All living tissues give off photons as excited molecules shed excess energy. The phenomenon is so subtle - roughly a million times dimmer than the threshold of human vision - that researchers call it ultra-weak photon emission (UPE).



Because the brain consumes an exceptionally high metabolic budget and is packed with photoactive compounds such as flavins and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/">serotonin</a>, scientists have long suspected it might glow more brightly than other organs. 



What they did not know was whether that ghostly glow fluctuates in ways that reveal real-time neural activity. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-darkness-into-a-laboratory"><a></a>Turning darkness into a laboratory</h2>



To find out, a collaborative team from <a href="https://algomau.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Algoma University</a>, Tufts University, and Wilfrid Laurier University recruited 20 healthy adults and seated them in a light-sealed chamber.



Two photomultiplier tubes - devices capable of counting single photons - were aimed at the back (occipital) and side (temporal) regions of each participant’s head, while a third tube monitored background darkness.



Simultaneously, the researchers fitted the volunteers with a standard electroencephalography (EEG) cap to compare electrical rhythms with any optical rhythms.



The experiment lasted ten minutes and cycled through five simple conditions: eyes open, eyes closed, listening to a repetitive tone, eyes closed again, and finally, eyes open again. 



Each condition lasted two minutes - enough time for the researchers to watch the brain light settle into a steady signal before switching tasks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-glow-follows-a-rhythm">Brain glow follows a rhythm</h2>



Despite the photons’ extreme faintness, the team, led by Hayley Casey and Nirosha Murugan, successfully separated brain-derived light from background counts by examining complexity and variability.



In brief, the cranial signal showed higher entropy - richer fluctuation - than the near-constant dark noise inside the optics.



Spectral analysis revealed that these emissions waxed and waned at very slow frequencies below one hertz. This means a rise-and-fall cycle occurred every one to ten seconds. 



This low-frequency “heartbeat” was strongest over the occipital cortex, the very region that processes visual input.



Just as important, the photon stream reached a reproducible equilibrium within each two-minute block, then shifted when the task changed. That pattern strongly suggests the glow is not random metabolic chatter but reflects the brain’s moment-to-moment state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-shut-photons-rise"><a></a>Eyes shut, photons rise</h2>



Closing one’s eyes is known to boost alpha-band electrical rhythms (8–12 hertz) in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-brain-processes-visual-information/">visual cortex</a>. This is a signature of relaxed wakefulness first reported in the 1920s.



The new study revealed that occipital photon counts modulated in tandem. Some participants’ emissions rose during eyes-closed periods, while others fell. However, each individual showed a consistent direction across the two eyes-closed blocks.



Occipital UPE also showed modest correlations with alpha power measured by EEG - evidence that the optical signal does tap into neural dynamics. However, the relationship is complex and needs further investigation.



Auditory stimulation, delivered through a simple repeating tone, produced subtler effects. The temporal sensor picked up changes in photon variability that tracked certain EEG rhythms recorded over the same region.



This hints that metabolic shifts linked to processing sound also leave a photonic fingerprint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-brain-metabolism">A window into brain metabolism</h2>



Standard brain-monitoring tools, whether MRI, PET, or infrared spectroscopy, rely on sending energy into the skull and measuring what bounces back.



UPE recording, in contrast, is wholly passive: the detectors simply wait in the dark. That makes the technique conceptually similar to EEG or magnetoencephalography (MEG), but tuned to oxidative chemistry rather than electricity or magnetism.



The authors propose “photoencephalography” for a future technology that could use natural brain light as a clinical signal.



“We view the current results as a proof-of-concept demonstration that patterns of human-brain-derived UPE signals can be discriminated from background light signals despite very low relative signal intensity,” explained the researchers.



They speculate that refined detectors - equipped with wavelength-specific filters to isolate, say, green-emitting flavins from red-shifted lipofuscin - might one day diagnose metabolic stress. 



Such tools could also monitor aging or even flag <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-grounds-could-help-prevent-neurodegenerative-diseases/">neurodegenerative disease</a> before symptoms emerge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The pilot study sampled only 20 people and monitored just two scalp sites. Photomultiplier tubes counted all visible and near-infrared photons, drowning out any subtle color coding of brain chemistry in the noise.



Future setups will deploy arrays of narrow-band detectors to capture spatial and spectral detail, and will compare cranial readings with simultaneous measurements from non-neural tissues to confirm specificity.



The researchers also plan to test broader age ranges and clinical populations. They aim to see whether disorders that alter oxidative metabolism - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-blood-test-can-track-the-progression-of-alzheimers/">Alzheimer’s disease</a>, traumatic brain injury, or chronic stress - produce distinctive optical signatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-brain-glows-at-all"><a></a>Why the brain glows at all</h2>



Though focused on measurement, the study builds on work linking UPE spikes to bursts of reactive oxygen in mitochondria. Those by-products can excite biomolecules; when the molecules relax, they release photons.



If so, the faint light may function as a built-in reporter of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-reveals-the-secret-to-keeping-your-brain-young/">brain</a>’s redox balance - a chemical ledger of energy production, stress, and recovery.



Electrical rhythms revolutionized neuroscience a century ago; functional MRI did the same in the 1990s. 



Photoencephalography, though still in its infancy, offers a tantalizing third window. It peers directly at the cell’s metabolic engine without injecting energy or contrast agents.



The current study lights the first path forward: prove the signal exists, show that it changes with mental state, and establish that it differs from background noise. 



The next challenge is to turn those wisps of light into a practical tool for medicine and cognitive science.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(25)00279-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Human brains emit light and glow in the dark, revealing our mental state

All living tissues give off photons as excited molecules shed excess energy. The phenomenon is so subtle - roughly a million times dimmer than the threshold of human vision - that researchers call it ultra-weak photon emission (UPE). Because the brain consumes an exceptionally high metabolic budget and is packed with photoactive compounds such as flavins and serotonin, scientists have long suspected it might glow more brightly than other organs. What they did not know was whether that ghostly glow fluctuates in ways that reveal real-time neural...

Many species of large-bodied, land <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-mammals-play-a-role-in-combating-climate-change/">mammals</a> went extinct in the late Quaternary Period, between 115,000 and 500 years ago. These megafaunal extinctions are usually attributed to changing climatic conditions during this time, as well as to the impacts of hunting by humans. However, not all of the mammal species went extinct. Previous research has shown that mammals with larger bodies had an increased risk of extinction,&nbsp;although even this does not tell the whole story.



There are many mammal taxa (groups of related species) with some representatives that went extinct while others, of similar body size, survived into modern times. Jacob Dembitzer, from the School of Zoology, University of Tel Aviv, and colleagues, hypothesized that brain size may also have been a factor in whether mammalian species went extinct. They set out to determine whether there is a difference in brain size between extant (living) species and those that went extinct during the Late Quaternary, after accounting for differences in body size.&nbsp;



To do this, they measured the endocast volume (a measure of cranial capacity) of 291 living mammal species and 50 that went extinct during the Late Quaternary. In total, the researchers collected data on the volumes of 3,616 specimen skulls, with a median of three specimens per species, to calculate brain size. They used previously published research data on mammal body mass and extinction dates.&nbsp;



The species belonged to a total of 10 taxonomic orders, nine of which have both extinct and extant members, meaning that comparisons could be made between closely related species. More than half of the dataset was made up of species belonging to the Xenarthrans (sloths, armadillos and anteaters), Proboscideans (mastodons, mammoths and elephants), and Primates, which reflects a good cross-section of species that went extinct during the Late Quaternary.



The findings of the investigation, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, showed that the major factor correlated with risk of extinction was indeed body size, as expected. However, brain size was also a significant predictor of extinction. In a linear regression model, extant species had endocast volumes that were 83 percent larger, on average, than similar-sized extinct counterparts. The brain size was still 53 percent larger in extant species when mammalian order was used as a random effect.



The authors suggest that having a larger brain would have predisposed certain mammalian species to cope better with changes in climate, habitat and predation scenarios during the Late Quaternary Period. They feel that differences in brain size may explain why some large mammals went extinct (e.g., the relatively small brained&nbsp;Mammut americanum) while others, such as the large brained extant elephants (Elephas maximus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Loxodonta africana), survived.&nbsp;



Interestingly, extinct species from the mammalian orders Notoungulata, Pilosa (sloths and anteaters), Cingulata (armadillos), and Diprotodontia (marsupials) possessed, on average, the smallest brains (relative to body size) of any species in the dataset). Almost no large-bodies species from these orders have survived to modern times as the risk of extinction probably increased with body size and with small brain capacity.



The authors propose that, on the other hand, larger brain size may have helped large-bodied species that were prone to extinction anyway, to survive. A larger brain may have helped species to adapt quickly to changes such as increased hunting by humans, and may have meant the species were able to remember several sources of food and water within a changing landscape.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Greater risk of extinction for large-bodied mammals in the past

Many species of large-bodied, land mammals went extinct in the...

A compound found in wild blueberries may speed up the process of wound healing, according to new research. The results of the study suggest that blueberry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-botanical-extract-extend-the-lifespan-of-humans/">extract</a> could dramatically improve wound healing, and may ultimately reduce the massive cost of $50 billion that is spent on wound care each year.&nbsp;



Diabetic ulcers and other non-healing wounds often develop among the elderly. These wounds persist due to a reduced development of nutrient-rich blood vessels, which is known as vascularization. A lack of vascularity is associated with diabetes, vascular disease and other conditions. The trouble is, vascularity&nbsp;is critical for the efficient delivery of oxygen and nutrients to support tissue and wound healing.



In a previous study that was focused on human umbilical cord cells, researchers at the <a href="https://umaine.edu/">University of Maine</a> found that a phenolic extract from wild blueberries improved vascularization and cell migration - critical steps in the healing process.



For the current study, a team of experts led by Dr. Dorothy Klimis-Zacas analyzed the effects of phenolic extract on wounds. Found naturally in some foods, phenols are compounds that serve as antioxidants, which can prevent and even reverse some types of cell damage.



Using a mouse model, the experts treated a group of animals with a topical gel that contained a wild blueberry phenolic extract. These mice were compared with animals that were treated with a base gel lacking the phenolic extract, and with a control group that received no treatment.



The experiment revealed that the treated mice exhibited improved migration of endothelial cells to the wound site, as well as a 12 percent increase in wound closure.



“Wild blueberries have the potential to enhance cell migration, new blood vessel formation (angiogenesis) and vascularization and to speed up wound closure," said study first author Tolu Esther Adekeye. "This is especially important in conditions that require enhanced wound closure in patients with chronic wounds such as diabetic wounds, burns and pressure ulcers."



The study will be presented this week in Philadelphia at the American Physiological Society’s (APS) annual meeting at <a href="https://www.experimentalbiology.org/">Experimental Biology 2022</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Blueberries could be key to treating non-healing wounds

A compound found in wild blueberries may speed up the...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) has found that, by the third quarter of 2021 – thus, before the emergence of the highly contagious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">Omicron</a> variant in South Africa in November – 65 percent of the African population already had antibodies against SARS-CoV-2. Since at the time when this data was gathered only four percent of the population of the continent has been vaccinated (to date, this number has increased to 14 percent), the vast majority of these antibodies appear to be the result of natural infection.&nbsp;



But why have hospitalizations and deaths remained so low in West and Central Africa throughout the pandemic? According to Sierra Leone’s health minister Austin Demby, the answers to this question “are relevant not just to us, but have implications for the greater public good.”



Some scientists argue that perhaps Covid-related hospitalizations and deaths are simply not counted in Africa and that, in fact, the pandemic’s toll has been as great on this continent as in many other parts of the world. Indeed, excess mortality data in South Africa shows that during the first two years of the pandemic, over 250,000 more people died than expected from mortality patterns in previous years. Could it be that in other countries there are similar death rates and they are not noticed and reported?



“We have not seen massive burials in Africa. If that had happened, we’d have seen it,” said Dr. Thierno Baldé, the leader of WHO’s Covid emergency response in Africa. “A death in Africa never goes unrecorded, as much as we are poor at record-keeping,” added Dr. Abdhalah Ziraba, an epidemiologist at the <a href="https://aphrc.org/">African Population and Health Research Center</a> in Nairobi, Kenya.&nbsp;



“There is a funeral, an announcement: A burial is never done within a week because it is a big event. For someone sitting in New York hypothesizing that they were unrecorded - well, we may not have the accurate numbers, but the perception is palpable. In the media, in your social circle, you know if there are deaths.”



Sierra Leone’s health minister – a trained epidemiologist – strongly agrees: “We haven’t had overflowing hospitals. We haven’t. There is no evidence that excess deaths are occurring.”&nbsp;



Some scholars argue that high temperatures, the fact that much of daily life is spent outside, the low population density in many areas, and the relatively young population could have been crucial factors that helped spare the Africans from the worst Covid outcomes. However, India has largely similar conditions, and it nearly collapsed under the Delta variant last spring, with over four million estimated deaths.



Perhaps a more plausible explanation would be that many Africans had cross-immunity from being exposed to a variety of other pathogens, including not only other coronaviruses, but also microbes causing deadlier infections such as malaria, Lassa fever, or Ebola. However, this remains an unproven hypothesis in need of investigation. Urgent research is needed to find out if and which of these pathogens might offer cross-protection against SARS-CoV-2. Clarifying this issue is critical not only for solving Africa’s mysterious relation to Covid-19, but also for the future development of better vaccines and treatments worldwide.&nbsp;



A pre-print version of the WHO seroprevalence study can be found <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.02.14.22270934v1.full">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why has Covid-19 largely spared Africa?

A new study led by the World Health Organization (WHO)...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a> has found that infant monkeys conceived while their mothers were naturally exposed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosols-in-wildfire-smoke-can-affect-the-climate-for-days/">wildfire smoke</a> shown significant behavioral changes compared to those conceived a few days after the exposure. These findings prove the importance of timing in the effects of smoke exposure during pregnancy, and suggest that exposure to such pollutants could have similar impacts on human infants.



“I think this will have an effect on future studies of exposures in pregnancy, because we’ll know when to look,” said study senior author Bill Lasley, a professor emeritus of Population Health and Reproduction at UC Davis. According to Lasley, existing studies of environmental exposure to pollutants during pregnancy in humans are largely retrospective, since women may not even realize that they are pregnant until weeks into the first trimester.



The Camp Fire – one of the largest and deadliest wildfires in California’s history – began on November 8, 2018 and provided a natural experiment in the effects of smoke exposure. At the peak of the breeding season for rhesus macaques housed in outdoor corrals at the <a href="https://cnprc.ucdavis.edu/">California National Primate Center</a> in Davis, the smoke blanketed the area, exposing many of the pregnant monkeys.



The 89 macaques conceived around that time were born approximately six months later. The researchers divided them into 52 animals conceived on or before November 22 – which were considered to be exposed to wildfire smoke during the first trimester – and 37 that were conceived later.



According to the scientists, the smoke exposed monkey infants showed increases in markers of inflammation, reduced cortisol responses to stress, memory deficits, and more passive temperaments than those conceived later. These effects appear similar to those identified in studies of prenatal exposure to air pollution, and are probably caused by airborne hydrocarbons such as phthalates, which were found in the smoke from the Camp Fire.



Unlike in the case of other mammals, the placenta of primates such as monkeys or humans produces hormones supporting brain development through the adrenal system. “Since fetal adrenal glands are the source of cortisol and other steroids for neurologic development, which determines behaviors, a scenario of a placenta-adrenal-brain axis could be the causal pathway,” explained Professor Lasley.



Further research is needed to clarify whether smoke exposure in humans could cause similar effects. The scientists are now beginning a prospective study on women with implanted embryos as a result of in vitro fertilization, since the time of conception is exactly known if the women are incidentally exposed to wildfire smoke or other types of pollutants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-29436-9">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfire smoke exposure changes behavior of infant monkeys

A new study led by the University of California, Davis...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.su.se/cmlink/stockholm-university">Stockholm University</a> has found that longer and warmer autumns make it less likely that green-veined white <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-monarch-butterflies-are-killed-by-parasites-yearly/">butterflies</a> – a species common throughout Europe and the United Kingdom - will survive winter. Although the butterflies exposed to warmer conditions did not die immediately, those that experienced them were less likely to survive to adulthood the following spring.



“Climate change is making autumns warmer and last longer, and it was this specific combination of conditions that had the greatest impact on the butterflies in our study,” said study lead author Dr. Matthew Nielsen, a postdoctoral researcher at Stockholm University. “We show that stressful conditions experienced at one time of year can have lasting negative consequences at other times of year, linking changes in one season to consequences in others.”



According to Dr. Nielsen, animals which enter a dormant stage through the winter are particularly vulnerable to increasing temperatures because this raises their metabolic rates, making them run out of energy faster. “Even though dormant animals use less energy than active animals, they use more when it’s warmer, and they can’t eat to replace that lost energy. It is already established that warmer winters are actually worse for dormant animals than colder ones, and our findings show that warmer autumns are potentially even more dangerous,” he said.



In laboratory conditions, the scientists exposed the chrysalises of butterflies to simulated autumn conditions of varying temperature and length and found that those exposed to warmer and longer conditions lost significantly more weight and used more energy than those exposed to milder conditions.



Since the study was performed in the lab, it may be difficult to extrapolate these findings to populations in the wild that are exposed to natural seasonal and daily variations. However, according to the researchers, such variations could in fact further intensify the metabolic costs of autumn conditions.



The scientists are now expanding their research to explore the effects of climate change on butterflies in more detail and assess the effects of different seasons. “In our study we only considered survival to adulthood, but there could be even more negative effects later in life, for example on the ability to find mates or the number of eggs laid. Studying how warming in autumn, winter, and spring interact will also be key to understanding the actual impacts of climate change on dormant animals,” Dr. Nielsen concluded.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2435.14037">Functional Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warmer autumns reduce the life expectancy of butterflies

A new study led by Stockholm University has found that...

A 2016 study found that 22 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-doubles-the-risk-of-severe-pregnancy-complications/">pregnant</a> women in Colorado had detectable levels of cannabinoids in their bodies. Research shows that exposure to cannabis, including the popular CBD products, during pregnancy put children at risk for health problems.&nbsp;



CBD is seen as non psychoactive and is advertised as helping a host of psychological issues such as anxiety, depression and post traumatic stress disorder. Because CBD is seen as therapeutic and few side effects are noted, it’s used in a whole host of products from tinctures and lotions to food.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The risks of cannabinoid exposure in the womb for the children include risks of obesity, high blood sugar and behavioral problems.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We found that cannabis use during pregnancy was linked to increased fat mass percentage and fasting glucose levels in 5-year-old children,” said Dr. Brianna Moore of the <a href="https://coloradosph.cuanschutz.edu/">Colorado School of Public Health</a>. “We would encourage women to refrain from using any cannabis while pregnant or breastfeeding to minimize adverse health effects in the offspring.”



The researchers tested for cannabinoids in urine samples from 103 pregnant women, and 15 percent of those tested had detectable levels of cannabinoids in their urine. The children of the women who tested positive for cannabinoids had children with higher fat content and higher fasting glucose levels than the children of women without cannabinoids in their urine. This is clear evidence of the negative impact of using cannabinoid products when pregnant. Still yet, the scientists caution that more research is needed to fully understand the full effect caused by cannabis use in pregnant women.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“More studies are needed to understand how exposure to different cannabinoids during pregnancy may impact the offspring,” said Dr. Moore.



The research, which was funded by the National Institutes of Health, is <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jcem/advance-article/doi/10.1210/clinem/dgac101/6554396?login=false">published</a> by The Endocrine Society.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Prenatal exposure to cannabis linked to health risks later in life

A 2016 study found that 22 percent of pregnant women...

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/en/university/">University of Bonn</a>, some species of fish such as cichlids and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protruding-eyes-and-snout-improve-stingray-hydrodynamics/">stingrays</a> can perform simple additions and subtractions in the number range of one to five. Although it is not yet known what the animals need their mathematical abilities for, these findings provide strong evidence that fish may have more complex cognitive skills than scientists previously thought.



Researchers have long known that cichlids and stingrays can detect small quantities of objects precisely, and presumably without counting. For instance, they can be easily trained to reliably distinguish quantities of three from quantities of four. However, it appears that both species can even calculate.&nbsp;



“We trained the animals to perform simple additions and subtractions,” said study lead author Vera Schluessel, a professor of Zoology at Bonn. “In doing so, they had to increase or decrease an initial value by one.”



In order to do this, Professor Schluessel and her colleagues used a method that has previously been employed to test the mathematical abilities of bees. They presented the fish with a collection of geometric shapes, such as four squares. The color of the objects signified the arithmetical operation that needed to be performed: blue for addition, and yellow for subtraction.



After showing them the initial group of objects, such as four squares, the fish were presented with two new pictures – one with three and one with five squares. If they swam to the correct picture (for instance to the one with five squares in the “blue” arithmetic task), they were rewarded with food. Over a period of time, they learned to associate the blue color with an increase of one in the amount shown at the beginning, and the yellow number with a decrease of one. Moreover, the fish managed to reliably perform these operations even if the groups of objects were formed of different shapes, such as one triangle, two squares, and one circle.



“So the animals had to recognize the number of objects depicted and at the same time infer the calculation rule from their color,” said Professor Schluessel. “They had to keep both in working memory when the original picture was exchanged for the two result pictures. And they had to decide on the correct result afterwards. Overall, it's a feat that requires complex thinking skills.”



These results are highly surprising, especially considering the fact that fish do not have a neocortex (the part of the brain responsible for complex cognitive tasks in mammals), and confirm the fact that humans often tend to underestimate other animal species, such as fish, which “are quite far down in our favor – and of little concern when dying in the brutal practices of the commercial fishing industry,” according to Professor Schluessel.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-07552-2">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fish are able to perform simple mathematics

According to a new study led by the University of...

When famous dinosaur fossil hunter Barnum Brown discovered the first <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/were-there-three-distinct-species-of-tyrannosaurus-rex/">Tyrannosaurus Rex</a> fossils in 1900, he thought its arms were too short to belong to the skeleton. His colleague, Henry Fairfield Osborn, who first described and named this specimen, argued that the short arms may have been “pectoral claspers,” or limbs that hold females in place during copulation - which is analogous to how some sharks’ or rays’ pelvic claspers function.&nbsp;



Since then, the shortness of T.rex’s limbs remained a highly debated issue, with scientists proposing various hypotheses, including waving for mate attraction or social signaling, serving as an anchor to allow the dinosaur to get up from the ground, holding down prey, or stabbing enemies. Some paleontologists even claimed that the arms had no function at all.



In a new study, Kevin Padian – a distinguished emeritus professor of Integrative Biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and a curator at the <a href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/">UC Museum of Paleontology</a> – has proposed a new hypothesis, which he formulated after other paleontologists unearthed evidence that T.rex often hunted in packs, rather than singly, as depicted in many pictures and dioramas.



“Several important quarry sites unearthed in the past 20 years preserve adult and juvenile tyrannosaurs together,” Professor Padian said. “We can’t really assume that they lived together or even died together. We only know that they were buried together. But when you find several sites with the same animals, that’s a stronger signal. And the possibility, which other researchers have already raised, is that they were hunting in groups.”&nbsp;



According to Padian, T.rex’s arms might have shrank in length over several generations in order to prevent accidental or intentional amputation when a pack of T.rexes converged on a carcass with their huge heads and massive, bone-crushing teeth.



“What if several adult tyrannosaurs converged on a carcass? You have a bunch of massive skulls, with incredibly powerful jaws and teeth, ripping and chomping down flesh and bone right next to you. What if your friend there thinks you’re getting a little too close? They might warn you away by severing your arm,” explained Professor Padian.



&nbsp;“Bite wounds on the skull and other parts of the skeleton are well known in tyrannosaurs and other carnivorous dinosaurs. If fewer bite marks were found on the reduced limbs, it could be a sign that reduction worked,” he added.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://app.pan.pl/article/item/app009212021.html">Acta Paleontologica Polonica</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why are Tyrannosaurus Rex’s arms so short?

When famous dinosaur fossil hunter Barnum Brown discovered the first...

In 2014 Robert Dudley, a professor of Integrative Biology at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a> wrote a famous book proposing the so-called “drunken monkey” hypothesis of how humans’ attraction to alcohol emerged and evolved. According to Dudley, our love of alcohol arose millions of years ago, when our ape and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monkey-sperm-cells-could-treat-human-infertility/">monkey</a> ancestors discovered that the scent of alcohol led them to ripe, fermenting, and highly nutritious fruits. A new study, in which Professor Dudley collaborated with primatologists from <a href="https://www.csun.edu/">California State University, Northridge</a> (CSUN), provides further evidence that this hypothesis may be true.&nbsp;



The researchers collected fruit eaten and discarded by black-handed spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi) in Panama and found that the alcohol concentration in the fruit was typically between one and two percent by volume – a by-product of natural fermentation caused by yeasts that consume the sugars from ripening fruits. Moreover, the scientists also collected urine from these free-ranging monkeys and discovered that it contained secondary metabolites of alcohol, suggesting that the animals were actually using the alcohol for energy.



“For the first time, we have been able to show, without a shadow of a doubt, that wild primates, with no human interference, consume fruit-containing ethanol,” said study lead author Christina Campbell, a professor of Anthropology at CSUN. “This is just one study, and more need to be done, but it looks like there may be some truth to that ‘drunken monkey’ hypothesis - that the proclivity of humans to consume alcohol stems from a deep-rooted affinity of frugivorous (fruit-eating) primates for naturally-occurring ethanol within ripe fruit.”



“The study is a direct test of the drunken monkey hypothesis,” added Professor Dudley. “Part one, there is ethanol in the food they're eating, and they're eating a lot of fruit. Then, part two, they're actually metabolizing alcohol - secondary metabolites, ethyl glucuronide, and ethyl sulfate are coming out in the urine. What we don't know is how much of it they're eating and what the effects are behaviorally and physiologically. But it's confirmatory.”



According to Dudley and his colleagues, the monkeys consume fermented fruits for the calories, and probably do not feel much the inebriating effects of alcohol that humans appreciate. This need for highly caloric intake may similarly have influenced human ancestors’ decisions in choosing which fruits to eat. This idea that humans’ natural affinity for alcohol is inherited from our primate ancestors could help society better understand and deal with the adverse consequences of alcohol abuse.



“Excessive consumption of alcohol, as with diabetes and obesity, can then be viewed conceptually as a disease of nutritional excess,” concluded Campbell.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.211729">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans may have inherited a love of alcohol from monkeys

In 2014 Robert Dudley, a professor of Integrative Biology at...

Metasequoia,Tree-lined,Road,In,Shiga,Prefecture

Conditions are changing for street trees and other vegetation in urban areas. Increased coverage by impermeable surfaces reduces the infiltration of rainwater into the soil, while urban demands on water resources increase. In addition, global warming may bring raised <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soaring-temperatures-in-antarctica-have-scientists-in-shock/">temperatures</a> and decreased annual precipitation, both of which can prove inhospitable for the growth of urban vegetation.



Street trees and other urban vegetation make many important contributions to urban life, and are a welcome sight in cities. They help to mitigate heat islands, can help reduce air and ground temperatures through shading and evapotranspiration, and contribute to the mental and psychological wellbeing of inhabitants. Yet tree cover is decreasing in many cities due to environmental factors and stressors such as pollution.



Researchers from Flinders University and the University of South Australia have been involved in assessing the benefits of different water sensitive urban designs (WSUD) that could be employed to improve conditions for street trees and other vegetation. In particular, a study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2022.783905">Frontiers in Climate</a>, shows how the use of a stormwater harvesting device, the TREENET Inlet, has helped relieve water stress for trees in an area of Adelaide, Australia, over the past five years.



“Increased land surface sealing due to urbanization and building homes and infrastructure has decreased rainfall infiltration to the soil, decreased vegetation cover and increased demand on mains water resources,” said lead researcher Xanthia Gleeson.



“As a result, city water management projects using stormwater harvesting and infiltration are increasingly combined with urban greening to support adaptation and resilience to the changing climate."



Urban areas often have to get rid of stormwater discharge which may be destructive to ecosystems and present risks to communities living downstream. The TREENET Inlet system intercepts stormwater runoff from roads and soaks it into the soil through a porous well around street trees. The system includes curbside inlets that are designed to deliver passive irrigation to street trees to decrease water stress during summer, to improve tree health, and to enhance urban cooling.&nbsp;



The current study aimed to test whether the TREENET Inlets increase water availability for street trees, and improve tree leaf gas exchange and growth during the dry season. The study was conducted in a part of suburban Adelaide where the local government authority had installed curbside inlets in a 17.5 ha stormwater sub-catchment area. These inlets were linked to “leaky wells” in the root zones of white cedar (Melia azedarach) trees, with each leaky well able to contain around 130 liters of water. In previous research, TREENET Inlets had been found to intercept between 1.8 and 4.5 kiloliters of stormwater in a year.



White cedar trees of around 60 years of age were present in the study area, and saplings of the same species had been planted there in 2015 by the local authority. Trees just outside the catchment area did not have inlets and leaky wells in their root zones. The researchers investigated mature tree water use, sapling leaf gas exchange rates and sapling growth in trees with and without stormwater inlets.



The results of the research showed that stormwater harvesting and infiltration by TREENET Inlets provides significant benefit to white cedar trees growing in a suburban street. Mature trees transpired 17 percent more water, on average, for more than a year, and 21 percent more during dry seasons. The stormwater inlets provide 20 percent more water for cedar tree transpiration in summer.



Trees that transpire more water help mitigate heat islands and keep both the atmosphere and ground cooler in the region of the trees. The authors calculate that a mature white cedar tree can transpire 200 liters of water per day which, considering water’s latent heat of vaporization, transfers ~500 MJ of heat energy per day. This is equivalent to running a 12 KW evaporative air conditioner for 12 h per day.



The saplings with stormwater inlets grew 65 percent more in height and 60 percent more in diameter at breast height over a three-year period than saplings without stormwater harvesting. This supports the researchers’ finding that saplings with access to stormwater showed 106 percent greater stomatal conductance and up to 169 percent higher photosynthesis rate in dry seasons.



“It’s clear this passive irrigation directly into street tree root zones greatly benefits mature trees,” said study lead author Professor Huade Guan from the National Centre for Groundwater Research and Training.



“It makes sense because increased stormwater discharge presents risks to marine and other ecosystems, and infiltration in-situ is a low-cost and sustainable alternative."



“Quick urban drainage exacerbates the heat island effects which is raising the stakes on the health and lifestyle risks of extreme climate events under climate change. We need to do more to mitigate the problems as we face more extreme climate events, with summer maximum temperatures likely to reach 50oC by 2050."



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Stormwater drainage system helps keep street trees hydrated

Conditions are changing for street trees and other vegetation in...

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-022-00911-8">Nature Geoscience</a> has found that tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-tree-species-remain-undiscovered/">tree</a> growth is driven by climate variability during the dry seasons. By analyzing tropical and subtropical tree-ring data – a reliable indicator of tree growth – a team of researchers led the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/">University of Arizona</a> in the US and the <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en/wageningen-university.htm">Wageningen University &amp; Research</a> (WUR) in the Netherlands has discovered that, when the dry-season season is warmer and drier than normal, the growth of tropical trees is highly reduced, suggesting that climate change may increase the sensitivity of tropical trees to climatic fluctuations.



“These (tropical) tree rings contain a wealth of information on the growth history of trees,” said study lead author Pieter Zuidema, a professor of Forest Ecology and Forest Management at WUR. “In this study, we exploit that potential. For the first time, we get a pantropical picture of how tropical tree growth reacts to climate fluctuations.”



By analyzing over 14,000 tree-ring data series from 350 locations across 30 tropical and sub-tropical countries, Professor Zuidema and his colleagues were surprised to find that, during the dry season, climate appeared to have a much stronger effect on tree growth than during the wet season.



“We know that photosynthesis and wood production of tropical trees generally peak during the wet season,” said study co-author Valerie Trouet, a dendroclimatologist at the University of Arizona.&nbsp;



“So, why do year-to-year fluctuations in trunk growth depend on the dry season? That surprised and puzzled us. Our explanation is that water is available for a longer period of time during years with wetter or cooler dry seasons. Put simply, the growing season is longer. This then leads to more trunk growth.”



These findings could help explain the large fluctuations in carbon uptake by tropical vegetation worldwide, showing that, during hotter or drier years, tropical vegetation grows less and thus takes up less carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Finally, the study suggests that slower growth may increase the risk of tree death, which would then become sources of carbon dioxide rather than carbon sinks.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate variability drives tropical tree growth during dry season

A new study published in the journal Nature Geoscience has...

The western United States is facing a heightened risk of heavy rains in areas that were recently scarred by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-can-increase-fires-in-tropical-peatlands/">wildfires</a>, new research warns. Heavy rainfall on burned areas can have devastating impacts, including debris flows, mudslides, and flash floods.



<ul><li>In 2018, debris flows in Montecito, California, caused by a brief and intense rainfall over an area that had burned a month earlier, left 23 people dead and widespread property damage.&nbsp;</li><li>Last year, torrential rains in Colorado’s Glenwood Canyon triggered a massive mudslide in a recently burned area, stranding more than 100 people and closing a portion of the canyon for weeks.&nbsp;</li></ul>



For this study, the research team focused on three regions - Colorado along with California and the Pacific Northwest. More than 90 percent of extreme fire events in these regions will be followed by at least three extreme rainfalls within five years.



This increased frequency came as a surprise for the research team. “Clearly we need to understand the risks better, as this creates a major threat to people and infrastructure," said study co-author Danielle Touma.



By the end of the century, there will be a doubling or more of weather conditions that lead to the risk of extreme wildfires throughout much of the West. Some regions will experience elevated extreme wildfire risk within the next few decades.&nbsp;



The researchers looked at the number of cases in which extreme rainfall is likely to fall on the same region after an extreme wildfire. They found that more than half of extreme wildfire events will be followed within a year by an extreme rainfall event across much of the West. In the Pacific Northwest, virtually all extreme wildfires will be followed within five years by extreme rainfall.&nbsp;



Once every three years, drenching rains in western Colorado or much of the Pacific Northwest may be expected just three months after extreme wildfires - a scenario that was virtually unheard of in recent decades.



Climate change is altering the seasonality of these events. The study found more extreme rains occurring in the early fall in Colorado and the Pacific Northwest, close to the peak fire season of May to September.



“The gap between fire and rainfall season is becoming shorter,” said Touma. “One season of disasters is running into another.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heavy rainfall poses extreme risks in the Western US

The western United States is facing a heightened risk of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.



That solace came through H.G. Wells' The Time Machine. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.



In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.



Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."



"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."



In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.



This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



His work, published in respected journals including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.



Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's This American Life</a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's Today Show</a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.



There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.



The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.



Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."



His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.



More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.







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Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

[sendtonews key="iuA5mpp3jv-1641775-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes why experts are studying zebrafish to gain a better understanding of how the immune system responds to injury. Zebrafish have the ability to repair and regenerate organs.



“Organ regeneration offers an exciting opportunity for studying the immune system and to inquire why some species can regenerate organs like the heart or missing limbs while others like humans cannot,” explained Dr. Tatjana Piotrowski.



Zebrafish sensory organ hair cells are an ideal system to investigate the pathways and cell types involved in regeneration since they are easily destroyed with antibiotics and begin regenerating within five hours. This enabled the researchers to identify the exact timing and genetic programs for each anti-inflammatory macrophage activation state.&nbsp;



“Our hypothesis is that human macrophages do not receive the proper chemical activation 'cocktail' to instruct pro-regenerative processes,” said Dr. Nicolas Denans. “Identifying the molecular recipe of macrophage activation in zebrafish may one day enable us to design regenerative immunotherapies in humans.”&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“The new evidence is a valuable resource for comparative studies on the genetic programs involved in macrophage-mediated repair and regeneration. In other words, different types of injuries may induce different kinds of inflammatory responses. We want to decipher whether this 'language' is universal or if there are a variety of dialects."



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How the immune system responds to injury

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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