Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

More than half of North American bat species teeter on the brink of extinction. This shocking reality was revealed in the North American Bat Conservation Alliance's (NABCA) 2023 report.



A companion study, co-authored by Bat Conservation International (BCI) scientists, involved more than 100 experts from Canada, the United States, and Mexico.



With such international cooperation, the research provides the most exhaustive assessment of our bat species, crafting a baseline to track future trends and initiate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-bat-appreciation-day-the-crucial-role-of-bats-in-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation actions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alarming-bat-extinction-trend">Alarming bat extinction trend</h2>



“It’s nothing short of alarming that over half of North America’s bat species are at serious risk of collapse and need urgent conservation action,” said Dr. Winifred Frick, Chief Scientist at BCI. 



“One of the clearest outcomes of this research is that many threats can only be addressed through international collaboration, since <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disappearance-of-bats-linked-to-a-rise-in-infant-deaths/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a> and the threats they face do not recognize political borders.”



According to Dr. Jeremy Coleman of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the State of the Bats study&nbsp;highlights the variety and severity of the threats that North American bats face on the landscape today.



“The results further emphasize the importance of robust collaborative international partnerships like the White-nose Syndrome Response Team and the North American Bat Conservation Alliance for managing complex wildlife conservation challenges," said Dr. Coleman. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extinction-threats-to-bats">Extinction threats to bats</h2>



The experts pointed out major impacts on the threatened bat species. These impacts range from climate change to wind energy production and diseases.



“This one-of-a-kind, multi-expert assessment is a novel and robust approach to optimizing conservation efforts across North America," said Dr. Rodrigo A. Medellín from the Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico. 



"The results of the State of the Bats initiative addresses a specific need expressed by the federal governments of Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Mexico looks forward to using these results to inform its own conservation efforts and improve its endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-can-ramp-up-their-heart-rate-to-900-beats-per-minute/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> lists.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-matter-of-immediate-concern">A matter of immediate concern</h2>



The study shows that over half of North American bat species face a moderate to very high risk of extinction in the next 15 years. The research also highlights that the populations of 90% of North American bat species have dwindled over the past 15 years.



This makes conservation action a matter of immediate concern for all three countries. Furthermore, about a quarter of North American bat species have transnational ranges, enhancing the need for international collaboration on conservation planning.



Climate change emerges as the top threat to North American bats. White-nose syndrome is a major threat too, with twelve species known to be susceptible.



“We tend to focus on the wildlife we know are at the greatest risk,” said Dr. Amanda Adams, Director of Research Coordination at <a href="https://www.batcon.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bat Conservation International</a>.



“But when we work to address the bigger picture, such as through habitat restoration projects, we end up helping more than just those species that are the most imperiled.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-forward">Moving forward</h2>



Ultimately, this research will guide conservation priorities to support the recovery of bat species in North America.



The study also highlights how international unity can address common threats, and marks areas of concern for biodiversity.



“International cooperation is essential to ensure effective conservation of bats in North America," said Charles Francis, manager of the Wildlife Monitoring Assessment for Canadian Wildlife Service.



"This collaborative study to evaluate the status of each species provides critical information to identify the species most in need of conservation measures."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-bats-from-extinction">Saving bats from extinction</h2>



Looking to the future, strategic steps must be taken to ensure the sustainable recovery of bat populations across North America. 



It is imperative to continue building and strengthening international alliances that prioritize data sharing, joint research endeavors, and synchronized conservation strategies. 



Research into innovative solutions, such as the integration of renewable energy technologies with wildlife conservation practices, holds promise for mitigating some of the adverse impacts associated with wind energy production. 



Also, promoting a societal shift toward greater environmental stewardship and awareness can create a supportive landscape for the myriad of species, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-type-of-parallel-evolution-found-in-island-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bats</a>, that underscore the health and functionality of our ecosystems. 



The commitment to protecting these vital creatures from extinction will yield far-reaching benefits for both biodiversity and humanity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nyas.15225" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</a>.



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53% of North American bats face extinction risk in 15 years

More than half of North American bat species teeter on...

A new study has explored the intriguing world of mice, including how they navigate social hierarchies and conflicts. 



The goal of the researchers, led by Joshua Neunuebel at the University of Delaware, was to understand how mice handle aggressive behavior from their peers.



And the best part is that they used machine learning to track mouse behavior. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mice-and-machine-learning">Mice and machine learning</h2>



If you're wondering how machine learning fits into this picture, let us walk you through it. Studying social interactions objectively can become quite a pickle. 



Enter machine learning -- our virtual Sherlock Holmes solving the mystery of mouse interactions.



The researchers watched the behavior of two male and two female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-africa-will-bomb-invasive-mice-eating-seabirds-alive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> over five hours. And guess what they discovered? 



In almost each group observed, one alpha-male was significantly more aggressive towards the second male.



Hold on, you might say, mice have social hierarchies too? Indeed, much like many other animals, mice have their social pecking order. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-hierarchies-among-mice">Social hierarchies among mice</h2>



Now the real question is, how did the male mice handle this aggression? 



The answer lies in the fantastic findings of our researchers, who analyzed over 3,000 altercations between the male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eco-friendly-pest-control-this-simple-cinnamon-trick-keeps-mice-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> using their machine learning model.



The study found that oftentimes, the male mouse who faced aggression would scamper off to a female mouse to deescalate the situation. 



This move could be seen as a 'bait-and-switch' tactic, where the alpha-male would follow the other male, only to end up interacting with the female mouse.



While some tactics might offer a momentary respite from aggression, they often led to a full-blown fight later on. 



However, the 'bait-and-switch' approach usually resulted in a much peaceful scenario -- the mice usually ended up farther apart, with the alpha-male interacting with the female mouse.



Now, while this may seem like an excellent way for the victims to defuse a heated situation, there's a catch -- it might cost them their quality time with the female mice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-predictions">Complex predictions</h2>



The utilization of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-so-dim-witted-pigeons-have-their-own-version-of-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> in this study transcends simple observation, going into complex calculations and predictions about mouse behavior.



By <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-computing-and-machine-learning-enhance-airplane-performance-and-safety/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">applying algorithms</a> to parse through the data collected from over 3,000 encounters, researchers could identify patterns and predict potential future interactions.



The machine learning model proved instrumental in differentiating between mere skirmishes and those interactions that had the potential to escalate into more serious conflicts. 



As such, this study not only increases our understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mice-make-it-a-priority-to-find-the-best-escape-route/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mouse behavior</a> but also showcases the power of machine learning in behavioral science research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-behavior-correlation">Human behavior correlation</h2>



The implications of this study extend beyond the world of mice, offering insights that could be applied to the study of social hierarchies and conflict resolution in other species, including humans. 



By understanding the methods and strategies employed by mice to manage aggressive behavior, researchers can draw parallels to human social interactions. 



This deepens our understanding of nature's primal strategies for conflict resolution and fosters a more comprehensive view of both animal and human sociology. 



As we continue to integrate technology such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/machine-learning-can-more-accurately-predict-ocean-currents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">machine learning</a> into social behavior studies, the potential for discoveries expands, offering promising new pathways for exploring the intricacies of social dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ethical-considerations">Ethical considerations</h2>



As with any innovation, the application of machine learning in this study necessitates careful consideration of ethical principles. 



The deployment of automated behavioral tracking systems poses questions about the treatment and observation of animal subjects. 



Ensuring the welfare of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticated-house-mouse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mice</a> during experiments is paramount, and researchers are required to adhere strictly to ethical guidelines that prioritize humane treatment.



The use of technology must not compromise the well-being of experimental subjects, and methodologies should be designed to minimize distress and ensure that all interactions are as natural as possible. 



Moreover, transparency in methodology and findings is essential to foster trust and accountability within the scientific community and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavioral-science-and-mice-social-life">Behavioral science and mice social life</h2>



The integration of machine learning in behavioral studies represents just the beginning of a transformative era in scientific research. 



Moving forward, the continuous advancement of algorithms and computational power promises to deepen our insight into complex social behaviors across a wide range of species. 



As data collection methods become more sophisticated, researchers can analyze interactions on a scale and with a precision that was previously unattainable. 



This trajectory not only enriches our comprehension of animal ecology but may also inspire novel approaches to addressing social challenges in human populations.



By bridging technology and ethology, the potential for important discoveries remains vast, charting a promising course for future research endeavors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-study-the-social-lives-of-mice">Why study the social lives of mice?</h2>



This study from the <a href="https://www.udel.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Delaware</a> not only illuminates the behavior of mice but also demonstrates how machine learning can be harnessed to study animal behavior. 



It opens up avenues for potential research into how other socially hierarchical species manage aggression.



Remember, as our researchers highlight, "Using artificial intelligence, we found that male mice turn to nearby females to distract aggressors and de-escalate conflicts. 



After an aggressive encounter, the aggressed male briefly engages with a female before quickly escaping, as the aggressor's focus shifts to her."



So, the next time you're in a tense situation, remember the mice -- a little distraction might just be the key!



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002496" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS Biology</a>.



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Male mice turn to the ladies to avoid fights and keep social peace

A new study has explored the intriguing world of mice,...

An international team of researchers has discovered seven new species of tree frogs in Madagascar's rainforests, notable for their otherworldly, high-pitched whistling calls that resemble sound effects from the sci-fi series Star Trek.&nbsp;



Inspired by this uncanny resemblance, the scientists have named the new species after seven of the series' most iconic captains.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whistling-tree-frog-species">Whistling tree frog species </h2>



Contrary to the common belief that all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-frog-day-addressing-environmental-threats-to-frogs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">frogs</a> croak, these newly identified species from the tree frog genus Boophis communicate using bird-like whistling sounds. Found throughout Madagascar's rainforests, these frogs use these unique calls to interact with one another.



These whistling sounds reminded the research team, led by professor Miguel Vences of the <a href="https://www.tu-braunschweig.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technische Universität Braunschweig</a> in Germany, of Star Trek, where similar whistle-like sound effects are frequently used. 



“That’s why we named the frogs after Kirk, Picard, Sisko, Janeway, Archer, Burnham, and Pike - seven of the most iconic captains from the sci-fi series,” Vences said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-frogs-and-star-trek-sound-effects">Tree frogs and Star Trek sound effects </h2>



Study senior author Mark D. Scherz, an assistant professor at the Natural History Museum of Denmark at the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a>, elaborated on the Star Trek connection.



“Not only do these frogs sound like sound-effects from Star Trek, but it seems also fitting that to find them, you often have to do quite a bit of trekking!”&nbsp;



“A few species are found in places accessible to tourists, but to find several of these species, we had to undertake major expeditions to remote <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dwarf-hippos-of-madagascar-were-forest-dwellers-not-grazers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> fragments and mountain peaks. There’s a real sense of scientific discovery and exploration here, which we think is in the spirit of Star Trek,” said Professor Scherz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-frogs-in-a-noisy-environment">Tree frogs in a noisy environment</h2>



The frogs' unusual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-calls-and-voices-of-frogs-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calls</a>, known as “advertisement calls,” serve as a form of self-promotion that may convey information about a male's suitability as a mate to females. 



Living along fast-flowing streams in Madagascar's mountainous regions - a loud backdrop - the frogs likely evolved their high-pitched whistles to be heard over the ambient noise.



For fans of Star Trek, some of the frog calls might evoke sounds from the “boatswain whistle” or the “tricorder.” To others, they might resemble the calls of birds or insects. Jörn Köhler, Senior Curator of Vertebrate Zoology at the <a href="https://www.hlmd.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt</a> in Germany, played a key role in analyzing the frogs' calls. 



“If the frogs just croaked like our familiar European frogs, they might not be audible over the sound of rushing water from the rivers they live near. Their high-pitched trills and whistles stand out against all that noise,” said Köhler.



“The appearance of the frogs has led to them being confused with similar species until now, but each species makes a distinctive series of these high-pitched whistles that has allowed us to tell them apart from each other, and from other frogs.”&nbsp;The calls corresponded with the genetic analyses performed by the team.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-madagascar-a-haven-for-biodiversity">Madagascar: A haven for biodiversity </h2>



Madagascar is renowned for its immense <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vanilla-cultivation-can-boost-biodiversity-in-madagascar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, and ongoing research in its rainforests continues to uncover hidden species, making it a true paradise for frogs. The island, roughly the size of France, is home to about 9% of all the world’s frog species.



“We’ve only scratched the surface of what Madagascar’s rainforests have to offer,” said co-author Andolalao Rakotoarison of the Université d’Itasy in Madagascar.&nbsp;



“Every time we go into the forest, we find new species, and just in terms of frogs, there are still several hundred species we haven’t yet described.” In the last ten years alone, she and her team have described around 100 new species from the island.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-need-for-conservation-efforts">Urgent need for conservation efforts</h2>



The researchers hope that this new knowledge will strengthen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a> in Madagascar’s rainforests. 



The species often live in close geographic proximity but at different altitudes and in varied microhabitats. This separation makes them particularly vulnerable to climate change and environmental disturbances.



Thus, the research team urges greater awareness around the conservation of Madagascar’s biodiversity to ensure that these unique species and their habitats are preserved for the future. They also hope to continue exploring, to seek out new species in forests where no scientist has gone before.



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Seven new tree frogs named after Star Trek captains

An international team of researchers has discovered seven new species...

Our climate is changing, temperatures are rising, and research reveals that it's affecting two-thirds (66%) of the Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in Earth's tropical forests. 



Sounds worrying, right? These KBAs are critical spots on our globe that harbor and nurture various species along with their habitats.



This profound study analyzed three decades of temperature conditions tucked beneath the forest canopies in these world-wide tropical KBAs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shift-in-kba-temperature">Shift in KBA temperature</h2>



The results might raise your eyebrows. A whopping 66% of these tropical KBAs have started flirting with new temperature regimes. 



That means over 40% of the temperature measurements now fall outside the range previously recorded there.



Meanwhile, the remaining 34% of these locations still enjoy their old temperature regimes. These places could turn into crucial hideaways for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-light-sustains-biodiversity-over-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, the researchers conjecture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-in-tropical-forests">Biodiversity in tropical forests</h2>



The research, published right on the heels of the United Nations Biodiversity Conference (<a href="https://www.cbd.int/conferences/2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">COP16</a>) in Colombia, sheds some light on this critical matter.



“Beneath the canopy of tropical forests, a wealth of biodiversity exists in a very stable climate,” said&nbsp;<a href="https://biosciences.exeter.ac.uk/staff/profile/index.php?web_id=Brittany_Trew" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr Brittany Trew</a>, from the&nbsp;<a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/research/esi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environment and Sustainability Institute</a>&nbsp;on Exeter’s Penryn Campus in Cornwall.



“As such, species there are at particularly high risk from new annual temperature regimes because they have evolved under a narrow range of conditions. They may only be able to tolerate a small margin of warming above what they’re used to.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-call-to-action-in-kbas">Call to action in KBAs</h2>



Dr. Alexander Lees, a biodiversity expert at <a href="https://www.mmu.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Manchester Metropolitan University</a>, took a firm stand. 



"The amount of political and economic capital dedicated to safeguarding biodiversity is woefully inadequate," Dr. Lees explained.



"Our findings show that the painful process of conservation triage -- selecting new protected areas -- must therefore consider the impact of ongoing climate changes on those sites in prioritization assessments," he continued.



The Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework is one step towards acknowledging this problem. It proposes to conserve at least 30% of the global land area by 2030, with a special emphasis on our precious KBAs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-loopholes-in-protection">Loopholes in protection</h2>



Here's another nugget of truth -- KBAs do not automatically receive formal protection. That decision rests with the national governments in those respective locations.



This research uncovers that, among the 34% of tropical forest KBAs not yet facing new temperature regimes, over half currently fall short of protection. 



Dr. Trew presses on the need for 'climate-smart' policies to safeguard these valuable refuges.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-outlook">Global outlook</h2>



To capture the ground reality on tropical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-are-the-biggest-drivers-of-biodiversity-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, researchers made use of temperature measurements, satellite data, and a microclimate model. 



The change is more apparent in some regions than others. It's pretty high in Africa and Latin America, with 72% and 59% of KBAs entering new temperature regimes. Asia and Oceania have shown a lower shift, with only 49% of KBAs experiencing the transition. 



A minor percentage of KBAs in Latin America and a few in Asia and Oceania have almost fully embraced the new temperature regimes.



In Latin America, these crucial areas sprawl across Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama, with the tropical Andes feeling the heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-communities-and-kba-protection">Local communities and KBA protection</h2>



Local communities play an instrumental role in the stewardship of Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs). 



These communities, often residing in or near tropical forests, possess invaluable traditional knowledge and practices that can contribute to effective biodiversity <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation strategies</a>.



Their involvement in conservation initiatives ensures that protective measures are culturally relevant and sustainable. 



Collaborations between local communities, scientists, and policymakers can foster a more inclusive approach to safeguarding KBAs, empowering those who are most affected by environmental changes to participate actively in decision-making processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-biodiversity-conservation">Tropical biodiversity conservation</h2>



Innovative solutions are crucial in addressing the challenges posed by emerging temperature regimes and ensuring the protection of biodiversity. 



Technological advancements, such as remote sensing and machine learning models, can enhance our ability to monitor and predict changes within KBAs with increased precision. 



Moreover, global networks and partnerships can facilitate the exchange of knowledge and resources needed to implement adaptive management practices. 



By embracing both cutting-edge technologies and integrative conservation approaches, we can develop robust strategies that balance ecological preservation with the needs of society, driving forward a sustainable future for tropical forests and their irreplaceable ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-kbas-in-tropical-forests">The future of KBAs in tropical forests</h2>



Now that we know the temperature beneath our tropical canopies is undergoing a significant upheaval, the question remains: What do we do about it? 



This study is more than just a collection of statistics - it's a stepping stone towards proactive conservation efforts and climate-smart policies. 



The shift in temperature regimes may be invisible to our eyes but has a profound impact on our KBAs and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> they house. The ball is now in our court!



The study is a timely reminder for us to align our actions with the needs of our planet. As we forge ahead, the hope is to strike a balance between human progress and the wellbeing of our natural world. 



-----



This research was spearheaded by leading brains from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Exeter</a>, <a href="https://www.mmu.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Manchester Metropolitan</a>, and the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.13050" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Letters</a>.



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Climate change is altering the temperature in 66% of tropical forests

Our climate is changing, temperatures are rising, and research reveals...

Global Cat Day, celebrated each year on October 16, is dedicated to raising awareness about the welfare of cats around the world.&nbsp;



The campaign was initially founded as National Feral Cat Day in 2001 by <a href="https://globalcatday.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alley Cat Allies</a>, a nonprofit organization that advocates for the humane treatment of cats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-are-community-nbsp">Cats are community&nbsp;</h2>



According to Alley Cat Allies, cats are community members and every community should have policies and programs to protect them.



“Global Cat Day is a day to embrace the global truth that Cats Are Community,” said the organization.



“This powerful statement is recognition that cats have lived alongside us for thousands of years, have a rightful place in our communities, and are beings with inherent value who deserve to be protected.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humane-management-of-cat-populations-nbsp">Humane management of cat populations&nbsp;</h2>



Global Cat Day emphasizes the importance of humane methods for managing cat populations, particularly through Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR) programs.&nbsp;



These programs involve trapping stray and feral cats, having them neutered or spayed, and then returning them to their original location.&nbsp;



Trap-Neuter-Return programs help control the feral cat population without resorting to euthanasia. They improve the quality of life for both cats and communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-global-cat-day">Significance of Global Cat Day</h2>



Global Cat Day also promotes the adoption of cats from shelters, responsible pet ownership, and the protection of cats from harm and neglect. It is an opportunity to take action to improve the lives of cats worldwide.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adopting-a-shelter-pet">Adopting a shelter pet</h3>



Adopting a cat from a shelter is a rewarding experience that can be life-changing for you and your new pet.&nbsp;



There are a variety of cats at the shelter, each with their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-are-better-at-expressing-emotions-than-cats-except-for-anger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">personality</a> and background. Some are shy, while others are more curious and eager to meet new people.&nbsp;



Whether it's a playful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kittens-who-socialize-with-humans-are-less-fearful-aggressive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">kitten</a> or a calm, older cat, you should choose the best companion to fit your lifestyle.&nbsp;



Rescuing a cat can be incredibly fulfilling, especially knowing that you have given them a second chance at a happy life.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responsible-ownership-nbsp">Responsible ownership&nbsp;</h3>



Responsible cat ownership involves providing a safe and healthy environment for your cat while considering the impact they may have on your household, neighborhood, and the broader environment.&nbsp;



Beyond providing your cat with basic needs, such as food, water, and regular veterinary care, it is important to provide mental and physical stimulation to keep your pet happy and healthy.&nbsp;



It is also important to make sure your home is safe and that your cat has comfortable spaces to rest and explore.



Another aspect of responsible ownership involves minimizing the impact cats may have on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/free-ranging-cats-are-one-of-the-most-problematic-invasive-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>, particularly birds and small animals, by keeping them indoors or supervising their time outdoors.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-cats-from-harm-nbsp">Protecting cats from harm&nbsp;</h3>



For indoor cats, remove hazards like toxic plants, harmful chemicals, or objects they could ingest or injure themselves on.&nbsp;



For cats with outdoor access, it is important to limit their exposure to dangers such as traffic, predators, or other animals.&nbsp;



Unlike their wild ancestors, many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-most-beloved-cats-are-more-likely-to-be-destructive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">domesticated cats</a> lack the skills or resources to protect themselves from dangers in urban or suburban environments.



To advocate against abuse, you should report suspected cases of neglect to local authorities or animal welfare organizations.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-raising-awareness-about-cat-welfare-nbsp">Raising awareness about cat welfare&nbsp;</h2>



When cats are cared for properly, they are healthier, happier, and less likely to suffer from preventable diseases, malnutrition, or injuries.



Beyond individual animals, cat welfare plays a role in managing the overall population.&nbsp;



Without proper care, particularly spaying and neutering, stray and feral cat populations can grow rapidly, leading to challenges like overpopulation, the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feline-coronavirus-is-passed-between-domestic-and-wild-cats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disease</a>, and environmental impacts.



By prioritizing cat welfare, communities can address these issues humanely and sustainably, promoting balance in the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrating-global-cat-day-nbsp">Celebrating Global Cat Day&nbsp;</h2>



According to Charlene Pedrolie, president and chief operating officer of Alley Cat Allies, today is about embracing the global truth that Cats Are Community.



“Cats Are Community is a powerful recognition that every neighborhood, city, and country worldwide must have humane, non-lethal policies and programs that treat all cats as community members," said Pedrolie.



"Evidence-based Trap-Neuter-Return (TNR), the only humane and effective approach to community cats outdoors, must be central to these policies. That is the thought leadership and change Global Cat Day is all about.”



People worldwide are encouraged to discover more ways to get involved at <a href="http://www.globalcatday.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GlobalCatDay.org</a>.



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Global Cat Day: Creating life-saving change for cats 

Global Cat Day, celebrated each year on October 16, is...

In the midst of vigorous debate regarding the health of monarch butterflies, new research from the University of Georgia sheds light on a critical issue: while breeding populations remain stable, wintering populations are declining.&nbsp;



Published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2410410121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>, the study suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/monarch-butterflies-shift-to-winter-breeding-for-survival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">monarch butterflies</a> are experiencing significant losses during their fall migration south to Mexico.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-declining-roost-sizes-along-migration-route">Declining roost sizes along migration route</h2>



Migrating monarchs rely on roosts - clusters on trees or shrubs where they rest overnight - as they journey southward.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed 17 years of data from over 2,600 citizen scientist observations of these roosts along the migration path. They discovered that roost sizes have declined by up to 80%, with the most substantial losses occurring further south along the route.



“The monarchs are increasingly failing to reach their winter destinations,” said Andy Davis, lead author of the study and an assistant research scientist in <a href="https://www.uga.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>’s Odum School of Ecology. “Either they're losing their ability to migrate or they're losing their will to migrate.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarchs-going-extinct-in-winter-nbsp">Monarchs going extinct in winter&nbsp;</h2>



Contrary to what some might expect, the study largely ruled out <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-marine-predators-may-suffer-massive-habitat-loss-by-2100/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat loss</a> or food supply shortages along the migration route as primary causes. 



Study co-author William Snyder is a professor of entomology in UGA's College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences.&nbsp;



“How do you say that the monarch butterfly is going extinct in the winter while they're perfectly healthy in the summer?” said Snyder. “This paper fills in that gap by saying the problem is the fall migration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monarch-health-during-fall-migration">Monarch health during fall migration</h2>



Using data from <a href="https://journeynorth.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journey North</a>, an organization that tracks wildlife migration patterns through citizen sightings, the researchers provided the most detailed picture to date of the monarchs' fall migration health in eastern North America. 



The experts found that the timing of migration has not changed, and the route has become greener and warmer over time - conditions that should favor larger roost populations. Despite this, there is a consistent and dramatic decline in roost sizes independent of climate and landscape factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-factors-contributing-to-migration-losses">Potential factors contributing to migration losses</h2>



The researchers point to two main culprits behind the decline in migration success. The first is the increasing prevalence of a debilitating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millions-of-monarch-butterflies-are-killed-by-parasites-yearly/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parasite</a>, which has surged tenfold since the early 2000s. 



This rise corresponds with increased plantings of nonnative tropical milkweeds - the only plants on which monarchs can lay their eggs and their caterpillars can feed.&nbsp;



Nonnative milkweeds may facilitate the buildup of infectious parasite spores on their leaves, leading to higher infection rates. Infected monarchs often cannot fly well and have shorter lifespans, contributing to the decrease in migrating butterflies.



The second possible factor is the release of captive-reared butterflies by well-intentioned individuals aiming to help the species.&nbsp;



“All of the evidence we have shows that when monarchs are reared in a captive environment, either indoors or outdoors, they're not as good at migrating,” Davis explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-monarch-migration-nbsp">Supporting monarch migration&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers advise adopting a “less is more” approach when it comes to assisting monarch butterflies. While actions like planting nonnative <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milkweed-gardens-are-needed-to-save-monarch-butterflies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">milkweeds</a> or raising monarchs in captivity are meant to help, they may actually hinder the butterflies' ability to migrate long distances. 



Planting native flowering plants along the migration path can provide nectar sources for traveling butterflies without causing harm.



“One of the best things people can do to ensure that the monarchs are as robust and healthy as possible is basically just leave the caterpillars alone in your backyard,” Davis suggested.&nbsp;



“Resist the temptation to bring them inside and protect them because it seems like Mother Nature does a better job at creating really healthy, robust migrators than we do.”



According to the researchers, conservation efforts that support fall migration success are most needed, such as providing high quality nectar plants along the migration route or limiting the planting of nonnative milkweeds that enhance monarch parasite loads.&nbsp;



“Overall, it appears the fall migration of monarch butterflies is under imminent threat, even if the species’ overall survival is not,” the authors concluded.



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Why are monarch butterflies vanishing in the winter?

In the midst of vigorous debate regarding the health of...

Let's dig into the past, where around two decades ago, a giant fossil skull of an extinct elephant was discovered in the pristine terrains of the northern Indian Kashmir Valley. 



This remarkable finding would soon send shockwaves through scientific communities. It would not just tell us more about this extinct elephant, but would also shine a light on a dimly lit chapter in elephant evolutionary history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovering-the-elephant-skull">Discovering the elephant skull</h2>



Dr. Ghulam Bhat from the <a href="https://www.jammuuniversity.ac.in" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Jammu</a> led a team of experts in excavating the elephant skull. It was found lying in unison with 87 stone tools, possibly used by prehistoric humans, providing an eerie testimony to human-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/megafauna-extinction-dwarf-elephants-and-hippos-cyprus-directly-linked-to-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant</a> interactions of the bygone era.



Recently, scientists from around the globe embarked on a quest to unravel the secrets locked in the Kashmir skull. 



The team included experts from the Florida Museum of Natural History, the British Museum, the University of York, and the Natural History Museum. 



Dr. Steven Zhang, a paleontologist in the Department of Geosciences and Geography at the University of Helsinki, also participated in the study.



"From the general shape of the skull, it's quite apparent that the elephant belonged to Palaeoloxodon, or straight-tusked elephants, among the largest land mammals that ever lived," said Dr. Zhang. "Full-grown adults easily stood around 4m tall at the shoulder and weighed 9-10 tons."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-of-elephant-evolution">Tree of elephant evolution </h2>



However, the skull's lack of a thickened, forward-projecting crest, a feature typical of other Palaeoloxodon skulls found in India, left the scientists intrigued.



In recent times, the extent of this crest's development among different Palaeoloxodon species and their relative position on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-elephants-got-their-incredible-iconic-trunks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephant evolution</a> tree has sparked controversy. 



However, some findings hint at the crest becoming more pronounced with developmental and sexual maturity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-majestic-elephant-skull">Majestic elephant skull</h2>



"From the size, the wisdom teeth and a few other telltale features of the skull, it is evident that the animal was a majestic bull elephant in the prime of its life, but the lack of a well-developed skull crest, particularly in comparison with other mature male skulls from Europe and from India, tells us we have a different species on our hands here," noted Dr. Zhang.



The research team, unperturbed by the lack of the prominent skull crest, turned their attention to an obscure skull discovered in Turkmenistan during the 1950s, which was thought to represent a distinct species, Palaeoloxodon turkmenicus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-species-with-a-broad-distribution">Distinct species with a broad distribution </h2>



"What's always been puzzling about the Turkmen skull is that, besides the lack of a prominent crest at the skull roof, its other features are highly similar to the already well-known European species, P. antiquus," said Dr. Zhang. 



"And this led a number of experts to suggest that the Turkmen specimen is simply an aberrant individual of the European species."



However, when the Kashmir skull was uncovered, the theory of a distinct species with a broad distribution became more plausible.



"But with the Kashmir skull added to the mix, it becomes clear now that the two specimens can be theorized to represent a distinct species that we previously knew very little about, with a broad distribution from Central Asia to the northern Indian Subcontinent," noted Dr. Advait Jukar, the study's lead author who is currently based at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dating-the-elephant-skull">Dating the elephant skull</h2>



Using advanced techniques to measure protein decomposition in the tooth enamel of the Kashmir Palaeoloxodon skull, the experts dated the skull to the Middle Pleistocene period, around 300,000–400,000 years ago.



An analysis of the stone tools found alongside the elephant remains further bolstered their conclusion. This age estimate matched that of the Turkmen skull, further strengthening the theory that these two skulls represent a unique species distinct from the other Eurasian Palaeoloxodon.



Deeper investigations revealed that Palaeoloxodon first evolved in Africa about a million years ago, presenting a narrow, convex forehead and slight underdevelopment of the skull crest. 



The later Palaeoloxodon, best known from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gigoutella-mauretanica-best-preserved-trilobite-fossils-ever-found/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossils</a> discovered in Europe and India, sported a very wide, flattened forehead often associated with a thick crest that jutted forward from the roof of the skull.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-missing-link-in-elephant-evolution">Missing link in elephant evolution </h2>



The researchers concluded that with a wide, flat forehead and only a faint trace of a skull crest, the P. turkmenicus species might represent a missing link in our understanding of how these enormous prehistoric megaherbivores evolved.



So, there you have it - a thrilling saga of scientific sleuthing and discovery. The story of the mysterious extinct elephant skull unfolds, promising to unlock further secrets and deepen our understanding of the epic journey of elephant evolution.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2024.2396821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>. 



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Elephant skull found in India adds a piece to the evolutionary puzzle

Let's dig into the past, where around two decades ago,...

The black widow is one of the most feared spider species, and is widely associated with danger. This eight-legged marvel has earned its terrifying reputation through a venom that's a potent cocktail of seven distinct toxins. 



Each toxin found in black widow venom targets the nervous system in a unique way. Among these substances, α-latrotoxin stands out. It is known to paralyze insects and crustaceans, and is poisonous to humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-widow-s-potent-potion">Black widow's potent potion</h2>



The α-latrotoxin operates by latching onto specific receptors dotted across the synapses. These are the contact points between nerve cells or between nerve cells and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscles</a>.



Once attached, it triggers the uncontrollable flow of calcium ions into the presynaptic membranes of the signaling cells. This sets off the release of neurotransmitters and ushers in strong muscle contractions and spasms.



Despite this seemingly straightforward process, what lies beneath is a highly complex mechanism. A team of scientists at the <a href="https://www.uni-muenster.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Münster</a> has now deciphered the structure of α-latrotoxin before and after membrane insertion at near atomic resolution



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-insightful-discovery">An insightful discovery</h2>



The scientific endeavor was led by experts at the Center for Soft Nanoscience, including Professor Christos Gatsogiannis in the Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics and Professor Andreas Heuer in the Institute of Physical Chemistry.



To investigate the the mechanism of calcium influx into the presynaptic membrane, the experts used a combination of high-performance cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and molecular dynamics (MD) <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simulation-hypothesis-are-we-living-in-a-computer-simulation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">computer simulations</a>.



And their finding? The α-latrotoxin, in a fascinating display of transformation, forms a stalk - penetrating the cell membrane akin to a syringe - upon binding to the receptor.



This stalk carves out a small pore that functions as a calcium channel in the membrane. But there's more. MD simulations revealed that calcium ions flow into the cell through a selective gate located right above the pore.



This new understanding of the hidden mechanisms of α-latrotoxin provides profound insights. 



"The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/umbrella-toxin-discovery-may-help-human-antibiotic-resistance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">toxin</a> mimics the function of the calcium channels of the presynaptic membrane in a highly complex manner, differing completely from all previously known toxins," said Professor Gatsogiannis. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-applications">Practical applications </h2>



Such breakthroughs bring more than just knowledge; they open the door to a host of practical applications. 



Latrotoxins possess considerable biotechnological potential that could support the creation of enhanced antidotes, therapies for paralysis, and novel biopesticides.



The research group led by Professor Gatsogiannis previously cracked the code on the structure of insect-specific latrotoxins in the venom of the black widow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-closer-to-unlocking-the-secrets-of-spider-silk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spider</a> before their insertion into the membrane. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harnessing-black-widow-venom">Harnessing black widow venom </h2>



While the venom of the black widow may seem like something to be avoided, its unique properties have captured the interest of scientists looking to harness its power for medical and biotechnological advancements. 



"Taken together, these data give insight into a unique mechanism for membrane insertion and channel formation, characteristic of the LTX family, and provide the necessary framework for advancing novel therapeutics and biotechnological applications," wrote the researchers.



Understanding α-latrotoxin’s structure and function opens doors to different applications that could turn this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spider-venom-has-hidden-biochemical-value/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">venom</a> from a deadly threat into a potential lifesaver.



One area of potential lies in the development of more efficient antivenoms. Current treatment for black widow bites involves pain relief and supportive care. While antivenoms are available, they are not always effective.



With the knowledge on how α-latrotoxin interacts with human nerve cells, researchers can design targeted antivenoms that neutralize the toxin before it causes damage to the nervous system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-therapeutic-use-of-venom">Potential therapeutic use of venom</h2>



The venom’s ability to selectively bind to certain receptors also suggests potential therapeutic uses. For instance, researchers are exploring how modified versions of α-latrotoxin could treat conditions involving muscle spasms or paralysis by targeting specific neural pathways. 



Additionally, the venom’s pore-forming mechanism could inspire new designs for biopesticides, selectively targeting pests without harming other species.



Research into black widow venom continues to demonstrate that even the most fearsome elements of nature can offer unexpected benefits, transforming something feared into a source of healing and innovation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-52635-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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How black widow venom attacks the nervous system

The black widow is one of the most feared spider...

A recent study sheds light on the potential destabilizing effects of climate change on mutualistic relationships between insects and plants. Mutualism, the cooperative interaction where both species benefit, is fundamental to healthy ecosystems. 



The research suggests that increasing urbanization and rising temperatures could be disrupting these relationships, with potential consequences for global biodiversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-ant-plant-mutualism">Investigating ant-plant mutualism</h2>



Led by <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a>, the study focused on the mutualistic relationship between specific ant species and the tropical shrub Cordia nodosa, which provides ants with shelter in exchange for protection from herbivores. 



The researchers compared how these relationships function in five urban sites and five protected forest areas in South America.&nbsp;



A key aim was to determine how the species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-deja-vu-the-symbiotic-relationships-of-trees-and-ants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ants</a> inhabiting the plants in urban environments differed from those in forest areas, particularly in terms of their ability to tolerate heat - a defining feature of cities.



The researchers discovered that urban plants housed mostly opportunistic ants, which did not specialize in protecting Cordia nodosa. These urban ants, while more heat-tolerant, were not effective in defending the plants.&nbsp;



In contrast, specialized mutualistic ants, which form strong protective partnerships with the shrubs, were still commonly found in forest areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decline-of-ant-protection-in-urban-areas">Decline of ant protection in urban areas</h2>



One of the study’s most striking findings was that urban ants, living in Cordia nodosa plants, generally failed to defend the plants from threats.&nbsp;



The researchers simulated attacks by flicking the plants, only to find that opportunistic urban ants did little to respond, living up to their name. In forest areas, however, the mutualistic ants were 13 times more likely to spring into action to protect the plants.



Surprisingly, despite the lack of defense from urban ants, plants in cities were not as severely affected by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">herbivores</a> as expected. Herbivory, or damage caused by plant-eating insects, was relatively low in these areas. 



“I think that probably the herbivores themselves are not doing great in the city, whether it's because of habitat fragmentation, the temperature or whatever's keeping those specialist ants out may also be keeping the herbivores out,” said Elsa Youngsteadt, an associate professor of applied ecology at NC State.&nbsp;



Professor Youngsteadt also noted the possibility that urban plants have developed alternative defenses to compensate for the lack of ant protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urbanization-and-ant-plant-relationships">Urbanization and ant-plant relationships</h2>



In contrast to urban environments, forest plants without their protective ants showed higher rates of herbivory, which was more in line with the expected outcome.&nbsp;



The research also confirmed a distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/as-urban-heat-continues-to-rise-birds-are-moving-away/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban heat</a> island effect, with urban areas being approximately 1.6°C warmer than forest areas. 



This increase in temperature correlated with the heat tolerance of the ants, as urban ants were better adapted to warmer conditions than their forest counterparts.



However, the long-term implications of these changes remain uncertain. “While this study provides a small snapshot of what we may be able to expect in the future with global change, there remain many unanswered questions,” said study co-author Professor Sara Prado. 



The research raises concerns about how these changes might affect ecosystems on a larger scale if similar patterns begin to emerge in forest environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-specialized-mutualisms">The future of specialized mutualisms</h2>



The findings from this study highlight the vulnerability of specialized mutualistic relationships in the face of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-social-nature-of-ants-will-them-tolerate-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



If urban environments can no longer support the mutualistic ants that protect Cordia nodosa and other plants, we may see a shift in the composition of insect-plant relationships.&nbsp;



“If these changes also play out in forests in the future, we may see more examples of specialized mutualistic interactions changing or disappearing altogether,” said Professor Prado.



Furthermore, if urban plants no longer need ants to protect them, researchers are left wondering about the long-term consequences of being colonized by opportunistic ants.&nbsp;



The impact on herbivores is another area of concern. If herbivores are also being kept out by the same factors affecting specialized ants, it suggests a profound shift in how urban ecosystems function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-ecosystems">Implications for global ecosystems</h2>



This study offers a glimpse into how climate change and urbanization might disrupt critical symbiotic relationships that form the foundation of many ecosystems.&nbsp;



The findings emphasize the importance of continued investigation into how these changes affect not only the individual species involved but the broader ecological networks they support.



As the planet continues to warm and urban areas expand, the consequences for specialized insect-plant relationships remain unclear.&nbsp;



However, this research serves as a warning of the potential fracturing of mutualistic interactions that are vital for maintaining biodiversity and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-plays-critical-role-ecosystem-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem health</a>. 



The study highlights the need for ongoing monitoring and conservation efforts to protect these relationships in a changing world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ecy.4449" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Climate change is destabilizing ant-plant relationships

A recent study sheds light on the potential destabilizing effects...

New research from Australia, using satellite imagery to track emperor penguin colonies in East Antarctica, reveals that these iconic birds are struggling to cope with the rapid changes in their environment.&nbsp;



The study, led by the Australian Antarctic Division, highlights that emperor penguins, which have adapted to environmental shifts for nearly a million years, are now facing unprecedented challenges due to the rapid loss of their breeding habitat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-ice-for-penguin-breeding">Fast-ice for penguin breeding</h2>



Barbara Wienecke, a seabird researcher at the <a href="https://www.antarctica.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Antarctic Division</a>, explained that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-will-not-survive-the-current-rate-of-sea-ice-decline/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emperor penguins</a> have historically responded to changes in their preferred breeding grounds, the Antarctic fast-ice zone, by relocating when conditions became unsuitable. 



However, in 2022 and 2023, the untimely loss of fast-ice habitat, combined with record low sea-ice extent, led to significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emperor-penguins-face-tragic-breeding-failures-due-to-sea-ice-loss/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">breeding failures</a> in some colonies. 



Scientists fear these recent events could indicate worsening ice conditions, leaving the penguins with little time or capacity to adapt.



“Emperor penguins need stable fast-ice for about 10 months a year to breed successfully and rear their chicks,” Wienecke said.&nbsp;



“If their breeding platform disintegrates before early December, when the chicks still have their downy plumage, it's likely they will all perish. If it disintegrates before the end of December, chicks without waterproof plumage will die.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limited-capacity-to-adapt-to-rapid-changes">Limited capacity to adapt to rapid changes</h2>



As long-lived seabirds, emperor penguins can handle occasional disruptions to their environment, but Wienecke warned that they have limited ability to adjust to the accelerating pace of environmental changes.&nbsp;



The penguins cannot shorten the time it takes for their chicks to develop, making it difficult for them to adapt to a shorter fast-ice season.



Wienecke and her team - including sea-ice scientist Jan Lieser and seabird experts Julie McInnes and Jonathon Barrington - used satellite imagery from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">European Space Agency</a>’s Sentinel-2 program to examine shifts in breeding habitats and ice conditions from 2018 to 2023.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-penguins-with-satellite-imagery">Monitoring penguins with satellite imagery</h2>



Satellite imagery has proven invaluable for monitoring the variability in fast-ice habitat, according to Lieser. “From this, we can assess the adaptability of emperor penguins to rapid change, and the impacts of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">habitat change</a> on breeding success,” he said. 



The research team studied satellite images covering 6,000 kilometers of East Antarctica’s coastline between September and December, the crucial time for chick rearing and fledging.



They manually tracked the locations of penguin colonies each year and measured the distance between the colonies and the fast-ice edge.&nbsp;



This distance is critical, as adult penguins need to be close to the edge to access open water for feeding, but if the colony is too close, the ice may break up before the chicks are ready to survive at sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rising-breeding-failures-due-to-habitat-loss">Rising breeding failures due to habitat loss</h2>



The study found that 13 of the 27 colonies examined are at risk of reduced or complete breeding failure due to habitat loss. Nine of these colonies experienced such failures at least once during the six-year study period.&nbsp;



One colony disappeared entirely, although some individuals may have joined other nearby colonies.&nbsp;



While some penguin colonies moved to new types of habitats, such as ice shelves or ice tongues, these areas are also vulnerable to iceberg calving events that can alter local conditions.



Previous population modeling studies have projected that up to 65% of emperor penguin colonies could become “quasi-extinct” (on the path to extinction) by 2050.&nbsp;



However, Wienecke noted that the variability in colony locations relative to sea ice makes it difficult to model these trends accurately.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-ongoing-monitoring">Importance of ongoing monitoring</h2>



The new study highlights the importance of medium and high-resolution satellite imagery as a tool for annual monitoring of emperor penguin colonies and their fast-ice habitats across Antarctica.&nbsp;



According to Weinecke, ongoing, continent-wide monitoring is essential to quantify the effects of changing ice conditions on penguin populations and assess the cumulative impacts of other threats, such as disease.



“Satellite imagery enables us to identify the locations of emperor penguin colonies each year and assess the local environmental conditions,” explained Weinecke.&nbsp;



This combination of satellite data with ground and aerial counts of penguins where possible will provide a clearer picture of how local populations are affected by these environmental changes.



In conclusion, the study, published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.3354/esr01355" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endangered Species Research</a>, stresses the need for continued monitoring and research to better understand the consequences of rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarcticas-ice-loss-may-have-reached-an-irreversible-tipping-point/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice loss</a> on emperor penguins and their breeding success. 



Without stable fast-ice, these iconic seabirds face an uncertain future as they struggle to adapt to the rapidly changing conditions in Antarctica.



-----



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Emperor penguins are struggling to survive as sea ice vanishes

New research from Australia, using satellite imagery to track emperor...

The social behavior of the Norway rat is far more intricate than previously thought, according to a study conducted by researchers from the Eötvös Loránd University (ELTE).&nbsp;



The study offers new insights into rat social structures and their implications for human psychiatric medication development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rats-as-a-model-for-social-behavior-nbsp">Rats as a model for social behavior&nbsp;</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rodents-are-reservoirs-for-dangerous-fungal-diseases/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rodents</a> serve as an important model for examining both individual and collective behavior,” explained the study authors. “Dominance within rodent social structures can determine access to critical resources, such as food and mating opportunities.”&nbsp;



However, the researchers noted, many aspects of the intricate interplay between individual behaviors and the resulting group social hierarchy - especially its evolution over time - remain unexplored.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-social-interactions-among-rats">Complex social interactions among rats</h2>



Rats, often used in laboratory studies due to their genetic similarities with humans, are now shown to exhibit complex social interactions too.&nbsp;



According to the experts, the biological properties of rats exhibit much greater similarities to human cells and organs than previously expected.&nbsp;



Nearly 90% of genes in humans and rats display significant similarities, making their behavior particularly relevant for medical and psychological studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



In this study, the researchers color-coded the rats so that an automated system could monitor them continuously for eight months.&nbsp;



The system tracked them 24 hours a day, allowing the scientists to observe intricate patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-determines-social-dominance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">social dominance</a> and peaceful coexistence among the rat colonies. These observations challenge traditional ideas about rat behavior and, potentially, human social dynamics as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critical-role-of-the-social-environment-nbsp">Critical role of the social environment&nbsp;</h2>



A fast-forward video of the experiment, showing a week of activity in four colonies (during their night-time hours, since rats are mostly inactive during the day), was created by the Department of Biological Physics at <a href="https://www.elte.hu/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ELTE</a>.



<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="ZpigyKNPbu-3916163-12187" type="single"]</div>



The researchers discovered that social hierarchies within rat groups were not static. In some cases, hierarchies were only established after numerous conflicts, while other groups demonstrated stable and peaceful living conditions.&nbsp;



These variations were influenced significantly by the composition of the groups and how they were reorganized, revealing the critical role of the social environment in shaping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-basis-of-social-behavior-in-the-insect-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">behavior</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-social-dynamics-of-rats-nbsp">Complex social dynamics of rats&nbsp;</h2>



One particularly fascinating discovery was that mixing rats from hierarchical and non-hierarchical groups led to unpredictable outcomes: sometimes the new group formed a hierarchy, while other times, it remained peaceful.&nbsp;



This finding challenges common assumptions about rat behavior, indicating that the social dynamics of rats are not as straightforward as previously believed.



Another unexpected result involved personality traits. While rats were evaluated using standard personality and social tests - tests commonly employed in behavioral and drug research - the results of these tests did not correlate strongly with the actual behavior observed within the groups.&nbsp;



This suggests that rats’ social behavior, socialization, and relationship to their traits are far more complex than what can be inferred through simple testing mechanisms.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-implications-of-the-research-nbsp">Broader implications of the research&nbsp;</h2>



One significant implication of this study is its relevance for researchers studying the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychiatric-drugs-gut-contents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psychotropic drugs</a>.&nbsp;



When investigating the effects of certain psychotropic drugs in animal experiments, scientists must be highly cautious with their conclusions, because the paradoxes in rat group behavior suggest that their social interactions cannot be easily categorized or predicted.



The study’s publication is noteworthy not just for its findings, but also for the vast amount of data collected and the innovative methodologies used to analyze the results.&nbsp;



Máté Nagy played a crucial role in the design and execution of the experiment, while Gábor Vásárhelyi developed advanced software solutions to process the large quantities of visual data collected throughout the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-perspective-on-animal-behavior-nbsp">New perspective on animal behavior&nbsp;</h2>



At the conclusion of the experiment, the research team made a point of ensuring the welfare of the rats, successfully finding adoptive homes for all the animals involved.



In sum, this study not only redefines our understanding of rat social behavior but also has broader implications for how researchers interpret behavioral studies, especially those involving psychotropic drugs.&nbsp;



By revealing the complexities of rat social lives, the study provides a new perspective on both animal behavior and human applications.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-72437-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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Rats have a very complex social life

The social behavior of the Norway rat is far more...

An elephant never forgets, as the saying goes, and there is compelling new evidence that this may be true. 



A recent study suggests that proboscideans - such as elephants - remember waterholes they visited decades ago and recognize other elephants they have not encountered in a long time.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-do-elephants-remember-humans">Do elephants remember humans?</h2>



But can their exceptional memory extend beyond their own species? Do elephants remember humans, particularly their keepers, even after years apart?



As part of his bachelor thesis, study lead author Martin Kränzlin conducted a study investigating elephant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-our-brain-form-long-term-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">memory</a> under the supervision of Christine Böhmer in the Zoological Institute at <a href="https://www.uni-kiel.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kiel University</a>. 



“There are exciting stories of Asian elephants that suggest this,” said Kränzlin. “For example, it has been reported that elephants threw stones at a former owner they didn't like when they met again many years later.”&nbsp;



“However, these are only anecdotal reports; this question has not yet been scientifically investigated.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-elephants-remember-the-scent-of-their-keepers">Elephants remember the scent of their keepers</h2>



In a study published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21871" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zoo Biology</a>, Kränzlin and his colleagues provide the first scientific evidence that elephants can, indeed, recognize the scent of their keepers even after a long period of time. 



The research was conducted in cooperation with the Serengeti Park in Hodenhagen, Lower Saxony, where two female elephants - Bibi and Panya - have lived since being relocated from the Berlin Zoo 13 years ago.



“We contacted the former zookeepers in Berlin, a total of three men,” said Kränzlin. “For our experiment, they wore a T-shirt for eight hours, which we later used as a scent stimulus. We also recorded a short spoken sentence from them and took portrait photos of them.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research-nbsp">Focus of the research&nbsp;</h2>



In the experiment, two racks were set up side by side just outside the elephants’ enclosure. On one rack, the researchers placed a stimulus from a former keeper - such as a worn T-shirt or a life-size print of a portrait photo.&nbsp;



The other rack displayed a corresponding stimulus from someone unfamiliar to the elephants.



The elephants could see the racks but could not physically reach them with their trunks. Still, they regularly extended their trunks toward the stimuli, clearly attempting to examine them more closely.&nbsp;



“We filmed the behavior of each elephant we tested,” said Kränzlin. “We then used the videos to analyze how often and for how long the animals extended their trunks toward the racks.”



The researchers hypothesized that if the stimulus presented was familiar to the elephants, they would show more interest.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exceptional-sense-of-smell-in-elephants-nbsp">Exceptional sense of smell in elephants&nbsp;</h2>



As expected, Bibi and Panya tried to reach the stimuli more frequently and for longer when it involved something from their former keepers - especially when it was a T-shirt.



Interestingly, the elephants' reactions to the spoken sentences and portrait photos were not statistically significant, which didn’t come as a complete surprise. Elephants are known for their exceptional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wild-elephants-track-the-scents-of-others-in-their-path/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sense of smell</a>, while their vision is relatively poor. 



“Our results are a clear indication that elephants can at least remember the scent of their former keepers, even decades later,” Böhmer explained. “Nevertheless, further studies with a larger number of individuals are needed to confirm the results.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-further-research-is-needed">Further research is needed</h2>



The experts said that due to the small sample size and magnitude of the influencing factors, the results only represent indications of the possible social long-term memory.&nbsp;



“Nevertheless, we were able to provide the first empirical evidence that elephants store information about specific people over a long period of time,” noted the study authors.



“Further studies with larger sample sizes, cross-modal testing, and people disliked by the elephants could provide more insights.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-elephant-welfare-nbsp">Implications for elephant welfare&nbsp;</h2>



The findings have significant implications for the care of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-us-zoos-have-horrific-living-conditions-for-elephants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elephants in zoos</a>. If elephants truly remember their keepers for such a long time, it suggests that these relationships are crucial to their well-being. 



A stable and long-term relationship with their human caregivers may have a profoundly positive effect on the mental and emotional health of zoo elephants.



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Elephants remember the scent of their keepers for decades 

An elephant never forgets, as the saying goes, and there...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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