Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S.<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-surface-slicks-create-superhighway-for-fish/"> Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Acaena exigua is an extinct species of flowering plant in the rose family known by the common name liliwai. It was endemic to Hawaii, where it was known from Kauaʻi and west Maui. It had not been seen or collected since 1957 and was feared extinct until 1997, when one plant was discovered in a remote montane bog on <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=maui&amp;cvid=11f593b142284a109c4b71b63cd85874&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Maui</a>. The plant died in 2000, and the species is now considered extinct.Acaena exigua A. Gray var. subtusstrigulosa Bitter: Classification. Click on a scientific name below to expand it in the PLANTS Classification Report. Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta

Acaena exigua

Acaena exigua NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation...

Alopecurus aequalis var. sonomensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too.

NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.Alopecurus aequalis is a common species of <a title="Poaceae" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poaceae">grass</a> known as shortawn foxtail or orange foxtail.It is native to much of the temperate Northern Hemisphere from Eurasia to North America, where it can be found in many types of habitat. Alopecurus aequalis var. sonomensis. Sonoma shortawn foxtail. Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a completed plant list of that location.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/perennial-vegetables-to-grow-in-north-america/">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Alopecurus aequalis var. sonomensis

Alopecurus aequalis var. sonomensis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe...

Amaranthus brownii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/what-is-the-african-penguin-why-is-it-endangered/">endangered species,</a> but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=43301dd515c748d8ad14055801b02e2c&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Amaranthus brownii was an annual herb in the family Amaranthaceae. The plant was found only on the small island of Nihoa in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, growing on rocky outcrops at altitudes of 120–215 m. It was one of nine species of Amaranthus in the Hawaiian Islands, as well as the only endemic Hawaiian species of the genus. It is now considered extinct.Brown's amaranth Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Amaranthus brownii

Amaranthus brownii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Amaranthus pumilus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

The seaside amaranth once ranged widely from South Carolina to Massachusetts. It was first identified in New Jersey, but disappeared in that state by 1913. It is now gone from two thirds of its original range.This plant has reappeared on some areas where it was formerly <a title="Local extinction" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_extinction">extirpated</a> by habitat loss and recreational activities.Amaranthus pumilus, the seaside amaranth or seabeach amaranth, is a <a title="Species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species">species</a> of <a title="Amaranth" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amaranth">amaranth</a>. This annual plant is now a threatened species, although it was formerly scattered along the eastern coast of the United States, its native range.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Amaranthus pumilus

Amaranthus pumilus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ambrosia cheiranthifolia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/observing-birds-in-nature-can-help-protect-them-in-captivity/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Ambrosia cheiranthifolia is a rare species of flowering plant known by the common names South Texas ambrosia and Rio Grande ragweed. It is native to the coast of South Texas and the Mexican states of Tamaulipas and Coahuila. It occurs in coastal prairie, grassland, and mesquite shrubland habitat. It has declined because its native habitat has been cleared for development, with remaining open savanna invaded by non-native grasses such as buffelgrass. Today there are perhaps 20 populations remaining, but some of these may have very few genetic individuals because the species is clonal, with many cloned plants attached by one rhizome. It is not certain that the plant still exists in Mexico. This is a federally listed endangered species of the United States.

Ambrosia cheiranthifolia

Ambrosia cheiranthifolia NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Ambrosia pumila NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/intense-wildfires-in-manitoba-canada/">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north%20america&amp;qs=n&amp;form=QBRE&amp;sp=-1&amp;pq=&amp;sc=0-0&amp;sk=&amp;cvid=2A486C7EEB7F4DC9A48B1971A274D39A">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers (9,540,000 square miles), about 16.5% of the Earth's land area and about 4.8% of its total surface. North America is the third-largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa,

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Ambrosia pumila

Ambrosia pumila NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Amorpha crenulata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Amorpha crenulata ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Amorpha is a genus of plants in the pea family, Fabaceae. All the species are native to North America, from southern Canada, most of the United States, and northern <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=mexico&amp;cvid=0f7d70d300f04dc18b0844e1d5b25ab1&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Mexico.</a> They are commonly known as false indigo. The name Amorpha means "deformed" or "without form" in Greek and was given because flowers of this genus only have one petal, unlike the usual "pea-shaped" flowers of the Faboideae subfamily. Amorpha is missing the wing and keel petals.Rank Scientific Name and Common Name; Kingdom: Plantae – Plants Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants Superdivision: Spermatophyta

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Amorpha crenulata

Amorpha crenulata NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Amphianthus pusillus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=canada&amp;cvid=1b4627e41b1a4979b84dbf640530412a&amp;aqs=edge.0.69i59j69i60l4.687j0j9&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Canada</a>. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/the-great-lakes-of-north-america/">North America</a> and the world. North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be described as the northern subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean. Because it is on the North American Tectonic Plate, Greenland is included as part of North America geographically. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Amphianthus pusillus

Amphianthus pusillus NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Amsinckia grandiflora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network. It is still very much endangered.

Amsinckia grandiflora ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/fungi-characteristics-and-function/">fungi</a>, and microbes of North America and the world.Amsinckia grandiflora is a species of fiddleneck known by the common name large-flowered fiddleneck. This is a wildflower endemic to California and considered a Critically endangered species on the state and national level.(Amsinckia grandiflora) Large-flowered fiddleneck is a California endangered plant species, which means that killing or possessing the plant is prohibited by the California Endangered Species Act (CESA).Large-flowered fiddleneck is also listed as endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act and critical habitat has been designated for the species.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=c2aaa8146a2347dc836abf18a5e53d54&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Amsinckia grandiflora

Amsinckia grandiflora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Amsonia kearneyana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/the-fall-rhapsody-in-ottawa/">Canada.</a> NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=c7d763cdc9244ceebcdbf99ab9aaeb61&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Amsonia kearneyana is a rare species of flowering plant in the dogbane family known by the common name Kearney's bluestar. It is native to Arizona, where there is only one native population in the Baboquivari Mountains of Pima County. There may also be a population just south of the border in Sonora, Mexico. The plant was federally listed as an endangered species in 1989. At that time the global population of the plant was made up of eight individuals in a riparian canyon. Since that time the plant has been manually propagated in an attempt to increase its numbers. Threats to the tiny native population include habitat destruction from livestock

Amsonia kearneyana

Amsonia kearneyana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Apios priceana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=d174e18eaccc45be89de96ae62801d49&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.Apios priceana is a Federally Threatened native vine with a distribution in only two dozen counties, centered around central Tennessee. Apios priceana, the much rarer cousin of our native Apios americana, forms a 10' tall, well-behaved climbing bean, topped from June through August (NC) with attractive clusters of fragrant, light lavender flowers. The flowers, pollinated by both.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Apios priceana is a rare species of flowering plant in the legume family known by the common names Price's potato-bean, Price's groundnut, and traveler's delight. It is a climbing yellow-green vine in the growing from a stout, potato -like tuber. It is native to the U.S. states of Alabama, Mississippi, Kentucky, and Tennessee.

Apios priceana

Apios priceana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Arabis georgiana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.Arabis georgiana is most closely related to A. pycnocarpa, from which it is easily distinguished by having narrower fruits, longer petals, and subsessile cruciform or 3-rayed trichomes on abaxial surfaces of basal leaves. It is known only in Alabama from Bibb and Elmore counties and in Georgia from Stewart County.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video. Arabis georgiana Harper – Georgia rockcress Subordinate Taxa. This <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=plants&amp;cvid=bd291d078ee4476faca87becd12d3c4e&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">plant</a> has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.

Arabis georgiana

Arabis georgiana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Arabis hoffmannii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/perennial-vegetables-to-grow-in-north-america/">North America</a> and the world.Boechera hoffmannii is a rare species of flowering plant in the family Brassicaceae known by the common name Hoffmann's rockcress. It is endemic to the Channel Islands of California, where it is known from only three or four populations on two of the eight islands. A 2005 report estimated a remaining <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=global&amp;cvid=f45e143ad7684caeac58049c674b4b54&amp;pglt=43&amp;FORM=ANNTA1&amp;PC=HCTS">global</a> population of 244 individual plants. It is a federally listed endangered species.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Hoffmann's rockcress Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists.

Arabis hoffmannii

Arabis hoffmannii NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Arabis macdonaldiana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. Arabis macdonaldiana is a species of flowering plant in the mustard family known by the common name MacDonald's rockcress. It is native to northern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-rainy-season-has-been-pushed-forward-by-a-month/">California</a> and Oregon, where it grows on newly exposed, barren serpentine soils in openings in temperate coniferous forest habitat. It is a rare and endangered plant known from several sites in California and approximately two occurrences in Oregon, where it is threatened mainly by mining, particularly of nickel, which is one of several metals plentiful in the serpentine. On September 29, 1978, this was the second plant to be federally listed as an endangered species.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Arabis macdonaldiana

Arabis macdonaldiana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Arabis perstellata. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

Braun's rock-cress, Arabis perstellata, a perennial member of the mustard family (Brassicaceae or Cruciferae), is comprised of small rock cress and large rock cress subspecies that occupy distinct geographic areas in Kentucky and Tennessee, respectively. E. L. Braun described this taxon in 1940 from plants collected on wooded hillsides along Elkhorn Creek in Franklin County, Kentucky, distinguishing it from similar species in the area. Current taxonomy recognizes his distinction between A. shortii and A. …

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world. This rockcress is a <a title="Perennial plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_plant">perennial</a> <a title="Herbaceous plant" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous_plant">herb</a> with decumbent stems reaching 80 centimeters in length. The stems spread out horizontally, and often droop over the side of any structure the plant may be growing on, such as a rock or cliffside. The leaves are arranged in a basal rosette with some alternately arranged along the stem. The stems and leaves are gray-green in color due to a coating of whitish star-shaped hairs. The <a title="Inflorescence" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflorescence">inflorescence</a> is a <a title="Raceme" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raceme">raceme</a> of flowers with four white or lavender petals each a few millimeters long. The fruit is a hairy <a title="Silique" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silique">silique</a> 1.5 to 2 centimeters in length which contains tiny reddish seeds.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Arabis perstellata

Arabis perstellata. NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Arabis serotina NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/plants-cannot-keep-up-with-rising-co2-levels/">plants</a> and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- Arabis serotina ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.is a biennial herb in the mustard family (Brassicaceae). In its characteristic nonreproductive stage, A. serotina has a subtle basal rosette of lobed leaves.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=fish&amp;cvid=c2aaa8146a2347dc836abf18a5e53d54&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">Fish</a> and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.shale barren rockcress Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status.

Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed by the U.S. federal government or a state. Common names are from state and federal lists. Click on a place name to get a complete protected plant list for that location.Visit the U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service Species Profile link below for links to listing and other USFWS documents. Listed Endangered 1989.

Arabis serotina

Arabis serotina NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Arctomecon humilis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=plants&amp;cvid=9649cdbfadf3481d89dc7bd9c391c0a5&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">plants</a>, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of North America and the world.

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.Arctomecon humilis is a rare species of poppy called bearclaw poppy or dwarf bearclaw-poppy. It is endemic to Washington County, Utah, in the United States of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/american-lobsters-face-an-uncertain-fate/">America</a>. It is a federally listed endangered species limited to barren, heavily gypsiferous soils in the immediate vicinity of St. George, Utah. Only a half-dozen populations are known, several of which are adjacent to or even within the urbanized area.

Arctomecon humilis) is the rarest — and perhaps most remarkable — species, due to its profusion of delicate white flowers and unique habitat. In many ways, the dwarf bear-poppy is a poster child for rare plant conservation.

Arctomecon humilis

Arctomecon humilis NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Arctostaphylos confertiflora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=plants&amp;cvid=de7c53bb5d9144b6b7895f48852789fb&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">plants</a>, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and animals too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/perennial-vegetables-to-grow-in-north-america/">North America</a> and the world.Arctostaphylos confertiflora is a rare species of manzanita known by the common name Santa Rosa Island Manzanita. This shrub is endemic to California, where it grows on the sandstone bluffs of Santa Rosa Island in the Channel Islands. This manzanita is listed as an endangered species by the United States Government.Arctostaphylos confertiflora Eastw. – Santa Rosa Island manzanita Subordinate Taxa. This plant has no children Legal Status. Threatened and Endangered Information: This plant is listed and is endangered still. The wildlife services shows the image above and the common area it usually is found

FWS Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.

Arctostaphylos confertiflora

Arctostaphylos confertiflora NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Arctostaphylos franciscana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50,000 plants, animals and ecological communtities of the U.S and Canada. NatureServe Explorer provides in-depth information on rare and endangered species, but includes common plants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changing-ocean-soundscapes-impact-animals-worldwide/">animals</a> too. NatureServe Explorer is a product of NatureServe in collaboration with the Natural Heritage Network.

ITIS Reports -- ITIS (the Integrated Taxonomic Information System) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes of <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=north+america&amp;cvid=7a65b841fbc34f84aa609f7e566ec14e&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">North America</a> and the world.

FWS Arctostaphylos franciscana Digital Media Library -- The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's National Digital Library is a searchable collection of selected images, historical artifacts, audio clips, publications, and video.
<ul>
 	<li>A. h. franciscana - Franciscan manzanita - It was named by <a title="Alice Eastwood" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Eastwood">Alice Eastwood</a> and is native to the city of <a title="San Francisco" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco">San Francisco</a>. It was thought to be extinct in the wild until one specimen was discovered in 2009.Less than a month later, <a class="mw-redirect" title="Caltrans" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caltrans">Caltrans</a> transplanted this specimen to make way for the <a class="mw-redirect" title="Doyle Drive Replacement Project" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doyle_Drive_Replacement_Project">Doyle Drive Replacement Project</a>. The <a class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Fish_and_Wildlife_Service">U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service</a> designated the Franciscan manzanita as an endangered species on October 5, 2012. The <a title="National Park Service" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service">National Park Service</a> and <a title="Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Gate_National_Parks_Conservancy">Golden Gate National Parks Conservancy</a> are attempting to cross-pollinate the preserved specimen in order to reintroduce the subspecies in the wild.</li>
 	<li>A. h. hearstiorum - Hearst's manzanita - native to <a title="San Luis Obispo County, California" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Luis_Obispo_County,_California">San Luis Obispo County</a></li>
 	<li>A. h. hookeri - grows in the <a title="Santa Cruz Mountains" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Mountains">Santa Cruz Mountains</a> and nearby</li>
 	<li>A. h. montana - Mt. Tamalpais manzanita - native to <a title="Mount Tamalpais" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Tamalpais">Mount Tamalpais</a></li>
 	<li>A. h. ravenii - Presidio manzanita - one single plant and a few clones exist at the <a title="Presidio of San Francisco" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidio_of_San_Francisco">Presidio of San Francisco</a>. Federally listed as an <a title="Endangered species" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species">endangered species</a> of the United States.</li>
</ul>

Arctostaphylos franciscana

Arctostaphylos franciscana NatureServe Explorer Species Reports -- NatureServe Explorer is...

Symbiotic relationships are everywhere in nature. Fungi enhance water and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/water-quality-threatened-by-nutrient-pollution-in-40-u-s-states/">nutrient</a> absorption for plants by feeding on their roots. Ants find food and shelter in tree structures, while insects defend the trees from being eaten. However, not all symbiotic relationships are created equal.&nbsp;



Some interactions are specific, where one host pairs off with only one other species. Others are general and flexible. Specific relationships have advantages, allowing the two species to reap mutual benefits and co-evolve. But this type of partnership can also come with a cost, where one partner exploits the other and takes more than it offers in return.



To investigate the evolutionary dynamics of specialization, researchers at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a> developed a model framework using game theory.



“Each interaction has very different dynamics,” said study senior author Erol Akçay. “Generalists may evolve to work better with more partners, specialists may be specializing to be more cooperative, and other specialists may be specializing to exploit better. Ours is the first study that gets at that dialectical nature of specialization, not just looking at specialization versus generalization.”



As an undergraduate student, Chris Carlson became interested in understanding why variations in generalism and specialism might persist.&nbsp;



Working with Akçay and Bryce Morsky, a model was developed that imagines the interactions of designated “hosts” with either general or specialized preferences and “symbionts” that provide and receive different benefits and costs from their interactions with various hosts.



The experts found that a cooperative partnering strategy, where both parties benefit, could persist in populations with one specialized host and a corresponding specialized symbiont. Depending on the benefits or payoffs, a generalist partnering strategy could also persist.



On the other hand, in partnerships where the host increased benefits while the symbiont reaped less, a more dynamic outcome arose. Different hosts and symbionts rise and fall in the population over time. Generalists were driven to extinction if the payoff was lower than that of being a specialist.&nbsp;



The researchers applied a spatial layer to their models to reflect that symbiotic relationships require that the two species involved encounter one another in space.



“Neighbors are going to be more likely to interact with neighbors, so who your neighbor is and how they interact can affect the outcome,” said Morsky



The team found that cooperative specialists could develop “patches” of dominance if they could move over short distances. If the payoff was high enough, generalists could persist around the periphery of these patches. If, however, hosts and symbionts could move over greater distances, just one host-symbiont pair could completely dominate a space.



“Let’s say you have a coral reef with different types of coral and different types of algae,” said Akçay. “If a host is a cooperative specialist, and the symbiont it specializes on gets fixed, the host does better, and therefore those hosts may expand. That creates specific spatial patterns that we were able to track.”



An overall takeaway is that cooperative specialization appears to be a valuable strategy, but it comes with risks. A host’s cooperating partner could go extinct, leaving the host without a symbiont.



The researchers hope their work lends insight into the variety of patterns of mutualisms that exist in nature and contribute to biodiversity.



“When people discuss specialization, this dualism is always in the background,” said Akçay. “This work helps bring it out and clarifies the tensions that exist between mutualisms.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/evolut/qpac056">Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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How do symbiotic relationships evolve between species?

Symbiotic relationships are everywhere in nature. Fungi enhance water and...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> has found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-trees-are-vital-to-forest-survival/">trees</a> living in conditions where carbon dioxide has been artificially elevated are likely to become more efficient in conserving water. The experts discovered that when trees are exposed to elevated levels of CO2, they increase their water use efficiency through higher carbon uptake. At the same time, the trees conserve water by adjusting the opening and closing of pores on their leaves (called “stomata”).&nbsp;



The findings will contribute to modeling and predicting plant behavior under the increased CO2 conditions that are expected to be the norm by mid-century.



Plants worldwide are characterized by a trade-off between carbon gain and water loss, as a result of their structure. While stomata open and close to allow plants to absorb CO2 for their growth, as the stomata open, water is leaving the plant through a process called “transpiration.” This means that plants must compromise between absorbing as much CO2 as possible while minimizing water loss.



The scientists analyzed data on long-term elevated CO2 experiments in trees over the past two decades, spanning 16 sites worldwide. The investigation revealed that the efficiency of water use in the trees’ leaves increased by 85 percent for a doubling of CO2 (the expected rise by 2050). Then, they used this data to compute the so-called “g1 number,” which expresses the water cost of carbon gain for each tree type, and discovered that this number did not in fact change under elevated CO2 conditions.



“The models we use to predict the responses of trees to future atmospheric CO2 levels still contain lots of uncertainties – and the behavior of stomata is one of these,” explained study lead author Anna Gardner, an expert in Tropical Tree Ecophysiology at Birmingham. 



“In elevated CO2 we might expect water consumption to reduce because stomata are taking in CO2 at a higher concentration so do not have to be open as long. But actually, we found the increased CO2 also caused an increase in photosynthesis – and this behavior was a stronger driver to increase water use efficiency. In effect, under higher CO2, the trees are getting more carbon gain for each ‘buck’ of water spent.”



“One reason trees are so important to ecosystems is because they store carbon – but water is also a valuable resource, so we need to find ways to accurately calculate the carbon cost of that water. All this data helps us build a more accurate picture of the likely behavior of these resources in the future,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.18618">New Phytologist</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Trees respond to rising CO2 levels by conserving water

A new study led by the University of Birmingham has...

View,Of,The,Skyscrapers,Of,Manhattan,Through,The,Trees,On

According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.isglobal.org/en">Barcelona Institute for Global Health</a> (ISGlobal), over four percent of deaths in cities during the summer months are caused by the formation of “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-the-best-option-to-reduce-the-urban-heat-island-effect/">urban heat islands</a>,” where cities experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas due to less vegetation, larger population density, and the presence of impermeable surfaces for buildings and roads, including asphalt. By analyzing data from 93 European cities (with a total of 57 million inhabitants), the experts determined that one third of these deaths could be prevented by reaching a tree cover of 30 percent.



Exposure to extreme heat has been associated with cardiorespiratory diseases, a higher number of hospital admissions, and premature deaths. While these problems are mainly caused by heatwaves, they also occur with moderately high temperatures in the summer. Due to the formation of urban heat islands, cities are especially vulnerable to higher temperatures, facing spikes in morbidity and mortality during summer worldwide.&nbsp;



“Predictions based on current emissions reveal that heat-related illness and death will become a bigger burden to our health services over the next decades,” warned study lead author Tamara Iungman, a biologist at ISGlobal.&nbsp;



The scientists found that, from June to August 2015, cities were on average 1.5C warmer than the surrounding countryside, a phenomenon leading to 6,700 premature deaths in the 93 cities that were examined (4.3 percent of total mortality during the summer months and 1.8 percent of year-round mortality). Cities with the highest excess heat-mortality rates were in Eastern and Southern Europe. However, projections revealed that one third of these deaths (2,644) could have been prevented by increasing tree cover by 30 percent.



These findings highlight the major benefit of planting more trees in cities, together with other interventions such as green roofs.&nbsp;



“Our results also show the need to preserve and maintain the trees that we already have because they are a valuable resource and it takes a long time to grow new trees. It is not only about increasing trees in the city, it is also about how they are distributed,” added study senior author Mark Nieuwenhuijsen, the director of the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.isglobal.org/urban-planning">Urban Planning, Environment and Health</a>&nbsp;Initiative at ISGlobal.&nbsp;



“Vulnerability to heat changes from city to city depending on several factors. Understanding the benefits of policies such as increasing tree cover can help inform action to reduce risks and prevent avoidable deaths, especially with climate change,” concluded co-author&nbsp;Antonio Gasparrini, a professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology at the London School of Hygiene &amp; Tropical Medicine (LSHTM).



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02585-5">The Lancet</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Increased tree cover could prevent heat-related deaths in cities

According to a new study led by the Barcelona Institute...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> has found that, under severe global warming scenarios, the inventory of trees used for timber in the continental United States may decline by up to 23 percent by the end of the century. The largest losses are expected to occur in two of the leading timber regions in the country, both located in the South. While these findings show relatively modest impacts on forest product prices, they suggest larger impacts in terms of carbon storage in U.S. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-forests-are-more-resilient-and-productive/">forests</a>.



“We already see some inventory decline at baseline in our analysis, but relative to that, you could lose, additionally, as much as 23 percent of the U.S. forest inventory,” said study lead author Justin Baker, an associate professor of Forestry and Environmental Resources at NC State. “That’s a pretty dramatic change in standing forests.”



The scientists used computer modeling to estimate how 94 tree species will grow under six climate change scenarios, while also considering the impact of two different economic scenarios on demand growth for forestry products.



“Many past studies show a pretty optimistic picture for forests under climate change because they see a big boost in forest growth from additional carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,” Baker explained. “The effect that carbon dioxide has on photosynthesis in some of those models tends to outweigh the losses you see from precipitation and temperature induced changes in forest productivity and tree mortality. We have a model that is specific to individual tree species, and that allows us to better understand how climate factors influence growth rates and mortality.”



The analysis revealed that in several regions trees would grow more slowly and die faster in higher temperatures, particularly in Southeast and South-Central U.S. These regions may see tree inventories shrink by as much as 40 percent by 2095 compared to a baseline scenario. However, the researchers projected gains in tree supplies in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Southwest regions, which will be driven by higher death rates of certain trees, leading to larger harvests initially, and followed by the growth of more heat-tolerant species (such as juniper trees). Overall, the total projected losses of U.S. tree inventory will likely range between three and 23 percent, with the value of lost carbon spiking up to $5.5 billion per year.



“We saw that the markets could be more resilient than the forests themselves. Your market effects may seem modest in terms of the effect it has on the consumers and producers, but those impacts are small compared to the carbon sequestration value that forests provide on an annual basis,” Baker warned.



“We don’t know a lot about how disturbance-related mortality or loss in tree productivity is going to bear out across the landscape as temperatures get warmer. We did our best to address a couple pieces of the puzzle with temperature and precipitation changes, and interactions between climate and market demand, but a lot more work needs to be done to get a good handle on climate change and forestry,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2022.102898">Forest Policy and Economics</a>. &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Forest inventory will be greatly reduced by climate change

A new study led by the North Carolina State University...

At a time when global warming is making many regions of our planet hotter and drier, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-deserts-breathe/">deserts</a> are relatively new biomes that have grown substantially over the past 30 million years, with vast arid areas like those covering much of North America emerging only during the past five to seven million years. Thus, a better understanding of how several species of plants have invaded these harsh environments and were able to survive could help predict how ecosystems will fare in a drier, hotter future.



According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>, plants that invaded deserts millions of years ago, such as rock daisies, had already developed adaptations to deal with heat and water stress before. These plants adapted while living on exposed rock outcroppings within older, moist areas or even tropical forests, which made it easier for them to invade expanding deserts.



“If you think about aridity only as a stimulus to plant evolution, then in many cases people could say these plants are survivors, they are adaptable, and they will be fine. They will take advantage of these new conditions, and they will thrive,” said study lead author Isaac Lichter-Marck, plant taxonomist, biogeographer, and evolutionary ecologist at UC Berkeley.



However, the history of rock daisies shows that, when deserts emerged, “plants that had the necessary preadaptations to take advantage of new conditions were the ones that thrived. Adding more aridification to the system doesn’t necessarily mean more rapid adaptive evolution will occur. There’s a limited source of lineages that can take advantage of new levels of aridity, and that is important for understanding the effect of climate change on biodiversity.”



By collecting and analyzing hundreds of rock daisy specimens from the deserts of Arizona, California, Texas, and Mexico, and comparing them to fossilized daisies, the scientists managed to develop a timeline of the evolution of these plants’ characteristics as they eventually invaded expanded deserts. The investigation revealed that most rock daisies – particularly the genus&nbsp;Laphamia, which was the first to move into deserts — had already adapted to the multiple stresses of heat, sun, aridity, and wind by growing on cliffs before invading deserts.



“This is a clear empirical demonstration of what was originally Axelrod’s hypothesis - of a desert plant group originating in dry microclimates prior to the widespread emergence of desert habitats. What this means is that the strategies for drought tolerance that are so characteristic of desert vegetation might not actually represent responses to the dry conditions found in deserts. Instead, they could be traits that evolved earlier in association with much older and more stable dry microclimates, such as rock outcrops in tropical settings,” Lichter-Marck concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2214729120">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: Isaac Lichter-Marck



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Can plants adapt to rapid warming and drought?

At a time when global warming is making many regions...

The UK’s 14 Overseas Territories – many of them small, remote islands like St. Helena – are home to a variety of plant and animal species found nowhere else in the world. This makes them highly vulnerable to biological invasions that could lead to the extinction of their endemic species and irrevocably change their unique ecosystems.



Now, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.ceh.ac.uk/">UK Center for Ecology &amp; Hydrology</a> (UKCEH) and <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/homepage/">Durham University</a>, together with communities on the Overseas Territories, has assessed thousands of potential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/managing-invasive-species-can-improve-climate-resilience/">invasive species</a> in order to estimate which are most likely to arrive and pose threats to the Territories within the next decade. Their findings could guide authorities, conservation ecologists, and the wider public to prevent these species from becoming established and causing ecological and economic damage.



“These Territories are exceptionally biodiverse. St Helena, for example, has over 400 invertebrates found nowhere else in world – it is simply unique. We hope that this study draws attention to these Overseas Territories and the inspiring people on them who are working so hard to protect their incredible wildlife and habitats,” said study senior author Helen Roy, an ecologist at UKCEH.



The analysis revealed that Gibraltar and St. Helena are threatened by biological invasion from the greatest number of species. While St. Helena is most at risk from invasion of plant species, the Falkland Islands and Tristan da Cunha are endangered by the most marine species. One of the species that could pose a threat to many of the Overseas Territories is the green mussel (Perna viridis), which can travel around the world on boats and ships, and form dense colonies in places where it establishes, outcompeting native species by reducing levels of phytoplankton. Other invasive species that pose a significant threat to many Territories include the little fire ant (Wasmannia auropunctata), the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus), and the mesquite tree (Prosopis juliflora).



“Preventing the introduction of invasive non-native species is key, because management of species that have established and spread is often extremely expensive and, in some cases, there are no options available. We hope that this list will help inform action, including supporting biosecurity activities, to safeguard the wildlife in these precious places,” Roy concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/conl.12928">Conservation Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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UK territories threatened by a variety of invasive species

The UK’s 14 Overseas Territories – many of them small,...

Plants let their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-colors-in-sunflowers-dont-only-attract-bees/">flowers</a> fade quickly for protection from detrimental microbes, according to a study led by experts at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en">Kyoto University</a>. Using field experiments and plant microbiome analyses, the researchers discovered that microbes growing on flowers can have a negative impact on fruit yields. As a defense mechanism, plants are quick to shed their flowers before the microbes increase in abundance.



"The results suggest that old flowers harbor microbial communities different from those at anthesis, and that the microbes abundant on old flowers negatively affect plant reproduction," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Although it has received little attention, antagonistic microbes that rapidly proliferate on the flowers may have affected the evolution of various flower characteristics such as flower volatiles and life span."



Previously, researchers have investigated the tradeoff between energy that plants spend on producing and maintaining their flowers. Since flowers serve as a reproductive structure, it seems that plants would benefit from keeping them longer.&nbsp;



In an earlier study, the Kyoto team had looked at the mystery of why plants invest their energy to produce fragile flowers that wither quickly, rather than investing a bit more energy to produce flowers that are more durable.



“Interestingly, flower lifespan is negatively correlated with temperature; the hotter the environment where they bloom, the shorter the period a plant retains them. The phenomenon has been known for a long time,” said study co-author Shoko Sakai.



“Then, at some point, I came up with the hypothesis that antagonistic microbes, such as bacteria and fungi growing on flowers after the flower bud opens, must be the driver that shortens the lifespan of a flower. I doubted that it was a coincidence that microbes grow faster in higher temperatures.”



The team conducted field experiments to determine what microbial communities appear on flowers that live longer. The experts transferred microbes from old flowers of wild ginger to other wild ginger plants with new flowers that had just opened.



The experimental plants ultimately produced fewer fruits, despite the fact that there were no visible signs of infection or disease. When the researchers analyzed the microbiomes of the plants, they found several groups of bacteria that were increasing with time.&nbsp;



“So far, flower characteristics have mostly been studied in the context of their interactions with pollinators," said Sakai. "Recent studies have raised the question whether we have overlooked the roles of microbes in the studies of floral characteristics. For example, flower volatiles - which are often regarded as a primary pollinator attractant - can also function to suppress antagonistic microbes."



"The impacts of microbes on plant reproductive ecology may be more deeply embedded in the evolution of angiosperms than we have considered."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://mbmg.pensoft.net/">Metabarcoding and Metagenomics</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants shed their flowers quickly for protection

Plants let their flowers fade quickly for protection from detrimental...

Party,Table,Setting,With,Various,Veggie,Snacks,,Top,Down,View

In order to produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-production-affects-earths-natural-processes/">food</a> for humanity, we have appropriated roughly 50 percent of all habitable land and 70 percent of the available fresh water. We harvest aquatic food from nearly every river, lake and ocean, pollute watersheds and coastal seas with excess nutrients and generate around 30 percent of all anthropogenic greenhouse gases. Like it or not, feeding humans puts enormous environmental pressure on our planet.&nbsp;



In past studies, researchers have attempted to calculate the environmental impact of producing various different types of foods. By considering such factors as greenhouse gasses emitted during production, or the extent of water pollution, they have made some headway in quantifying the environmental consequences of food production per pound or kilogram. However, with industrialized farming and complex supply chains, it is difficult to assess the true environmental pressures of our global food system.&nbsp;



“Everyone eats food, and more and more people are paying attention to the planetary consequences of what they eat,” said <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> marine ecologist&nbsp;<a href="https://bren.ucsb.edu/people/ben-halpern">Ben Halpern</a>. However, as the world’s population increases decisions will need to be made about how to reduce the environmental footprint of food production in order to keep it sustainable, and this will necessitate a more comprehensive understanding of the various types of impacts. This proves to be a gargantuan task as there are so many different types of foods, produced in various ways and leading to a range of environmental pressures depending on the location of production.&nbsp;



“The individual choice of eight billion people adds up,” said Halpern, “and we need to know the overall impact of&nbsp;total&nbsp;food production – not just per pound – especially when setting food policy.”



In a new study, Halpern and colleagues at UC Santa Barbara’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/">National Center for Ecological Analysis &amp; Synthesis (NCEAS)</a>&nbsp;have analyzed the greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater use, habitat disturbance and nutrient pollution (e.g., fertilizer runoff) generated by the production of 99 percent of all foods on Earth, including both aquatic and terrestrial foods. In addition, they combine these four pressures to map the estimated cumulative pressure, or ‘footprint,’ of food production globally, as well as in individual countries. Their research is published in the journal Nature Sustainability.



For Halpern, executive director at NCEAS and a professor at UCSB’s Bren School of Environmental Science &amp; Management, understanding the impacts of food production along with the local context of these impacts has been a longstanding interest. By taking detailed data about greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater use, habitat disturbance and nutrient pollution generated by 99 percent of total reported production of aquatic and terrestrial foods in 2017, and mapping those impacts at high resolution, the researchers were able to create a more nuanced geospatial picture of the pressures – the inputs, processes and outputs – of global food production.



It turns out that the impacts of food production vary between countries, depending on the farming methods used and on environmental conditions prevalent at each locality. This leads to the unexpected situation that five countries contribute almost half of all environmental pressures arising from food production; these are India, China, the United States, Brazil and Pakistan.



In addition, the large proportion of the environmental footprint arising from terrestrial food production is generated from agricultural activities that take place over only 10 percent of the Earth’s surface. This means that, when looking at the cumulative pressure per unit of food production (efficiency), there are enormous variations between countries and it is not correct to assume, as has been the case previously, that the environmental footprint of production for any one food is the same in all locations.&nbsp;



For example, thanks to technology that reduces greenhouse gases and increases yields, the United States – the world’s number one producer of soy – is more than twice as efficient as India (the fifth largest producer) at producing the crop, making American soy the more environmentally friendly choice.



“The environmental efficiency of producing a particular food type varies spatially, such that rankings of foods by efficiency differ sharply among countries, and this matters for guiding which foods we eat and from where,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://www.eemb.ucsb.edu/people/faculty/froehlich">Halley Froehlich</a>, assistant professor in environmental studies at UCSB and a co-author of the study.



The research also uncovers connections between land and sea that get missed when looking only at one or the other, and that result in significant environmental impacts. In some countries, raising pigs and chicken gives rise to an ocean footprint because they are fed meal made from marine fish such as herrings, anchovies and sardines. The converse is true for mariculture farms that make use of crop-based feeds and thus extend the environmental pressure caused by fish farms onto the land.



Assessing cumulative pressures can bring to light results that could not have been predicted by examining individual pressures alone. For instance, while raising cattle uses by far the most land for grazing, farming pigs produces a lot of pollution and uses more water. When comparing the two types of food production, the cumulative environmental pressures end up being slightly greater when raising pigs than when raising cattle. Measured by cumulative pressures, the five foods with the most severe environmental impacts are pigs, cows, rice, wheat and oil crops.



It is crucial to consider the cumulative effects on the environment of producing food to feed a growing global population. If we wish to reduce environmental degradation while still ensuring food security, we may need to rethink the way in which we produce food in general, say the researchers. In some cases, farming might need to improve efficiency; in other cases, consumers might need to change their food choices. Understanding the different environmental costs of food production in different countries will help to steer consumption towards lower-impact foods and ultimately to restructuring the food system such that we will be able to feed humanity in a sustainable manner.&nbsp;



“We need this comprehensive information to make more accurate decisions about what we eat,” said Halpern, who modified his own food choices based on the results of this study.



“I became a pescatarian years ago because of wanting to reduce the environmental footprint of what I eat,” he said. “But then I thought, I’m a scientist, I should really use science to inform my decisions about what I eat. That’s actually why I started this research project. And now that we have the results, I see that from an environmental perspective, chicken is actually better than some seafood. And so I’ve shifted my diet to start including chicken again, while eliminating some high-pressure seafoods like bottom-trawl caught cod and haddock. I am actually eating my words.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Our dietary choices have enormous environmental impacts

In order to produce food for humanity, we have appropriated...

Plants in the mint family are rich in chemical molecules that give distinctive scents and flavors to their leaves. The mint family (Lamiaceae) is the sixth largest family of flowering plants and includes many familiar species, apart from mint itself, such as basil, rosemary, peppermint, lavender, sage and coleus. The aromatic and flavorful compounds produced by these plants function to attract <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gardeners-can-make-small-changes-to-benefit-pollinators/">pollinators</a> and to deter herbivores, and they have been essential in driving the diversification of this large group of plants.



Researchers from <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> have been studying the great variety of metabolites found in mint plants for many years, and have recently focused on a group of molecules called terpenoids. These compounds are essential in protecting the plants from predators and pathogens, and are also common ingredients in green and sustainable agrochemicals, antioxidants, cosmetics and fragrances.&nbsp;



“People easily recognize members of the mint family for their specialized metabolites,” said Dr. James K. Billman, Jr. and Professor&nbsp;<a href="https://biomolecular.natsci.msu.edu/faculty/alphabetical-directory/bjoern-hamberger/">Björn Hamberger</a>. “Metabolites are an efficient way for plants to defend themselves because they can’t run away.”



Professor Hamberger worked previously with Robin Buell, a former MSU genomics researcher, who sequenced the genomes from several different species in the mint family. This collaboration with Buell’s team led graduate students Abigail Bryson and Emily Lanier to discover how several genomes of the mint family have evolved over the past 60 million to 70 million years and how their chemistries have emerged.&nbsp;



“Over millions of years, plants have adapted and evolved for their particular niches where they thrive, and that means that these chemistries are diverse and have clearly adjusted to their environment,” said Professor Hamberger. “So, we try to identify and discover pathways to these specialized metabolites that plants make.”



According to the researchers, this family of plants have diversified the natural characteristics of their metabolites throughout their evolution, leading to the great variety of different chemical compounds found in today’s members of the group. In order to understand the mechanisms by which such diversity has evolved, the researchers took an interdisciplinary approach and analyzed the genetic and chemical pathways involved in terpenoid biosynthesis in different species in the mint family.



Bryson identified the genomic framework of terpenoid biosynthesis, and Lanier analyzed the chemical pathways. Together, Lanier and Bryson discovered something highly unusual in the beautyberry (Callicarpa americana) genome from the mint family. It has a large biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC), which is a group of genes, located close together in the genome, that are involved in the same metabolic pathways. Additionally, Bryson and Lanier found variants of this BGC in six other species in the mint family.



“We are learning that the physical location of genes within the genome is important,” Bryson said. “It can drive evolution of specialized metabolic pathways in the plant, leading to a vast diversity of interesting natural plant compounds.”&nbsp;



The BGC cluster of the beautyberry plant contains genes that encode two distinct terpenoid pathways. The team found these terpenoids accumulate in various parts of the plant, such as the leaves and roots, and may play distinct roles in helping the plant to adapt to its environment.&nbsp;



“It’s the same base molecule, but each species is making its own version and modifying it in different ways to fit their survival needs,” Lanier said.&nbsp;



Professor Hamberger describes it like a recipe that everyone has a copy of and changes to suit their requirements and preferences.&nbsp;



The researchers hope that a better understanding of the ways in which these compounds have been modified by different plant species will lead to potential future applications that could include new medicines and pesticides. We already use some of the compounds as flavor additives, fragrances, and anti-herbivory agents.



Previous research has led to unique medical uses for mint plants. For example, Indian Coleus can be used as a natural treatment for glaucoma and Texas sage is a natural antimicrobial that is effective against tuberculosis. The new molecular adaptations that have been found in the current study open the door for future applications of natural plant products from the mint family.



“Our team has been excited about the opportunities within the mint family,” said Professor Hamberger. “Those mint enzymes, as in the American beautyberry plant, give us the ability to make plant-natural products in the lab, including – hopefully in the future – natural good-smelling mosquito repellants.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Plants in the mint family may help produce new medicines

Plants in the mint family are rich in chemical molecules...

Expanding global seaweed farming could address food security, biodiversity loss and climate change challenges. A new study from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/">University of Queensland</a> finds that seaweed offers a sustainable alternative to meet the world’s growing need for food and materials.



“Seaweed has great commercial and environmental potential as a nutritious food and a building block for commercial products including animal feed, plastics, fibres, diesel and ethanol,” said study lead author Scott Spillias.



“Our study found that expanding seaweed farming could help reduce demand for terrestrial crops and reduce global agricultural greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) by up to 2.6 billion tons of CO2-equivalent per year.”



The study mapped the potential of farming 34 commercially important seaweed species using the Global Biosphere Management Model. Environmental benefits of a range of scenarios were estimated based on land-use changes, GHG emissions, water and fertilizer use, and projected changes in species presence by 2050.



One scenario that substituted 10 percent of human diets with seaweed products could prevent the development of 110 million hectares of land for farming.&nbsp;



The researchers also identified the availability of millions of hectares of ocean where farming could be developed. These were mostly found within global exclusive economic zones - EEZ’s. EEZ’s are an area of the sea in which a sovereign state has rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources.



The largest share of suitable ocean for seaweed farming was found in the Indonesian EEZ, and the Australian EEZ showed the greatest potential and species diversity.&nbsp;



“The way I like to look at this is to think about ancestral versions of everyday crops - like corn and wheat - which were uninspiring, weedy things,” said Spillias.



“Through thousands of years of breeding we have developed the staple crops that underpin modern societies and seaweed could very well hold similar potential in the future.”



To avoid displacing agriculture problems from land to ocean, Professor Eve McDonald-Madden said farming seawood would have to be carried out with care.



“Our study points out what could be done to address some of the mounting problems of global sustainability facing us, but it can’t be implemented without exercising extreme caution."



This research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-01043-y">Nature Sustainability</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



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Seaweed farming could boost food security, yet preserve nature

Expanding global seaweed farming could address food security, biodiversity loss...

Wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-think-insects-will-become-a-sustainable-food-source/">insect</a> pollinators are critical to the formation of seeds and fruit in around 90 percent of flowering plant species, and 75 percent of crop species. Although bees are the best-documented of the insect pollinators, there are many other groups of insects that are also involved. These include flies, beetles, moths, butterflies, wasps and ants. The populations of these crucial organisms are in decline worldwide, mostly due to the activities of humans.&nbsp;



In response to this situation, the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation launched a campaign to encourage the public to create more favorable conditions for pollinators in their private gardens. The project, known as “Operation: Rädda bina” (“Operation: Save the bees”), ran between 2018 and 2021, and around 11,000 Swedes responded initially to the appeal. Researchers from <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a> have now evaluated the success of the measures undertaken by the citizen scientists in their own gardens.



People who responded to the campaign were asked to register pollinator-friendly interventions that they had carried out in their gardens and other green spaces. The campaign encouraged three different interventions: (i) establishing a flowering “garden meadow,” (ii) planting bee-friendly flowers in a garden, and (iii) setting up bee hotels. Those who registered an intervention then completed online questionnaires about their intervention and their perception of any changes in pollinator populations in their garden.&nbsp;



“We wanted to investigate measures that the public themselves chose to implement in their garden, and how these can be the most efficient," said study co-author Anna Persson.



Of the initial respondents, just over 3,200 completed the project. Of these, 809 established flowering meadows, 1,232 planted bee-friendly flowers in their gardens, and 1,210 established a bee hotel. Approximately 19 percent of meadows, 23 percent of plantings, and 20 percent of the bee hotels were situated in the 10 most populated cities/municipalities in Sweden.



When the citizen scientists had to assess the prevalence of pollinators in their gardens, after establishing their intervention, they were asked whether they saw “many,” “few,”,or “no” insects. Because this was rather a simple and subjective metric, the researchers also asked the respondents to count the exact number of pollinators they saw in the garden in a 10-minute period on a sunny day in July. This data was used to confirm the accuracy of the simpler abundance categories, namely many, few or none.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The results, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/frsc.2022.1099100">Frontiers in Sustainable Cities</a>, indicate that pollinators benefited most where flowering meadows were allowed to grow. This could be where a person decided not to mow a patch of grassland and let it rather grow tall with wild flowers, or where a meadow stood unused and untouched for several years. In both instances, the benefit was greater if the meadow was older and if there was a diversity of flowering species present.



People who planted bee-friendly flowers in their garden found the benefit for pollinators was greatest when the flowering plants were older and covered a large area. This is important, because people who initially record no benefit from their newly-planted flowers should not give up, but should continue with the knowledge that older, more established flower beds will bring the pollinators in time.&nbsp;



Bee hotels, in turn, tended to attract more inhabitants if they were located in flower-rich gardens, if they were older, and if the nest holes were no larger than one centimeter in diameter.



Anna Persson believes the results of the study are helpful when giving guidance to those who want to make their gardens attractive for pollinators.



“For example, we can show that it will pay off to create large and species-rich meadows and flower plantings, and that it is important not to give up after a few years, because the measures improve over time. This should be emphasized in future campaigns."



Persson also hopes that the results can inspire more people to adapt their own green space so that it becomes more favorable for insects. Gardens often cover about 30 percent of the land area in cities and towns, so garden owners, as a group, have the potential to contribute considerably to urban biodiversity.



The accuracy of citizen scientist accounts can sometimes be questioned, because the participants may have certain expectations about the results they will see.&nbsp;



“Our study could be affected by so-called ‘expectation bias,'" said Persson. “This means that people who have taken measures and created more species-rich gardens also expect to see more insects, and thus risk reporting too high a number.”



However, the researchers found that the actual counts of insects correlated well with what participants categorized as “many” or “few” insects. A total of 350 participants counted the insects they saw in their garden in a 10-minute period, and their responses helped to verify the accuracy of the dataset.



This study is particularly relevant since a third of Sweden’s bee species are currently considered to be endangered. The results show that steps taken by individual homeowners to make conditions in the garden more favorable to pollinators really do make a difference. This is encouraging, as pollinators are critical for functioning ecosystems and need all the help they can get at this stage.



“The situation for bees and other pollinators shows that measures to help them are important," said Karin Lexén, Secretary General of the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation. "It’s great that the campaign has attracted so much attention, and that citizen science can continue to contribute to new knowledge."



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Gardeners can make small changes to benefit pollinators

Wild insect pollinators are critical to the formation of seeds...

Endangered plants