristor chips developed at WSU should tolerate the lower levels of heat generated by neuromorphic systems which do not get as hot as traditional computers. The honey memristors will also cut down on electronic waste.



“When we want to dispose of devices using computer chips made of honey, we can easily dissolve them in water,” said Professor Zhao. “Because of these special properties, honey is very useful for creating renewable and biodegradable neuromorphic systems.”



The study is published in the <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/journal/0022-3727">Journal of Physics D</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honey may be used in computer chips that work like brain cells

Modern computers may seem capable of phenomenal and awe-inspiring feats...

A new study published in the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-child-language">Journal of Child Language</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-and-infants-recognize-words-using-similar-brain-regions/">words</a> used to direct caregivers, known as demonstratives, are likely to be among the first words a child learns and uses most frequently.&nbsp;



"Sharing attention is the infrastructure for the rest of language and social interaction," said Amalia Skilton, a linguistics scholar and Klarman Fellow in the College of Arts and Sciences at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>.



We already know that early speakers of Mandarin, English, and Spanish use words such as "this" and "that." However, these languages have a relatively simple structure. Skilton wanted to see if there was a strong drive to use these types of words in languages that were different in structure and social context.&nbsp;



Skilton observed 45 Ticuna speakers in Peru and found that their children followed the same pattern even though the language is distinct from the other languages studied.&nbsp;&nbsp;



There are only two primary demonstratives in English ("this and "that"). However, Ticuna, an indigenous language spoken by people living along the Amazon/Solimões River in Peru, Colombia, and Brazil has six demonstratives. The four most common demonstratives were examined.



During her year in Peru, Skilton found that most of the one-year-olds she monitored said "this/that" or "here/there," indicating a universal desire to share attention. Based on this finding, she suggests that children should start using that vocabulary at roughly 12-18 months, regardless of language.&nbsp;



While young children are eager to share attention, Skilton points out that they find it difficult to understand other people's perspectives.&nbsp;



Observations have shown that children struggle to comprehend what others believe. Skilton's research adds to these findings because it demonstrates that they also have difficulty understanding how others think about objects in space.



Skilton explains that caregivers should not be concerned if a child under three years old misuses the words.



"While adults think of these words as simple, their meanings are fairly challenging for children to understand at young ages and having trouble with them is a typical part of child development."



Skilton plans on continuing her research in Peru, where she hopes to look at how children use pointing gestures to direct adults' attention.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many of a child's first words are used to direct caregivers

A new study published in the Journal of Child Language...

According to a <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/news-release/increase-in-atmospheric-methane-set-another-record-during-2021">preliminary analysis</a> led by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (<a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">NOAA</a>), increases in atmospheric methane hit a new record in 2021, averaging 1,895.7 parts per billion (ppb) during last year – which is 15 percent higher than in the 1984-2006 period, and around 162 percent greater than pre-industrial levels.



Although carbon dioxide remains the biggest contributor to anthropogenic global warming, methane is roughly 25 times more powerful at trapping heat in the atmosphere, and thus has a major short-term impact on the rate of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-droughts-are-coming-on-faster-due-to-climate-change/">climate change</a>. This gas is emitted by oil and natural gas production, as well as by livestock farming and wetlands, whose microbe-rich soils are ideal for naturally producing and emitting methane.



In November, 2021, over 100 countries signed a “<a href="https://www.state.gov/united-states-european-union-and-partners-formally-launch-global-methane-pledge-to-keep-1-5c-within-reach/">Global Methane Pledge</a>” to cut methane emissions by 30 percent until the end of this decade. However, some major emitters such as Russia and China have not signed this pledge yet, and NOAA’s analysis suggests that even in countries that signed it, the rates of emissions remain extremely high.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our data show that global emissions continue to move in the wrong direction at a rapid pace. The evidence is consistent, alarming, and undeniable,” said NOAA administrator Richard Spinrad. “Reducing methane emissions is an important tool we can use right now to lessen the impacts of climate change in the near term, and rapidly reduce the rate of warming.”



Since a large part of methane emissions originate from unintentional leaks from industrial wells and pipelines, fixing these problems should be relatively easy. “Reducing methane emissions from fossil fuel is an important step, and a low-hanging fruit to reduce atmospheric methane levels,” said Xin “Lindsay” Lan, a research scientist at NOAA’s <a href="https://gml.noaa.gov/">Global Monitoring Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



“The latest increases in methane concentrations reinforce the critical importance of reducing human-caused methane emissions if we are going to slow the rate of increase in warming,” confirmed Steven Hamburg, a chief scientist at the <a href="https://www.edf.org/">Environmental Defense Fund</a>. “There is agreement in the scientific community that the majority of methane emissions are human caused and account for more than a quarter of the warming we are currently experiencing.”



However, other factors such as the massive rains in tropical areas that have flushed huge quantities of methane from wetlands, or the major role livestock play in methane emissions, could be more difficult to control and mitigate. Nevertheless, slashing these emissions as much as we can remains the fastest and cheapest way to reduce global warming in the short term.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Methane emissions hit a new record in 2021

According to a preliminary analysis led by the National Oceanic...

Tanis, an important fossil site in North Dakota, has produced some fascinating findings. Previously at the site, scientists discovered sturgeon and paddlefish that died as Chicxulub - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-details-on-the-asteroid-impact-that-killed-the-dinosaurs/">asteroid</a> that killed the dinosaurs - hit Earth.&nbsp;



Lodged in the fishes gills are tiny spherules, particles created from molten rock that date to the impact. The fish seem to have inhaled these particles with their dying breath. It was through analyzing the growth patterns of these fish that scientists determined the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">asteroid struck in springtime</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Other fossils from the site have included a turtle impaled on a wooden stake, a pterosaur egg with embryo inside, small mammals along with their burrows and triceratops skin. Scientists believe that all of these amazing remains come from the moment of the asteroid impact.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Now, another spectacular and perhaps more momentous finding comes from Tanis. An incredibly well preserved dinosaur leg with impressions of skin including foot pads was found by a team led by Robert DePalma, a University of Manchester graduate student. The leg appears to be that of a thescelosaurus, according to professor Paul Barrett of London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a>.&nbsp;



"It's from a group that we didn't have any previous record of what its skin looked like, and it shows very conclusively that these animals were very scaly like lizards. They weren't feathered like their meat-eating contemporaries.” Barrett told BBC.&nbsp;



"This looks like an animal whose leg has simply been ripped off really quickly. There's no evidence on the leg of disease, there are no obvious pathologies, there's no trace of the leg being scavenged, such as bite marks or bits of it that are missing,"



Some scientists are suspicious of the claims at Tanis. For one thing, the entire site is a jumble of terrestrial and marine fossils from the western interior seaway mixed together, probably by the meteor impact. It’s possible that some of these animals died earlier and were mixed together after the impact. So far, the findings have not been presented in a peer reviewed scientific journal, and their scientific merit is yet to be confirmed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur fossil suggests it was killed by THE asteroid

Tanis, an important fossil site in North Dakota, has produced...

A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> has developed a new tool to better assess a highly important but largely overlooked indicator of global warming: the variety of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-worms-can-make-complex-decisions/">worms</a>, bugs, and snails that live in mountain streams. These aquatic invertebrates - which serve as food for a diversity of alpine life forms including birds, bats, fish, and frogs – are particularly vulnerable to climate fluctuations, such as rapid swings from droughts to massive floods.



In order to be able to protect aquatic life in high mountain streams, the scientists must first clearly understand their distribution. According to the study authors, classic theories for predicting biodiversity in such regions have various shortcomings.&nbsp;



For instance, one such theory – the “River Continuum Concept” – discusses how stream ecosystems function as they move from the stream sources down to larger, more open rivers. This theory argues that there should be a smooth gradient of change when moving from high to low elevations.



To test this theory, the scientists performed an in-depth survey of the aquatic life from the high mountain Sierra Nevada streams.&nbsp;



“We saw a change, but only partially and not for the reasons the theory said we should,” said study co-author Kurt Anderson, an associate professor of Evolution and Ecology at UC Riverside. “For example, we found that lakes tended to interrupt the smooth change we were supposed to have seen.”&nbsp;



According to Professor Anderson and his colleagues, while the diversity of invertebrates generally increased in waters headed downwards, it was lowest in streams situated immediately below lakes, where only a few species of invertebrates and insects with the ability to filter food particles were found.&nbsp;



“We believe the lakes may have a disconnecting effect and are causing the downstream waterways to have to start over again in building diversity,” said study lead author Matthew Green, an ecologist at UC Riverside.



The researchers have also found a large variety of life forms in cold, isolated streams high up in the mountains. Thus, despite the general trend towards an increase of biodiversity while moving downstream, sometimes, the differences in species between isolated headwaters is in fact as great as those between upstream and downstream areas.&nbsp;



“These are the aquatic life forms that are at the edge of the precipice of climate change,” said study co-author Dave Herbst, a researcher at the <a href="https://ucnrs.org/reserves/sierra-nevada-aquatic-research-laboratory/">Sierra Nevada Aquatic Research Laboratory</a>.&nbsp;



In order to protect the biodiversity of these crucial ecosystems, interconnected systems of flowing water should be guarded from diversions such as habitat damage caused by unrestricted land development.&nbsp;



“That is what will permit these small, but crucially important life forms to thrive. Where intact habitats have been compromised, restoration efforts may be key to providing the entire ecosystem with resilience to the coming adversities of climate change,” concluded Professor Anderson.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/ecm.1520">Ecological Monographs</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How is the climate impacting aquatic life in mountain streams?

A recent study led by the University of California, Riverside...

Although rain is essential for the survival of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-flower-colors-help-plants-survive/">plants</a>, it also frequently carries harmful pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, or filamentous fungi. A new study led by <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a> in Japan has found that when plants are exposed to rain, hair-like structures on their leaves’ surface called trichomes recognize the rain as a risk factor for disease and promptly activate their immune systems to prevent or fight off infections.



Just like humans and other multicellular organisms, plants also have immune systems that help them detect pathogens and defend themselves against infections. To find out how plants respond to rain, the scientists conducted an experimental study using Arabidopsis thaliana&nbsp;seedlings. By performing RNA-sequencing analyses, they found that several major immune-related genes are expressed in response to rain. These genes are regulated by immunosuppressive genes called calmodulin-binding transcription activators (CAMTAs), which are controlled by calcium ions.&nbsp;



The researchers discovered that when the plants were exposed to rain, calcium ions levels around the trichomes on leaf surfaces increased, suggesting that trichomes can sense rain as a risk factor and induce calcium waves across the leaves to inactivate the immunosuppressor CAMTA and thus activate immune-related genes.&nbsp;



In order to confirm these findings, the researchers conducted similar experiments on Arabidopsis mutants which lacked trichomes. As they expected, the propagation of calcium waves was compromised in these mutants, and their immune responses were consequently dampened.&nbsp;



“From these results, we confirmed that trichomes play a role in sensing rain as a risk factor and activating immune responses,” said study senior author Yasuomi Tada, an associate professor of Genetics at Nagoya University. “Our findings suggest that we may be able to artificially improve plants’ defensive capabilities against diseases at any time and for any length of time. Using this technology, we could make it possible to activate crops’ immune responses when environmental conditions are harsh enough to possibly cause disease in plants, which could result in stable crop yields.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-28813-8">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants activate immune defenses against pathogens in rain

Although rain is essential for the survival of plants, it...

It’s strange that cacao, the main ingredient in chocolate, is central to a great mystery. For centuries, humans have grown and eaten cacao but somehow, we never understood one of the central processes that gave us such delicious food - its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bird-pollination-can-be-advantageous-for-plants/">pollination</a>.



Cacao flowers are tiny and the insects that gather on the tree are also miniscule and diverse, so it may be excusable that no one’s looked close enough at the right time to find a pollinator for cacao. Now, new research published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/26888319">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a> examines the pollination of cacao.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



In northern Peruvian dry agroforests - that is, cacao plantations grown in the shade of other trees - glue was applied to the flowers of the plant to see what insect visited. A variety of insects were caught, with 38% being aphids, 13% were ants and 10% were thrips. In wet agroforests of southern Peru, thrips made up 65% of the insects caught, midges were 14%, and parasitic wasps were 10% of visitors.&nbsp;



There was also a difference in the behavior of insects in these different habitats. In dry agroforests, more insects were found in the shade. In the wetter agroforests, however, insects preferred to be in the sun - at least during the rainy season when the research was carried out.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the cacao set fruit at a rate of just 2%, hand pollination was only able to raise this number to 7%. This baffled the scientists who could only hypothesize. Perhaps there are no good pollinators for cacao in Peru. The scientists also noted that only an average of 30 pollen grains were found on cacao flowers, much less than expected for successful pollination.&nbsp;



There is still much to investigate in the pollination of cacao. "Among other things, it would be important to identify the main pollinators," said Justine Vansynghel, lead researcher and PhD student.



This information could help improve the yields of cacao in native regions like Peru, which lags behind the pollination rates of plantations in Asia and Africa, probably because these plants are high yielding clones. More research may finally discover the pollinator but for now, cacao remains a delicious mystery.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cacao tree pollination remains a mystery

It’s strange that cacao, the main ingredient in chocolate, is...

Empathy is by definition, trying to feel the experience of another. Researchers recently asked whether people empathize more with other people or with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-identify-100-cases-of-humans-passing-disease-to-animals/">animals</a>. The study was published in a special issue of the journal <a href="https://www.hogrefe.com/us/journal/social-psychology">Social Psychology</a>.



To investigate this question, scientists recruited 193 participants. The research subjects were then asked whether they wanted to empathize with a human or an animal. If the participants said human, they were shown a picture of a college age person and asked to put themselves in their situation. If they chose an animal, the participants were shown the image of a koala bear. In this study, the participants more often chose the human.&nbsp;



“Participants indicated that empathizing with animals felt more challenging, and that belief of empathy being more difficult drove them to choose animal empathy less," said study lead author Daryl Cameron of the <a href="https://rockethics.psu.edu/">Rock Ethics Institute</a>. "It’s possible that people felt empathizing with a mind that’s unlike our own was more challenging than imagining the experience of another human.”



Another study illuminated and complicated things a bit more. In a second study, two new groups of 192 and 197 participants were given two choices. First, researchers asked one group to either empathize with or just describe without empathizing a person. The second group was given the same choice but with a koala instead of a person. Interestingly, with the image of the human, people tended to avoid empathizing. With the image of the koala people didn’t avoid empathy but embraced it.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It’s possible that if people are seeing humans and animals in competition, it might lead to them preferring to empathize with other humans,” said Cameron. “But if you don’t see that competition, and the situation is just deciding whether to empathize with an animal one day and a human the other, it seems that people don’t want to engage in human empathy but they're a little bit more interested in animals.”



The researchers hope that this sort of psychology study might help better target conservation efforts and in the end help further the cause of wild animals.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Do humans empathize more with people or other animals?

Empathy is by definition, trying to feel the experience of...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.bas.ac.uk/">British Antarctic Survey</a> (BAS) has found that rising greenhouse gas emissions have a long-term warming effect on the Amundsen Sea in West Antarctica, leading to significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-antarctic-sea-ice-has-fluctuated-over-the-past-century/">sea ice</a> melting. Although scientific observations of this region only began in 1994, the patterns of ice loss the scientists mapped suggest that the ocean may have been gradually warming over the past century, due to a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors.



Ice loss from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Amundsen Sea is one of the main contributors to sea level rises worldwide. According to the researchers, if this massive ice sheet were to melt completely, global sea levels could rise by up to three meters.



By using advanced computer modelling to simulate the response of the Southern Ocean to changes in the atmosphere from 1920 to 2013, the scientists found that the Amundsen Sea became increasingly warmer during this period, due to changes in wind patterns that increased temperatures by driving warm water currents towards and beneath the ice. These changes in wind patterns are partly driven by rising greenhouse emissions.



“The main cause of the warming in our simulations is changes in the winds near the edge of the Amundsen Sea that pump more warm water from the deep ocean onto the shallower continental shelf. These wind trends are partly caused by greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels,” the study authors explained.



According to study lead author Kaitlin Naughten, an ocean-ice modeler at BAS, if greenhouse gas emissions increase, further rises in ocean temperatures, ice melt, and global sea levels are to be expected. However, the fact that these patterns are partly caused by human activity should also give us reason to hope: if emissions are sufficiently reduced and wind patterns in the area are stabilized, this trend could be curbed and perhaps even reversed.



“Changes in the Southern Hemisphere westerly winds are a well-established climate response to the effect of greenhouse gases. However, the Amundsen Sea is also subject to very strong natural climate variability. The simulations suggest that both natural and anthropogenic changes are responsible for the ocean-driven ice loss from the West Antarctic Ice Sheet,” said study co-author Paul Holland, an oceanographer at BAS. While the natural changes occurring in the area are most probably beyond our control, urgent measures should be taken to curb emissions in order to protect our planet from catastrophic sea level rises.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2021GL094566">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sea ice loss is directly affected by greenhouse gas emissions

A new study led by the British Antarctic Survey (BAS)...

The schooner Tara is a floating laboratory that journeys around the world’s oceans conducting scientific research. It has covered more than 450,000 kilometers since 2003, while carrying out 12 scientific expeditions in collaboration with the best international laboratories and academic organizations in the world. The research is carried out under the auspices of the Tara Ocean Foundation that aims to develop innovative and original open ocean science that will help predict, anticipate and understand future climate risks and their potential impacts on ocean biodiversity.



On a recent expedition, the crew and scientists on board the Tara collected more than 35,000 water samples from oceans around the world. They analyzed the living organisms present in the water samples for sequences of RNA that are indicative of the presence of RNA viruses. Whereas most living organisms carry their genetic information on molecules of DNA, these viruses have the molecule RNA (ribonucleic acid) as the genetic material within their bodies.&nbsp;



RNA viruses have been around for billions of years and scientists are familiar with those species that cause human diseases such as the common cold, influenza, SARS,&nbsp;MERS,&nbsp;Covid-19,&nbsp;dengue,&nbsp;hepatitis C and E,&nbsp;rabies,&nbsp;polio,&nbsp;mumps, and&nbsp;measles. However, the current study of ocean waters revealed at least 5,500 viral species that are brand new to science.&nbsp;



“RNA viruses are clearly important in our world, but we usually only study a tiny slice of them – the few hundred that harm humans, plants and animals,” said lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://microbiology.osu.edu/people/sullivan.948">Matthew Sullivan</a>, professor of&nbsp;<a href="https://microbiology.osu.edu/">microbiology at </a><a href="https://www.osu.edu/">The Ohio State University</a>. “We wanted to systematically study them on a very big scale and explore an environment no one had looked at deeply, and we got lucky because virtually every species was new, and many were really new.”



In their publication, available today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>, the researchers explain how they combined machine-learning analyses with traditional evolutionary trees in order to identify and classify the new viral species. They found that the 5,500 new species included representatives from all five currently accepted RNA virus phyla, but also suggested that thousands of the new species had characteristics that did not place them within any of the existing phyla. The researchers suggested that at least five new phyla needed to be established in order to classify the new viruses adequately.&nbsp;



The five phyla of viruses currently recognized within the biological kingdom <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=2732396">Orthornavirae</a> have recently been accepted by the <a href="https://talk.ictvonline.org/">International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses</a> (ICTV). However, following the analysis of the seawater samples collected from the Tara, the researchers have proposed the following five new phyla: Taraviricota, Pomiviricota, Paraxenoviricota, Wamoviricota and Arctiviricota. Species from some of these phyla are abundant and widely distributed in ocean waters around the world.&nbsp;



“There’s so much new diversity here – and an entire phylum, the&nbsp;Taraviricota,&nbsp;were found all over the oceans, which suggests they’re ecologically important,” said Sullivan.



Since evidence of the new RNA viruses came from the bodies of marine microbes present in the water samples, it is likely that these viruses use the different microbes as hosts. While microbes are essential contributors to all life on the planet, viruses that infect or interact with them have a variety of potential influences on microbial functions. These types of viruses are believed to have three main functions: killing cells, changing how infected cells manage energy, and transferring genes from one host to another.



The researchers hypothesize that knowing more about viral diversity and abundance in the world’s oceans will help explain the role of marine microbes in the ways that oceans adaptation to climate change. Marine microbes are important in the generation of oxygen and the absorption of over half of the&nbsp;human-generated carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Previous research by this group has also suggested that marine viruses are the “knob” on a biological pump that affects how carbon in the ocean is stored.



In previous research, Sullivan’s team has catalogued the diversity and abundance of DNA virus species in the oceans. They have identified more and more new species, increasing the number of ocean species from a few thousand in 2015 and 2016 to 200,000 in 2019.&nbsp;



For studies on DNA viruses, the scientists had access to individual viral particles and their DNA for the analysis. However, in the study of the RNA viruses there were no actual viral particles to study. Instead, researchers extracted sequences from genes expressed in organisms floating in the sea, and narrowed the analysis to RNA sequences that contained a signature gene, called RdRp. This ancient gene codes for the production of an enzyme that is important in the synthesis of RNA from an RNA template, and it is present in the genomes of most RNA-containing&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus">viruses</a>.



RdRp has evolved for billions of years in RNA viruses, and is absent from other viruses or cells. However, because its existence dates back to the earliest life on Earth, its position within the viral RNA has changed many times. This made it impossible to map out the viral relationships using a traditional phylogenetic tree. Instead, the team used machine learning to organize the 44,000 new genetic sequences they found, in a way that could handle the billions of years of sequence divergence. They validated their method by showing that the technique could classify sequences of known RNA viruses accurately.



“We had to benchmark the known to study the unknown,” said Sullivan, also a professor of&nbsp;<a href="https://ceg.osu.edu/">civil, environmental and geodetic engineering</a>, founding director of Ohio State’s&nbsp;<a href="https://u.osu.edu/coms/">Center of Microbiome Science</a>&nbsp;and a leadership team member in the&nbsp;<a href="https://emerge-bii.github.io/people/">EMERGE Biology Integration Institute</a>. “We’ve created a computationally reproducible way to align those sequences to where we can be more confident that we are aligning positions that accurately reflect evolution.”



The researchers also did analysis using 3D representations of sequence structures and alignment which revealed that the cluster of 5,500 new species didn’t fit into the five existing phyla of RNA viruses previously recognized in the&nbsp;Orthornavirae&nbsp;kingdom.



“We benchmarked our clusters against established, recognized phylogeny-based taxa, and that is how we found we have more clusters than those that existed,” said co-first author&nbsp;<a href="https://microbiology.osu.edu/people/zayed.10">Ahmed Zayed</a>, a research scientist in microbiology at Ohio State and a research lead in the EMERGE Institute.



These findings led the researchers to propose not only the five new phyla in viral taxonomy, but also at least 11 new orthornaviran classes of RNA viruses. The team is preparing a proposal to request formalization of the candidate phyla and classes by the ICTV.



Zayed said the extent of new data on the RdRp gene’s divergence over time leads to a better understanding about how early life may have evolved on the planet.



“RdRp is supposed to be one of the most ancient genes – it existed before there was a need for DNA,” he said. “So we’re not just tracing the origins of viruses, but also tracing the origins of life.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Thousands of new RNA viruses identified in ocean waters

The schooner Tara is a floating laboratory that journeys around...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-oceans-warm-up-smaller-species-of-fish-will-dominate/">Oceans</a> are made up of multiple layers. Lighter, warmer waters sit at the top while denser, cooler waters can be found at the bottom. To move heat, ocean mixing is vital.&nbsp;



Ocean mixing also moves oxygen, nutrients and pollutants between different layers, playing a major role in how ecosystems sustain life. A new study has shown how fish can influence ocean ecosystems by circulating nutrients and oxygen around the waters when they spawn. Prior to this study, it was not previously understood how fish contribute to ocean mixing.



A team led by the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/">University of Southampton</a> spent fifteen days monitoring water turbulence in the Ría de Pontevedra, a bay in the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The experts measured variations in ocean current speed and temperature over very small distances.



It is known that turbulence and mixing increases during major storm events. The results of the study showed that increased levels of turbulence and mixing occurred every night, even without a storm.



The research team used acoustic data and samples collected with small fishing nets. This allowed the team to identify fish that were gathering in the area at night. The small nets were full of recently spawned eggs of European anchovy.&nbsp; The anchovies’ frantic behaviour during spawning had caused the turbulence. This is referred to as ‘biological mixing’.



“We believe that biological mixing was intense in our observations because the bay is highly stratified - the temperature and other properties vary significantly at different depths,” explained Dr. Bieito Fernández Castro, who led the study.&nbsp;



Previous studies suggested that biological turbulence causes minimal mixing because the circular motions fish generate while swimming are too small, especially in deeper ocean water. “However, we have shown that closer to land, where the layers change over a much shorter distance, the anchovies are able to mix them together,” said Dr. Castro.



While biological mixing may influence the open ocean, the study revealed that it can be significant in coastal ecosystems. This is because thriving marine life coexists with rapid changes in the make-up of the ocean.&nbsp;



The ocean mixing generated by fish could impact the redistribution of temperature, nutrients and oxygen, which play a fundamental role in the functioning of the ecosystem that fish rely on. The findings highlight the capacity of living organisms to influence the environment they live in.



“The observation of how our anchovies drove mixing was totally fortuitous. We were set to study how turbulence affects marine life and we end up showing, for the first time, that marine life can influence ocean turbulence, which in turn influences marine life!” concluded Dr Fernández Castro.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ngeo/">Nature Geoscience</a>. To learn more, you can watch a short video of the study <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f-fosxKyzQ8">here</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spawning fish generate ocean mixing, help sustain a healthy ecosystem

Oceans are made up of multiple layers. Lighter, warmer waters...

In arid Western states, the climate is becoming increasingly warmer and drier, leading to rises in the demand for water resources from humans and most ecosystems. According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.dri.edu/">Desert Research Institute</a> (DRI), the atmosphere across most of the United States is also demanding a greater amount of water than it ⁰previously used to. These substantial increases in “atmospheric thirst” are leading causes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flash-droughts-are-coming-on-faster-due-to-climate-change/">droughts</a>, wildfires, and reduced streamflows.



Evaporative demand – known colloquially as atmospheric thirst – is a measure of the loss of water from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere, calculated through variables such as temperature, humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation. By assessing trends in evaporative demand across the United States from 1980 to 2020, the researchers found massive increases in the Western states, particularly in the area centered around the Rio Grande and Lower Colorado rivers.



“This means that atmospheric thirst conditions in parts of the country are now verging outside of the range that was experienced 20 to 40 years ago, especially in some regions of the Southwest,” said lead author Christine Albano, an assistant professor of Ecohydrology at DRI. “This is really important to understand, because we know that atmospheric thirst is a persistent force in pushing Western landscapes and water supplies toward drought.”&nbsp;



Professor Albano and her colleagues have found that increases in temperature were responsible for 57 percent of the changes observed in these regions, while humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation played important yet lesser roles (26 percent, 10 percent, and 8 percent, respectively).



For farmers and other water users, increases in atmospheric thirst mean that more water will be required to meet existing needs.&nbsp;



“Our analysis suggests that crops now require more water than they did in the past and can be expected to require more water in the future,” said study co-author Justin Huntington, a research professor of Hydrology at DRI.&nbsp;



Other significant impacts of increased atmospheric thirst include droughts, rises in the frequency and extent of forest fires, and reduced streamflows.&nbsp;



“Our results indicate that, decade by decade, for every drop of precipitation that falls, less and less water is likely to drain into streams, wetlands, aquifers, or other water bodies,” said study co-author Michael Dettinger, a climate scientist at DRI. “Resource managers, policy makers, and the public need to be aware of these changes and plan for these impacts now and into the future.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/hydr/23/4/JHM-D-21-0163.1.xml">Hydrometeorology</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Atmospheric thirst has increased in the US over the past decades

In arid Western states, the climate is becoming increasingly warmer...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How the immune system responds to injury

[sendtonews key="0dEcERCq61-2283382-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Stowers...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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