Portrait,Of,A,Wild,Octopus,Under,Water.

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. 



Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. 



Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions.



Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food or medicine to someone trapped below. 



This vision has motivated scientists to study octopus arms in detail - both in the laboratory and in their natural <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-dumbo-octopus-species-carnarvon-flapjack-discovered-in-very-deep-ocean-waters/">environment</a>.



Until recently, most studies were limited to tanks, where behaviors may not reflect the complexity of life in the wild. That gap is now being addressed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-octopus-intelligence">Understanding octopus intelligence</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-could-dominate-earth-if-humans-vanish/">Octopuses</a> are some of the most intelligent invertebrates on Earth. Unlike most animals without backbones, they can solve puzzles, open jars, and even escape from aquariums by remembering routes back to the ocean. 



Their brains are incredibly complex, with about 500 million neurons - similar to a dog. What makes them even more fascinating is that two-thirds of those neurons are in their arms. 



This means each arm can sense, move, and even make decisions on its own while still communicating with the central brain. It’s like having eight mini-brains working together with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-are-tricked-by-the-rubber-hand-illusion-like-humans-suggesting-self-awareness/">one big brain</a>.



Their intelligence also shows up in how they hunt and survive. Octopuses use tools, like carrying coconut shells to hide inside when threatened, and they can change color and texture in an instant to camouflage perfectly against rocks or coral. 



They’ve been observed watching other animals and learning from them, which is rare in the animal kingdom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexible-octopus-arms-inspire-robotics">Flexible octopus arms inspire robotics</h2>



A new study from the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole and Florida Atlantic University has provided the most comprehensive analysis of octopus arm movements in natural habitats. 



Researchers recorded 25 wild octopuses in six locations, ranging from the Caribbean to Spain. The footage captured thousands of arm movements across a variety of behaviors, including foraging, locomotion, and even defense.



“I’ve been trying for a long time to work out the natural behavior of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sea-octopus-footage-could-revolutionize-flexible-robot-design-eyeris/">cephalopods</a> in their natural habitat,” said MBL Senior Scientist Roger Hanlon, who led the project. 



“Studying and recording octopus behavior from wild octopuses in the field gave us the opportunity to analyze a larger behavioral repertoire and further understand how they use their arms to achieve such complex behaviors,” added Chelsea Bennice, research fellow at <a href="https://www.fau.eu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAU</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guided-by-touch-not-sight">Guided by touch, not sight</h2>



Octopuses rely heavily on touch, guided by sensory organs in their arm suckers. “The octopus is a very tactile animal - it’s more tactile than visual,” said Hanlon. 



Each of their nearly 100 suckers per arm contains chemosensory-tactile receptors, combining functions similar to the human nose, lips, and tongue.



Finding octopuses to observe was not simple. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> skills make them almost invisible in coral reefs or sandy seabeds. Divers often relied on clues like discarded shells and food debris near their dens.



Once located, octopuses emerged briefly from hiding, offering precious opportunities to record their natural actions.



These moments revealed unique hunting strategies, arm movements, and subtle interactions with their environment otherwise impossible to witness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-arm-mechanics-of-octopuses">Complex arm mechanics of octopuses</h2>



The researchers identified 12 distinct arm actions across 15 behaviors, built from four fundamental deformations: shortening, elongating, bending, and torsion. They discovered a pattern of specialization within each arm. 



For instance, elongation and shortening were most common near the base, while bending occurred more at the tips. 



This functional partitioning allows octopuses to combine motions across arms for tasks like crawling, probing reef crevices, or launching sudden prey attacks.



“These are the actions that make up the whole complex of octopus <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-and-squids-defy-the-slow-pace-of-evolution/">behaviors</a>,” said study co-author Kendra Buresch. 



In the wild, researchers observed octopuses using different combinations of arm actions - sometimes relying on a single arm for tasks like grabbing food, and other times coordinating multiple arms for behaviors such as crawling or launching a parachute attack.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-behavior-that-guides-technology">Behavior that guides technology</h2>



The findings go beyond understanding animal behavior. With nearly 7,000 observed arm deformations, the study highlights an extraordinary degree of control and flexibility. 



This knowledge may inform robotics research, where engineers seek to design soft, adaptable arms capable of both precise and exploratory tasks.



“Understanding these natural behaviors not only deepens our knowledge of octopus biology but also opens exciting new avenues in fields like neuroscience, animal behavior, and even soft robotics inspired by these remarkable creatures,” Bennice said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-in-flexibility-and-change">Lessons in flexibility and change</h2>



From the ocean floor to robotics labs, octopuses continue to inspire, offering lessons in both biology and technology. 



Their flexible arms not only influence the design of machines that could navigate disaster zones or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-deep-sea-crustacean-species-discovered-in-the-bahamas/">deep-sea environments</a>, but also remind us how problem-solving in nature often leads to solutions with real-world applications.



Beyond robotics, their adaptability symbolizes the broader principle that survival depends on innovation and change, a message equally relevant to ecosystems, human health, and future technologies.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-10674-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



-----



Like what you read?<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/"> Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/"> EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/"> Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Octopus arms are probably the most complex and flexible structures in nature

The octopus is a creature that continues to surprise scientists and inspire engineers. With eight arms that move in ways no human limb can, it demonstrates flexibility and control that seem almost otherworldly. Each arm bends, twists, elongates, and shortens with unmatched precision, enabling these animals to hunt, hide, and explore with ease. Researchers hope that unlocking the secrets of these movements may guide the design of flexible robotic arms capable of lifesaving missions. Imagine a robotic arm slipping through rubble after a building collapse, delivering food...

New research on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-whale-shark-day-protecting-the-gentle-giants-of-the-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whale</a> sharks reveals that heavily trafficked shipping lanes intersect with critical feeding grounds of this endangered species, posing significant risks.



The researchers identified areas where these species are most vulnerable to collisions with large shipping vessels. The team mapped whale shark aggregations and overlaid them with shipping traffic data.



Lead author Dr. Freya Womersley from the <a href="https://www.mareco.org.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Research and Conservation Foundation</a> (MARECO) and the <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> emphasized the severity of the threat to these marine giants.



"The almost ubiquitous overlap of at least some large shipping vessel traffic with whale shark aggregations underlines the magnitude of the threat the shipping industry poses," said Dr. Womersley. 



"Our findings highlight the need for targeted measures within these areas to reduce the risk of collision and improve the conservation status of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-whale-sharks-starvation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">endangered whale sharks</a>."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Whale sharks and the growing threat of shipping lanes</h2>



The global merchant fleet has doubled in size over the past 16 years, with over 100,000 ships now transporting goods worldwide. This number is expected to grow by as much as 1,200 percent over the next 27 years. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-new-approach-to-protecting-whales-from-ship-strikes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ship strikes</a>, collisions between vessels and marine wildlife, are a leading cause of death for large marine animals, affecting over 75 species and posing population-level threats.



Whale sharks spend nearly half of their time in surface waters, often in coastal areas frequented by shipping vessels. 



Dr. Gonzalo Araujo, director at MARECO, noted the difficulty in quantifying collision-related threats due to the nature of these species. 



"Collisions with large ships are likely to be fatal for whale sharks, but evidence is scarce because whale sharks are slightly negatively buoyant, so their bodies sink. To inform conservation efforts, it’s important to quantify collision-related threats even when direct evidence is lacking," said Dr. Araujo.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-high-risk-shipping-sites">Identifying high-risk shipping sites </h2>



Whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-whale-shark-behavior-is-crucial-for-their-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sharks</a>, primarily solitary creatures, gather at specific sites around the world known as constellations to feed. Protecting these high-density areas is crucial. 



The researchers leveraged insights from over 75 experts worldwide to map these constellations. The team identified 107 areas across 26 countries with frequent whale shark sightings, based on over 13,000 individual observations. 



Using data on large ship positions from Global Fishing Watch, the experts pinpointed regions where collisions are most likely. The most dangerous areas include the coast of mainland Ecuador, Isla Mujeres and La Paz in Mexico, Ewing Bank in the Gulf of Mexico, Kota Kinabalu and Redang Island in Malaysia, Pintuyan in the Philippines, Musandam in Oman, and regions around the Seychelles and Taiwan. 



The researchers identified 39 sites where high shipping activity overlaps with peak whale shark occurrences. 



"Many of these sites had more than one vessel per square kilometer in core habitats. For example, the constellation in Isla Mujeres in Mexico has an average of 56 ships passing through the core habitat monthly. These sites require urgent action to reduce the threats posed by shipping," said Dr. Chris Rohner, principal scientist at MMF.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mitigating-collision-risks-for-whale-sharks">Mitigating collision risks for whale sharks</h2>



The research team explored mitigation strategies, including simulating vessel movements within the whale shark constellation at Ewing Bank in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Reducing vessel speeds by 75% led to a minor increase in transit time - about 5% - but significantly lowered the risk of collisions.



"One of the benefits of speed reductions is that they can be temporarily introduced during whale shark peak seasons. These speed limits can also be applied to smaller vessels, which are less deadly but can still damage the sharks," explained Dr. Womersley.



Rerouting ships around core habitats had an even smaller impact, with only a 0.5 percent increase in total transit time (about 2.4 hours per vessel) and a 1.1 percent increase in total distance traveled. 



"Rerouting is the most direct way to reduce the risk of collision, and our results suggest that this will often be more cost-effective than speed reduction, mainly because whale shark core sites are small. Movements of as little as 12 nautical miles (22.2 km) away from a core whale shark habitat could mean fast transiting ships avoid the site entirely," noted Dr. Araujo.



Amy Fraenkel, executive secretary of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), emphasized the importance of these efforts. 



"CMS plays a pivotal role in securing the long-term survival of the whale shark – a globally endangered species. Ensuring the safety of this highly migratory species from vessel collisions within its migratory range, particularly at aggregation sites, is a key goal under CMS," said Fraenkel.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724029231?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Whale sharks face deadly threats in shipping lanes

New research on whale sharks reveals that heavily trafficked shipping...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Cambridge</a> has discovered that Eurasian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jays-with-greater-intelligence-have-more-self-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">jays</a> can recall incidental details of past events. According to the experts, these findings suggest that the birds have a form of episodic memory akin to humans.



Humans possess the ability of “mental time travel,” reimagining past experiences and recalling seemingly unimportant details. For a long time, this episodic memory has been considered unique to humans.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-episodic-memory-in-non-human-animals-nbsp">Episodic memory in non-human animals&nbsp;</h2>



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-connects-old-memories/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Episodic memory</a> describes the conscious reimagining of our memories and is often considered to be a uniquely human ability. As these phenomenological components are embedded within its definition, major issues arise when investigating the presence of episodic memory in non-human animals,” the authors wrote.



“Importantly, however, when we as humans recall a specific experience, we may remember details from that experience that were inconsequential to our needs, thoughts, or desires at that time,” they added.&nbsp;



“This ‘incidental’ information is nevertheless encoded automatically as part of the memory and is subsequently recalled within a holistic representation of the event. The incidental encoding and unexpected question paradigm represents this characteristic feature of human episodic memory and can be employed to investigate memory recall in non-human animals.”&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-episodic-like-memory-in-eurasian-jays">Episodic-like memory in Eurasian jays</h2>



In their study, the researchers aimed to test for episodic-like memory in Eurasian jays, known for their skill in remembering the locations of stored food. The experiment involved seven jays, which watched as food was placed under one of four identical cups. They were then rewarded for selecting the correct cup based on its position.&nbsp;



After training, the birds faced an unexpected memory test: they watched food being placed under one of the cups, now each with unique visual characteristics.&nbsp;



After a 10-minute separation, during which the cups were relocated and rearranged, the jays still identified the baited cup correctly 70% of the time, despite the visual changes and time delay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eurasian-jays-recall-details-of-previous-experiences">Eurasian jays recall details of previous experiences</h2>



These findings suggest that although the visual differences between the cups were irrelevant during training, the jays noticed and recalled these details during the test. This capability mirrors episodic memory in humans, where incidental details are recorded and accessed later.&nbsp;



The researchers propose that this type of memory might help jays locate food stores. However, future studies are needed to explore whether jays can perform similar memory tasks in non-food-related scenarios.



“As the jays were able to remember details that held no specific value or relevance at the time that the memory was created, this suggests that they are able to record, recall, and access incidental information within a remembered event,” noted the study authors.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This is an ability that characterizes the type of human memory through which we mentally 'relive' past events (or episodes), known as 'episodic' memory.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-eurasian-jays">More about Eurasian jays</h2>



Eurasian jays are medium-sized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/body-sizes-and-shapes-of-birds-are-shrinking-as-the-earth-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> belonging to the crow family, Corvidae. They are native to the broad range of Europe and western Asia. 



Eurasian jays are highly intelligent and exhibit complex behaviors, including the ability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiger-beetles-mimic-toxic-moths-to-deceive-predatory-bats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mimic</a> the calls of other birds and even human-made sounds.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-nbsp">Appearance&nbsp;</h3>



These birds are known for their striking plumage, which features a mix of pinkish-brown feathers, a white throat, and distinctive blue patches on their wings. Their head is adorned with a black mustache-like stripe and a black crown.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet">Diet</h3>



These jays are omnivorous, feeding on a varied <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plantations-limit-native-birds-diets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diet</a> that includes acorns, seeds, fruits, insects, and small vertebrates. They are particularly noted for their role in oak tree propagation, as they collect and bury acorns to eat later, often forgetting some, which then germinate into new trees.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lifestyle">Lifestyle</h3>



Eurasian jays are typically solitary or found in pairs, though they can gather in larger groups during the winter. They have a wide range of vocalizations and are known for their loud, raucous calls. Their nests are built high in trees and are constructed from twigs, roots, and other plant materials, lined with softer items like moss and feathers.



These birds are also notable for their problem-solving skills and the ability to plan for the future. Despite their wide distribution and varied habitats, they tend to avoid areas of dense urban development, preferring woodland environments.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301298" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLoS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Eurasian jays possess the ability of ‘mental time travel’

A new study led by the University of Cambridge has...

If you enjoy the vibrant colors of wildflowers,&nbsp;the sweet taste of honey,&nbsp;or the juicy crunch of an apple,&nbsp;you have pollinators to thank.&nbsp;These creatures,&nbsp;including bees,&nbsp;butterflies,&nbsp;wasps,&nbsp;and even some birds and bats, play a crucial role in our ecosystem and food production.&nbsp;However,&nbsp;these vital <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-twist-in-the-evolution-of-plant-pollinator-relationships/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> are facing an unprecedented crisis due to climate change.&nbsp;



Their populations are declining worldwide at an alarming rate. A new study,&nbsp;led by Dr.&nbsp;Johanne Brunet and Dr.&nbsp;Fabiana Fragoso,&nbsp;paints a grim picture of the multiple stressors impacting pollinators,&nbsp;many of which are a direct result of human activities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-impact-on-pollinators">Climate change impact on pollinators</h2>



"This review introduces the diversity of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-pollinators-wild-bees-boosts-food-supply-income/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>,&nbsp;addresses the main drivers of pollinator decline,&nbsp;and presents strategies to reduce their negative impacts," said Dr.&nbsp;Brunet.&nbsp;



"We discuss how managed bees negatively affect wild bee species,&nbsp;and examine the impact of habitat loss,&nbsp;pesticide use,&nbsp;pests and pathogens,&nbsp;pollution,&nbsp;and climate change on pollinator decline.&nbsp;Connections between humans and pollinator decline are also addressed."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-loss-to-food-insecurity">Biodiversity loss to food insecurity</h2>



The decline of pollinators has far-reaching consequences. It not only threatens biodiversity but also jeopardizes crop yields and food security. 



According to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (<a href="https://www.ipbes.net" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IPBES</a>), a staggering 16% of vertebrate pollinators, such as birds and bats, and 40% of invertebrate pollinators, including bees and butterflies, are at risk of extinction. 



This alarming decline could lead to a significant reduction in the availability and variety of food sources, particularly fruits and vegetables that rely on pollination for reproduction.



Without these pollinators, plants would struggle to produce the seeds and fruits necessary for their survival and propagation. This decline would not only diminish our diets but also disrupt entire ecosystems that depend on these plants. The loss of pollinators could cause a ripple effect, impacting other species and leading to a less diverse and resilient environment.



"In the absence of pollinators,&nbsp;the human diet will shift towards a preponderance of wheat,&nbsp;rice,&nbsp;oat,&nbsp;and corn,&nbsp;as these are wind-pollinated crops," said Dr.&nbsp;Fragoso.&nbsp;"Crops that reproduce vegetatively,&nbsp;such as bananas,&nbsp;will be maintained."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-complex-threats-to-pollinators">Climate change and complex threats to pollinators</h2>



The decline of pollinators is not a simple issue with a single cause. It's a complex web of interconnected factors, each contributing to the overall crisis. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change">Climate change</h3>



Climate change, with its associated changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, disrupts the delicate balance of pollinator habitats and food sources. These changes can alter blooming periods of plants and the availability of nectar and pollen, which are critical for pollinators' survival.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat loss</h3>



The problem is further exacerbated by habitat loss due to deforestation and urbanization, leaving pollinators with fewer places to forage and reproduce. Concrete and asphalt replace natural habitats, reducing areas where pollinators can thrive. This habitat fragmentation isolates pollinator populations, making it difficult for them to find mates and maintain genetic diversity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pesticides-and-herbicides">Pesticides and herbicides </h3>



The widespread use of pesticides and herbicides in agriculture also takes a toll on pollinators. Pesticides can be toxic to pollinators, killing them outright or impairing their ability to forage and reproduce. 



Herbicides reduce the availability of wildflowers and other plants that provide essential food sources. These chemicals create a hostile environment for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollution-prevents-nighttime-pollinators-from-finding-flowers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a>, making it difficult for them to survive and thrive.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invasive-species-and-disease">Invasive species and disease</h3>



Additionally, pollinator populations are impacted by the introduction of non-native species and diseases. Invasive species can outcompete native pollinators for resources, while new diseases can spread rapidly and decimate populations. 



This combination of factors creates a challenging environment for pollinators, contributing to their decline and threatening the ecosystems that depend on them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-practices-and-global-cooperation">Sustainable practices and global cooperation</h2>



While the situation is dire,&nbsp;there is still hope for pollinators.&nbsp;The researchers emphasize the importance of adopting sustainable agricultural practices that minimize the use of harmful chemicals and promote biodiversity.&nbsp;They also advocate for integrated pollinator management strategies that consider both wild and managed bee populations.



"Widespread use of sustainable practices in agriculture,&nbsp;and further development of integrated pollinator management strategies,&nbsp;eco-friendly strategies including reduction of pesticide use,&nbsp;will help preserve pollinators," said Dr.&nbsp;Fragoso.



"Potential adverse effects of managed bees on the local wild bee populations must be mitigated.&nbsp;Non-lethal collection methods should be developed and adopted globally in response to the increasing need for base-line pollinator data collection."



Addressing the threat of climate change is also crucial. Climate change affects pollinators by altering their habitats and the availability of food resources. It changes temperature and precipitation patterns, which can disrupt the life cycles of both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-that-90-of-flowering-plant-species-rely-on-animal-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollinators</a> and the plants. This can lead to mismatches in timing, such as when plants bloom and when pollinators are active, reducing pollination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-action-is-needed">Urgent action is needed</h2>



The decline of pollinators is a global crisis that requires urgent action.&nbsp;We can all play a role in supporting these essential creatures.&nbsp;By planting pollinator-friendly gardens,&nbsp;supporting sustainable agriculture,&nbsp;and advocating for policies that protect pollinators and their habitats,&nbsp;we can help ensure a future where both pollinators and humans can thrive.



"Measures must keep being implemented to reduce climate change and prevent its serious negative impacts on pollinators.&nbsp;Climate change has the most diverse negative impacts on pollinators and is the threat most difficult to control.&nbsp;However,&nbsp;its consequences threaten food security and world stability,&nbsp;thus efforts to control it must be prioritized at a global scale," noted Dr.&nbsp;Brunet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabireviews.2024.0016" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CABI Reviews</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Most pollinators face extinction risk due to climate change

If you enjoy the vibrant colors of wildflowers,&nbsp;the sweet taste...

Orcas, also known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-use-clever-hunting-strategies-to-outsmart-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">killer whales</a>, have long captivated marine enthusiasts with their striking black and white patterns and awe-inspiring intelligence. Now, a study has unveiled another fascinating aspect of their underwater prowess: orcas take only a single breath between dives. 



Imagine sprinting to the grocery store, doing your shopping, and returning home before taking another breath – that's the orca way.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-orca-breath">Mystery of orca breath</h2>



To unlock the secrets of orca respiration, researchers from the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a> embarked on a high-tech adventure. They deployed drones and attached suction-cupped tags to 11 northern and southern resident killer whales off the coast of British Columbia. This ingenious combination of technology allowed them to gather valuable data on the whales' diving habits and oxygen consumption.



The study's findings were truly astounding. Resident orcas, as they are known, prefer shallow dives, with most lasting less than a minute. However, one particularly adventurous adult male orca shattered expectations with an 8.5-minute dive, showcasing the species' remarkable adaptability.



The researchers used advanced technology to study orca respiration. They employed drones and suction-cupped tags to monitor 11 northern and southern resident killer whales near British Columbia's coast. This innovative approach provided detailed data on the whales' diving behavior and oxygen use.



The study revealed surprising results. Resident orcas mostly engage in shallow dives, typically under a minute. Nonetheless, one adult male demonstrated the species' adaptability by diving for 8.5 minutes, a significant deviation from the usual pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-it-s-a-sprint-not-a-marathon">It's a sprint, not a marathon</h2>



"Killer whales are like sprinters who don't have the marathon endurance of blue and humpback whales to make deep and prolonged dives,"&nbsp;explained Dr. Andrew Trites, a co-author of the study and professor in the UBC Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries (<a href="https://oceans.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IOF</a>). 



This revelation sheds light on the orcas' unique hunting strategies, favoring quick bursts of energy rather than prolonged underwater pursuits. Instead of relying on long, deep dives, orcas use brief, shallow dives to catch their prey. This method allows them to conserve energy and maximize their hunting efficiency. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-breath-of-fresh-air-for-orca-conservation">A breath of fresh air for orca conservation</h2>



The discovery that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sign-of-the-times-solitary-orcas-are-hunting-great-whites/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a> take only one breath between dives has significant implications for conservation efforts. By understanding how much oxygen these majestic creatures consume, scientists can estimate their energy expenditure and determine how much fish they need to eat each day. 



This information is crucial for ensuring the survival of endangered southern resident orcas, who face challenges due to declining fish populations.



Knowing the orcas' oxygen consumption helps scientists calculate their daily energy needs. With this data, researchers can assess whether the current fish population is sufficient to support the orcas. 



Effective conservation strategies can be developed based on these findings, aimed at protecting fish populations and ensuring orcas have enough food to survive and thrive.



"Researchers can then work out if the orcas are getting enough food, including the endangered southern residents, a key factor in their conservation," emphasized Tess McRae, the study's lead author and an IOF master's student.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orca-lungs-efficiency">Orca lungs efficiency</h2>



Compared to humans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-what-killer-whales-like-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a> are breathing champions. While resting, they take a leisurely 1.2 to 1.3 breaths per minute. This rate increases slightly to 1.5 to 1.8 breaths per minute when they are traveling or hunting. 



In stark contrast, humans typically take about 15 breaths per minute at rest and a whopping 40 to 60 breaths per minute during exercise.



“It’s the equivalent of holding your breath and running to the grocery store, shopping, and coming back before breathing again,” said co-author Dr. Beth Volpov, IOF postdoctoral fellow.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-orca-research">The future of orca research</h2>



The findings of this study open up exciting new avenues for orca research. By understanding their breathing patterns and energy needs, scientists can gain valuable insights into their behavior, health, and ecological role. This knowledge will be instrumental in developing effective conservation strategies to protect these iconic marine mammals for generations to come.



The study's confirmation that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killer-whales-seen-hunting-sharks-new-population/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orcas</a> take just one breath between dives has revolutionized our understanding of these magnificent creatures. It highlights their remarkable adaptability, efficient respiratory system, and unique hunting strategies. 



As we continue to explore the mysteries of the deep, the orcas' breathtaking abilities serve as a constant reminder of the wonders of the natural world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0302758" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Orcas rely only on one breath between dives to conserve energy

Orcas, also known as killer whales, have long captivated marine...

Moose, the majestic giants of North America, are facing a silent threat - a parasitic worm that could be playing a significant role in their decline. New research from Washington State University (<a href="https://wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WSU</a>) has shed light on the underestimated impact of&nbsp;Eleaophora schneideri, also known as the arterial worm, on these iconic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forest-biodiversity-benefits-from-large-herbivores-like-elephants-and-moose/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parasitic-worm-s-hidden-moose-invasion">Parasitic worm's hidden moose invasion </h2>



The researchers found that Eleaophora schneideri, a parasitic roundworm, infests the brains of moose in southeastern Idaho. The microscopic early life stage of the worm, called microfilariae, scatter throughout the brain, causing subtle but widespread damage.



"The microfilaria are just scattered throughout their brains, and even though the damage from each is miniscule, they're basically shot-gunning the whole brain," explained Kyle Taylor, a pathologist at WSU’s Washington Animal Disease Diagnostics Laboratory (<a href="https://waddl.vetmed.wsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WADDL</a>). 



"We hypothesize the cumulative effects of large numbers of microfilariae in the brain may be associated with increased morbidity or chance of mortality, with mortality more likely in cases with larger numbers of worms."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moose-brains-infected-by-parasitic-worms">Moose brains infected by parasitic worms</h2>



The research examined 61 recently deceased moose in Idaho. The researchers found no evidence of infection in northern Idaho moose or juveniles. However, a staggering 50% of adult moose in southeastern Idaho were infected. 



Of those infected, three had damage to the tips of their ears. This condition is directly attributed to E. schneideri infection. Additionally, four infected moose exhibited atypical behavior before their deaths.



This is the first time researchers have identified this level of parasitic infection in moose. This finding raises alarming questions about the overall health and survival of these populations. The high infection rate suggests a significant threat to moose in the affected regions. 



Researchers now face urgent challenges in understanding and mitigating this new risk to moose conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-silent-killer">A silent killer</h2>



The arterial worm spreads through tabanid flies like horse and deer flies. Mature worms can grow up to 4.5 inches long. They live in the carotid arteries of the head and neck. There, they mate and release microfilariae into the bloodstream.



Infection can cause elaeophorosis, which disrupts the moose's circulatory system. This can lead to blindness, atypical behavior, and damage to the ears and muzzle. In severe cases, it can even cause death. Other species like deer and elk can also be infected. However, they typically show minimal to no signs of infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geographic-spread-of-parasitic-worms">Geographic spread of parasitic worms</h2>



The experts also found that E. schneideri is widespread in southeastern Idaho. This aligns with the parasite's prevalence in neighboring regions of Montana and Wyoming. The distribution of E. schneideri coincides with populations of mule deer, which are natural hosts of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-thing-of-nightmares-parasite-turns-ants-into-zombies-at-dawn-and-dusk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">parasite</a>.



The implications of this research are far-reaching. Moose populations have been declining for years across North America. Contributing factors include habitat loss, climate change, and predation. The discovery of this widespread parasitic worm infection adds another layer of complexity to the moose population. This finding underscores the need for further research and monitoring. 



Understanding the full impact of E. schneideri is crucial for effective moose conservation efforts. Scientists must now investigate how this parasite interacts with other factors affecting moose populations. This comprehensive approach will help develop strategies to protect and preserve these iconic animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The next steps for researchers include developing tests to determine if live moose are infected with the parasitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-discovered-worms-that-kill-tarantulas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">worms</a>. This would allow for targeted interventions and management strategies to protect these vulnerable populations. 



"We really need to have an understanding of all the issues related to moose population decline, and this parasite appears to be a factor," noted Taylor.



The story of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moose-contribute-to-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moose</a> and the arterial parasitic worm starkly reminds us of the interconnectedness of ecosystems and nature's delicate balance. Parasites, often overlooked and underestimated, can profoundly impact wildlife populations. 



Additionally, we must acknowledge their role as we face conservation challenges in a changing world. Understanding parasites is crucial to protecting our planet's biodiversity. By studying these hidden threats, we can better protect and preserve diverse wildlife. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.7589/JWD-D-23-00112" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Wildlife Diseases</a>. 



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Declining moose populations linked to brain-eating parasitic worms

Moose, the majestic giants of North America, are facing a...

Pillbug,Sow,Bug,Isopoda,Oniscus,Wood,Louse

Woodlice, often much smaller than the typical seed-dispersing fauna, play some of the most critical roles in the ecosystem. 



This concept was recently highlighted by researchers from Kobe University, who unveiled that these tiny creatures can effectively <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/competition-nutrients-faster-plant-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">disperse seeds</a> after ingestion. 



Their studies set a new record for the smallest animals known to participate in this vital ecological process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intricacies-of-seed-dispersal">Intricacies of seed dispersal</h2>



Plants have evolved to produce fruits that attract animals, which consume and later deposit their seeds far from the original source. 



This dispersal strategy is crucial for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-disperse-their-seeds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant reproduction</a> and diversity. 



The seeds must be appealing and accessible to potential dispersers, durable enough to withstand the digestive process, and appropriately sized to pass through the animal. 



Surprisingly, research has primarily focused on mammals and birds, overlooking the potential roles of smaller invertebrates like woodlice in this process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exploring-the-mysteries-of-the-silver-dragon-plant">Exploring the mysteries of the "silver dragon" plant</h2>



The focus of the <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> team was a unique plant known as the "silver dragon," which thrives across East Asia. 



This non-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/key-to-life-on-earth-photosynthesis-begins-on-the-quantum-level-with-a-single-photon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesizing</a> plant depends on fungi and produces tiny, resilient seeds within its fleshy fruits. 



The research aimed to explore unknown methods of seed dispersal due to the minimal information available on how the silver dragon plant's seeds are spread. 



Through automated nighttime photography and controlled feeding experiments, the team observed that camel crickets were the primary consumers of the fruit. 



Remarkably, these crickets not only consumed over half of the fruits but also had the highest seed viability post-digestion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-woodlice-and-earwigs-unlikely-allies-in-seed-dispersal">Woodlice and earwigs: unlikely allies in seed dispersal</h2>



Unexpectedly, woodlice and earwigs also showed significant involvement in seed dispersal, with more than 30 percent of the ingested seeds surviving the process. 



This finding is particularly notable as it challenges the conventional view of these creatures solely as seed predators. 



Instead, it suggests a mutualistic relationship where these invertebrates help in seed dispersal, potentially increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-diversity-may-never-fully-recover-from-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diversity</a> and ecological resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rethinking-conservation-the-impact-of-tiny-seed-dispersers">Rethinking conservation: the impact of tiny seed dispersers</h2>



Kenji Suetsugu of Kobe University emphasizes the broader significance of these findings. 



"The identification of novel seed dispersal agents among small invertebrates prompts a reevaluation of conservation strategies. It underscores the necessity to preserve diverse habitats that support a wide range of species, including those previously overlooked as ecologically insignificant," he explains. 



The team is optimistic about uncovering similar dispersal mechanisms in other plant species, which could reveal a previously unrecognized ecological phenomenon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Woodlice and the call for inclusive conservation strategies</h2>



This research spotlights the vital roles that even the smallest creatures like woodlice play in our ecosystems and underscores the need for a broader perspective in conservation strategies. 



Recognizing the contributions of all species, regardless of their size, this study, published in the journal 'Plants, People, Planet,' challenges the scientific community and conservationists to rethink how we perceive and protect biodiversity. 



Through such innovative studies, we continue to uncover the complex and often surprising interactions that sustain life on our planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-woodlice">More about woodlice</h2>



Also known as pill bugs or roly-polies, woodlice are small, gray, or brown creatures that scurry around in gardens, forests, and even homes. 



Despite their appearance, these creatures are not insects but rather crustaceans, more closely related to shrimp and crabs than to bugs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Habitat and behavior</h3>



Woodlice thrive in damp, dark environments such as under rocks, logs, or leaf litter. They play a crucial role in the ecosystem by breaking down dead plant material and recycling nutrients back into the soil. These creatures are nocturnal and often hide during the day to avoid predators and maintain moisture.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Unique defense mechanism</h3>



One fascinating feature of woodlice is their ability to roll up into a tight ball when threatened, hence the nickname "roly-poly." This defense mechanism protects their vulnerable underside and makes it difficult for predators to consume them.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Benefits to gardens</h3>



In addition to plant seed dispersal, as discussed above, gardeners appreciate woodlice for their role in decomposition and soil aeration. As they feed on dead plant matter, they contribute to the formation of nutrient-rich soil that supports plant growth. Additionally, their burrowing activity helps to improve soil structure and drainage.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Keeping woodlice in check</h3>



While woodlice are generally beneficial, an excessive population can occasionally damage young plants. To control their numbers, gardeners can reduce moisture levels in the garden, remove hiding places like debris, and maintain good soil drainage. However, in most cases, woodlice coexist peacefully with plants and contribute to a healthy garden ecosystem.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10519" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiny woodlice prove to be crucial players in plant seed dispersal

Woodlice, often much smaller than the typical seed-dispersing fauna, play...

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) serve as crucial sanctuaries aimed at safeguarding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/emerging-issues-that-may-impact-marine-biodiversity-are-poorly-understood/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine biodiversity</a> and ensuring sustainable ecosystems. 



These areas, established to protect marine life, enhance ecosystem resilience, and secure long-term benefits for both nature and humanity, cover a substantial portion of the Earth’s oceans. 



However, an international collaboration, including researchers from <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, highlights a significant deficiency in the effectiveness of these areas.



The collaboration's analysis of the world’s 100 largest MPAs - which represent nearly 90% of Earth’s protected oceanic regions - reveals that these areas are underperforming in biodiversity conservation. 



The study points to slow management implementation and insufficient restrictions on detrimental human activities as primary reasons for this inefficacy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vital-role-of-ocean-biodiversity">The vital role of ocean biodiversity</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-stability-helped-ocean-biodiversity-flourish/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean biodiversity</a> is indispensable, playing a pivotal role in climate regulation, oxygen production, and food supply. It also harbors potential benefits for medicine and industry through its diverse genetic and molecular makeup. 



The presence of varied species within these MPAs helps mitigate adverse impacts on the marine ecosystem, crucial for maintaining the balance necessary for human and ecological health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-mpa-guide">Insights from The MPA Guide</h2>



The study’s framework was based on criteria from "The MPA Guide: A framework to achieve global goals for the ocean," a seminal piece in guiding global marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conservation efforts</a>. 



One of the key researchers involved in the study, Kirsten Grorud-Colvert, emphasized the urgency of enhancing the health and diversity of ocean areas. 



"Now more than ever we need healthy and biodiverse areas in the ocean to benefit people and help buffer threats to ocean ecosystems," said Grorud-Colvert, underscoring the necessity for effective, just, and durable MPAs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The 2030 biodiversity conservation target and MPA effectiveness</h2>



With a biodiversity conservation target set by the United Nations to protect at least 30% of the ocean by 2030, the findings serve as a crucial reminder of the need for both increased coverage and enhanced quality of MPAs. 



The report also questions the effectiveness of current conservation efforts, suggesting that a focus on quality, rather than merely the quantity of protected areas, is essential for genuine progress.



Beth Pike of the <a href="https://marine-conservation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Conservation Institute</a>, who led the assessment, weighed in on the outcomes linked to the design and management of MPAs. 



She noted significant disparities between the coverage of MPAs and the strength of protections they offer, suggesting that many MPAs, while extensive, do not sufficiently safeguard <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protect-marine-ecosystems-overfishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>. 



This points to an urgent need for adjustments in the approach to marine conservation to meet the 2030 biodiversity goals effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenges-and-recommendations">Challenges and recommendations</h2>



Despite the potential of MPAs as effective tools for biodiversity conservation, the report highlights notable variations in their design, goals, regulations, and management. 



For instance, while some MPAs prohibit activities like oil drilling and industrial fishing, others allow them, which greatly reduces their effectiveness. 



Furthermore, a quarter of these areas lack implemented management plans, rendering them no different from unprotected waters.



Another Oregon State marine ecologist involved in the study, Jenna Sullivan-Stack, pointed out that the title of "marine protected area" often sets expectations of a healthy, vibrant ocean space supportive of biodiversity. 



"That’s not always the case," said Sullivan-Stack. She stressed the importance of a standardized assessment method to provide a clear, evidence-based understanding of the actual state of biodiversity protection in MPAs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-geographic-distribution-of-mpas">The geographic distribution of MPAs</h2>



The researchers also noted that large MPAs are often located in remote areas, leaving vital habitats and species in less remote regions unprotected. 



This geographic imbalance underscores the need for a more strategic placement of MPAs to encompass a broader range of critical marine environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-marine-protected-areas">Enhancing marine protected areas</h2>



The analysis provided by the international team serves as a call to action for enhancing the design and management of marine protected areas. 



By focusing on strengthening these ocean guardians, we can ensure they fulfill their role as effective protectors of marine biodiversity, supporting ecosystems and communities worldwide. 



The journey towards achieving the 2030 conservation goal is not just about expanding the ocean’s protected areas - it’s about ensuring these areas are truly capable of sustaining the marine life they are designed to protect.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.13020" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Marine protected areas fall short on 2030 biodiversity targets

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) serve as crucial sanctuaries aimed at...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.unil.ch/central/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Lausanne</a> have solved a long-standing paleontological mystery. The team has recently discovered a fossil that bridges the gap between modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-species-of-burrowing-scorpions-discovered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scorpions</a>, spiders, horseshoe crabs, and their Cambrian ancestors. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mystery-of-the-arthropod-lineage-nbsp">Mystery of the arthropod lineage&nbsp;</h2>



Scorpions, spiders, and horseshoe crabs belong to the arthropod lineage, which appeared nearly 540 million years ago. They are part of a subphylum called chelicerates, characterized by pincers known as chelicerae, used for biting, grasping prey, or injecting venom. Identifying the ancestors of this specific group has long puzzled paleontologists.



Early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-fossil-sheds-light-on-arthropod-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropod</a> fossils did not show enough similarities with modern species to be considered ancestors, and a lack of fossils from the key period between 505 and 430 million years ago compounded the mystery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-from-morocco-nbsp">Fossils from Morocco&nbsp;</h2>



Lorenzo Lustri, a PhD student at the University of Lausanne's Faculty of Geosciences and Environment, provided the missing piece of the puzzle.&nbsp;



Lustri and his supervisors studied a hundred fossils from the Fezouata Shale of Morocco, dating back 478 million years, and identified a fossil that links modern organisms to those of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossil-sponges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian period</a> (505 million years ago). 



Discovered in the early 2000s, fossils from the Fezouata Shale have undergone extensive analysis. However, the fossil illustrated in the recent study, Setapedites abundantis, had never been described before.&nbsp;



Measuring between 5 and 10 millimeters, this fossil allows scientists to trace the lineage of chelicerates from early arthropods to modern species like spiders, scorpions, and horseshoe crabs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-analyzing-the-anatomy-of-fossil-chelicerates">Analyzing the anatomy of fossil chelicerates</h2>



To achieve these results, the scientists used an X-ray scanner to reconstruct the anatomy of the fossils in detail and in 3D. They compared these findings with numerous fossil chelicerates from other sites and their more ancient relatives.&nbsp;



The significance of the Fezouata fossil was clarified through phylogenetic analyses, which mathematically reconstruct the family tree of different species based on the “coding” of all their anatomical traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-discovery-nbsp">Surprising discovery&nbsp;</h2>



“Initially, we only intended to describe and name this fossil. We had absolutely no idea that it would hold so many secrets,” said Lustri, who defended his PhD in March 2023. “It was therefore an exhilarating surprise to realize, after careful observations and analysis, that it also filled an important gap in the evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammalian-tree-of-life-traces-evolution-of-mammals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree of life</a>.”



The fossil has yet to reveal all its secrets. Some anatomical features provide insights into the early evolution of chelicerates and may link this group to other debated fossil forms.



A temporary exhibition on the Fezouata biota will soon be held at the Palais de Rumine in Lausanne, Switzerland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-of-scorpions-and-spiders-nbsp">Fossils of scorpions and spiders&nbsp;</h2>



Fossils of scorpions and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/riding-the-wind-joro-spiders-are-invading-the-u-s-at-an-alarming-rate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiders</a> provide intriguing insights into the ancient history of these arachnids, tracing their existence back hundreds of millions of years. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scorpions-nbsp">Scorpions&nbsp;</h3>



Scorpions are among the oldest known terrestrial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-did-the-first-animals-appear-on-earth-we-are-now-one-step-closer-to-knowing-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">animals</a>, with their earliest fossils dating back to the Silurian period, over 430 million years ago. These ancient scorpions were similar in form to modern ones, though some were aquatic or semi-aquatic, showing adaptations like gills.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spiders">Spiders</h3>



Spider fossils, while not as ancient as those of scorpions, are still quite old, with the oldest known spider fossils dating back to the Carboniferous period, around 300 million years ago. These early spiders already displayed key features such as spinnerets, which are used to produce silk.&nbsp;



The preservation of spiders in the fossil record is often linked to amber deposits, where fine details of their anatomy, including their silk-producing structures, can be exquisitely preserved.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-stability-nbsp">Evolutionary stability&nbsp;</h3>



Both scorpions and spiders have shown remarkable evolutionary stability. Their basic body plans and behaviors have changed little over millions of years, indicating a successful adaptation to their ecological niches.&nbsp;



The study of spider and scorpion fossils not only helps in understanding their evolution and distribution over time but also provides insights into the ancient environments they inhabited.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-48013-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: UNIL



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossil reveals the first ancestors of scorpions and spiders

Researchers at the University of Lausanne have solved a long-standing...

The quest to reintroduce bilbies into temperate regions of Australia, where they have not roamed for over a century, is gaining momentum. This effort is crucial for restoring a vital part of the region’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-solutions-for-the-climate-and-biodiversity-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. Thanks to a recent study conducted in a sanctuary setting, progress is being made.



This pivotal research, a collaboration between <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNSW Sydney</a> and Taronga <a href="https://taronga.org.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Society Australia</a>, is unfolding at Taronga Western Plains Zoo in Dubbo. Consequently, researchers at the zoo have unearthed vital clues that could help restore the bilby, a beloved yet threatened <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/australasian-marsupials-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marsupial</a>, to its former habitats in southeastern and southwestern Australia.



The study focused on bilbies bred within the confines of the zoo's large sanctuary, designed to mimic the temperate zones of Australia. Historically, bilbies thrived in these areas, but due to threats like invasive species and habitat loss, their presence dwindled dramatically since European settlement.



Dr. Kate Cornelsen, the lead author of the study, emphasized the need for a detailed understanding of the animal's habitat preferences in temperate climates. 



"If bilbies are to be restored in the temperate zone where they once thrived, we need to know much more about where they like to go and what they need there," explained Dr. Cornelsen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-mystery-of-bilby-behavior">Unraveling the mystery of bilby behavior</h2>



To gain this understanding, researchers equipped 20 greater bilbies with tiny GPS tracking devices on their tails. These devices recorded the animals' locations every hour, providing a unique insight into their nocturnal habits and preferences.



Andrew Elphinstone, manager of conservation, recovery, and restoration programs at Taronga Conservation Society Australia and co-author of the study, highlighted the bilbies' role as "ecosystem engineers." 



"Bilbies turn over and aerate the earth, which improves soil health. Understanding their habitat preferences and needs is critical to restoring the species to a wider area," explained Elphinstone.



The research revealed intriguing patterns in bilby behavior, particularly in their food and habitat choices. "Food biomass or availability had a strong influence on where they preferred to hang out," said Dr. Cornelsen. 



The experts noted that bilbies were adept at locating food sources, and showed a preference for specific soil types. Females were particularly selective, likely due to their need to balance burrowing conditions with food availability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-habitat-selection-of-bilbies">Surprising habitat selection of bilbies</h2>



Interestingly, the researchers found that bilbies often chose areas further from water sources, a preference that contradicts expectations given the general productivity near water bodies. 



"Food is probably less patchy and more predictable in this study area compared to the desert regions previously studied," said Dr. Cornelsen.



A predictable food supply may help these creatures avoid competition with other species that rely on direct water sources.



Furthermore, the study revealed significant differences in resource usage between genders. 



While females were constrained to their breeding burrows, limiting their range, males had the freedom to select high-quality feeding areas. This behavior was particularly noted during seasons when invertebrates - a key food source - were plentiful. 



This distinction is crucial for developing targeted conservation strategies that address the specific needs and behaviors of each gender.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-for-bilby-conservation">Future directions for bilby conservation</h2>



The findings of the study are not just academic; they hold practical implications for bilby reintroductions into temperate zones. 



"For future bilby reintroductions, we will now have greater confidence in the resources required by the species within temperate regions," said Dr. Cornelsen.



The study marks a significant step forward in bilby conservation, providing a clearer picture of how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/why-are-some-animals-nocturnal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nocturnal</a> marsupials select resources and adapt to new environments. 



By continuing to study bilbies in different environmental contexts, conservationists can better prepare for successful reintroductions and ensure the survival of this unique Australian marsupial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">More about bilbies&nbsp;</h2>



Bilbies, also known as rabbit-bandicoots, are small nocturnal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-rarest-marsupial-was-unwittingly-saved-by-prince-philip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marsupials</a> native to Australia. They are notable for their long, silky blue-grey fur, large ears that help with heat dissipation, and a long, black and white tail. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Bilby diet</h3>



Bilbies are omnivores and their diet includes insects, seeds, fungi, bulbs, and small animals. They have a very distinctive way of feeding, using their long tongues to scoop up food.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Population decline&nbsp;</h3>



Historically, bilbies occupied arid and semi-arid regions across much of Australia. However, due to habitat loss, the introduction of non-native predators like foxes and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feral-cats-are-wiping-out-endangered-marsupials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cats</a>, and competition from rabbits, their population has drastically declined. 



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Reproduction&nbsp;</h3>



Bilbies have an interesting reproductive strategy where the gestation period is only about 12-14 days, one of the shortest among mammals. They give birth to tiny, underdeveloped offspring that continue to develop in the mother's pouch.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Ecological role</h3>



The bilby's ecological role includes soil turnover and aeration through their digging activities, which also helps in seed dispersal and reducing bushfire fuel loads.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0003347224000903?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Animal Behavior</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Can bilbies return to the places where they once thrived?

The quest to reintroduce bilbies into temperate regions of Australia,...

Bats, as primary predators of night-flying insects, have driven many prey species to evolve high-frequency hearing to detect bat echolocation. At least six insect orders, including moths, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reconstructing-300-million-years-of-beetle-evolution/%C3%B9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a>, crickets, and grasshoppers, have developed such auditory systems. 



However, according to a new study, tiger beetles take this further by emitting their own ultrasonic signals when they detect bats, a behavior that puzzled scientists for 30 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-ultrasonic-sounds-for-defense">Using ultrasonic sounds for defense</h2>



“It’s such a foreign idea to humans: these animals flying around at night trying to catch each other in essentially complete darkness, using sound as their way of communicating,” said lead author Harlan Gough.&nbsp;



While conducting his doctoral research at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, Gough hypothesized that tiger beetles must gain significant benefits from producing the sound, despite it potentially aiding bats in locating them.



Tiger beetles are unique among beetles in their response to bat predation through ultrasound. In contrast, about 20% of moth species share this ability, providing a reference point for understanding similar behaviors in other insects.&nbsp;



“This was a really fun study because we got to peel apart the story layer by layer,” Gough said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiger-beetles-produce-ultrasound-nbsp">Tiger beetles produce ultrasound&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers first confirmed that tiger beetles produce ultrasound when under bat threat. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-play-an-active-role-in-plant-pollination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bats</a> emit ultrasonic pulses to navigate and locate prey, increasing the frequency of these pulses when targeting an insect. 



The researchers replicated this bat echolocation attack sequence to observe the beetles' response. They found that 7 out of 20 studied tiger beetle species responded by moving their elytra (protective wing covers) slightly backward, causing their hind wings to clap against the elytra, producing a faint buzzing detectable by bats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-responding-to-bat-echolocation">Responding to bat echolocation</h2>



“Responding to bat echolocation is a much less common ability than just being able to hear echolocation,” Gough noted.&nbsp;



“Most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moths-bat-predators-camouflage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moths</a> aren’t singing these sounds through their mouths, like we think of bats echolocating through their mouth and nose. Tiger moths, for example, use a specialized structure on the side of the body, so you need that structure to make ultrasound as well as ears to hear the bat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-purpose-of-tiger-beetle-ultrasound-signals">What is the purpose of tiger beetle ultrasound signals?</h2>



Tiger beetles' response to bat echolocation was evident, but the purpose remained unclear. Unlike some moths that jam bat sonar with rapid clicks, tiger beetles' simple ultrasound couldn't achieve this.&nbsp;



The researchers hypothesized that the beetles might use ultrasound to signal their noxiousness, as they produce defensive chemicals like benzaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide.



Testing this theory, they fed 94 tiger beetles to big brown bats. Surprisingly, 90 were eaten entirely, two were partially consumed, and only two were rejected, indicating the beetles' chemicals do little to deter bats.&nbsp;



This experiment, led by Akito Kawahara, director of the museum’s McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity, was the first to test whether tiger beetles were genuinely noxious to bats.



“Even if you identify a chemical, that doesn’t mean it’s a defense against a particular predator,” Kawahara explained. “You don’t actually know until you do the experiment with the predator.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mimicking-the-sounds-of-toxic-tiger-moths-nbsp">Mimicking the sounds of toxic tiger moths&nbsp;</h2>



The results showed that tiger beetles don't use ultrasound to warn bats of their noxiousness. Instead, the researchers considered that tiger beetles might mimic the ultrasonic signals of genuinely noxious tiger moths to deceive bats.&nbsp;



Comparing recordings of tiger beetle ultrasound with those of tiger moths, they found a clear overlap, supporting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterflies-use-visual-and-behavioral-mimicry-to-avoid-predators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mimicry</a> hypothesis.



This mimicry is specific to nocturnal tiger beetles. The 12 diurnal tiger beetle species included in the study did not respond to bat echolocation, indicating that these beetles have likely lost the ability to fear bat echolocation.



“If you get one of those tiger beetles that goes to sleep at night and play bat echolocation to it, it makes no response at all,” Gough said. “And they seem to be able to pretty quickly lose the ability to be afraid of bat echolocation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ultrasonic-mimicry-in-other-species">Ultrasonic mimicry in other species</h2>



The researchers believe that more examples of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moths-use-ultrasonic-back-chat-to-fend-off-bat-attacks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultrasonic</a> mimicry likely exist, given the understudied nature of nocturnal insect acoustics. 



“I think it’s happening all over the world,” Kawahara said. “With my colleague, Jesse Barber, we have been studying this together for many years. We think it’s not just tiger beetles and moths. It appears to be happening with all kinds of different nocturnal insects, and we just don’t know simply because we haven’t been testing in this manner.”



These delicate ecological interactions are threatened by human impacts like noise and light pollution, which can disrupt acoustic mimicry. “If we want to understand these processes, we need to do it now,” Kawahara said. “There are amazing processes taking place in our backyards that we can’t see. But by making our world louder, brighter and changing the temperature, these balances can break.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2023.0610" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biology Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Tiger beetles mimic toxic moths to deceive predatory bats 

Bats, as primary predators of night-flying insects, have driven many...

Male gorillas may seem like the epitome of fertility,&nbsp;but their biology tells a different story.&nbsp;Despite their imposing size, male gorillas possess relatively small testes and produce sperm with lower motility,&nbsp;characteristics typically associated with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bulls-are-helping-solve-the-mysteries-of-male-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infertility</a> in humans.



Surprisingly,&nbsp;these seemingly contradictory traits in gorillas might hold the key to unlocking the mysteries of male infertility in humans.&nbsp;By studying the reproductive biology of gorillas,&nbsp;scientists hope to gain a deeper understanding of the factors that influence sperm production and function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-genes-link-to-human-infertility">Gorillas genes link to human infertility</h2>



<a href="https://www.buffalo.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University at Buffalo</a> researchers have made a significant breakthrough in the field of male infertility.&nbsp;Their study focused on identifying genes responsible for the unique reproductive traits of gorillas,&nbsp;which include small testes and low sperm motility.&nbsp;They discovered 109 genes that,&nbsp;when mutated,&nbsp;negatively impact the gorilla's reproductive system.



The most intriguing aspect of this discovery is that these same genes are frequently found mutated in infertile men.&nbsp;This suggests a shared genetic basis for male infertility in both humans and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/does-early-life-adversity-in-gorillas-lead-to-hardship-as-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorillas</a>,&nbsp;potentially opening up new avenues for research and treatment.



"We have a set of genes that are involved in sperm biology and have the signatures of harmful mutations when in gorillas. We can then look at those same genes in infertile men and see if they have mutations," says Dr. Vincent Lynch, lead author of the study. This unexpected connection suggests that gorillas could be the unlikely heroes in our fight against human male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/semen-has-its-own-microbiome-and-it-may-be-the-cause-of-infertility/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infertility</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-gorillas-don-t-need-impressive-sperm">Why gorillas don't need impressive sperm</h2>



Male gorillas' reproductive shortcomings are a result of their polygynous mating system.&nbsp;In simpler terms,&nbsp;the dominant silverback's sheer size and strength give him almost exclusive access to the females in his group.&nbsp;There's no need for a sperm race when you're the only contender.



"There are two ways to compete for mates:&nbsp;You can either use your body or your sperm," Lynch explains.&nbsp;"Most mammals use a combination of both.&nbsp;Gorillas use only their bodies." This lack of sperm competition has led to an evolutionary trade-off.&nbsp;Gorillas have sacrificed sperm quality for physical dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-and-human-infertility">Gorillas and human infertility</h2>



Human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-fertility-rates-are-quickly-declining-and-little-is-being-done-about-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infertility</a> affects a significant number of couples, and the genetic causes are often unclear. The gorilla's genome is shedding light on this complex infertility issue.



"So rather than looking at all of a man's genes for rare mutations,&nbsp;you could look at only those genes whose gorilla counterparts cause abnormal sperm biology," says Jacob Bowman,&nbsp;a postdoctoral researcher and the study's first author.



By studying <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/gorilla-refuses-to-let-others-near-then-staff-looked-at-his-hands/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gorillas</a>' "relaxed" genes – those with mutations that would typically be eliminated but have persisted due to lack of sperm competition – researchers can pinpoint genes that play a crucial role in human fertility.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruit-flies-and-altered-genes">Fruit flies and altered genes</h2>



Scientists have already made progress using fruit flies to study the effects of deleting gorilla genes. By removing these specific genes in the insects, researchers could observe the resulting changes. The experiments confirmed that many of these genes are essential for male reproductive function. 



This means that the same genes affecting gorilla reproduction play crucial roles in the reproductive systems of other species, including humans. This cross-species genetic approach offers valuable insights into the underlying causes of male <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/artificial-testicles-created-in-a-lab-will-eventually-produce-sperm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infertility</a>.



"Most of the genes that are important for reproductive biology are conserved across many different species,&nbsp;including Drosophila,&nbsp;and you can do these loss-of-function experiments at scale in Drosophila in a way that you can't in other organisms," says Lynch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-male-infertility-treatment">Future of male infertility treatment</h2>



This research is still in its early stages,&nbsp;but it opens a new avenue for understanding and addressing male infertility.&nbsp;By pinpointing the genetic mutations associated with infertility,&nbsp;scientists may develop targeted treatments and therapies.



"Just a few years ago, there weren’t enough sequenced genomes and computing power to conduct these kind of studies. As science collects more genetic data, we’ll have a better understanding of why infertility happens,” said Lynch.



The mighty gorilla, with its less-than-mighty reproductive system, may hold the key to unlocking the secrets of human male infertility. This research is a testament to the interconnectedness of species and the power of scientific inquiry. While there's still much to learn, the future of fertility research looks promising - thanks in part to our unlikely ally, the gorilla.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/reviewed-preprints/94563v1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eLife</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Same genes that cause human infertility made gorilla penises small

Male gorillas may seem like the epitome of fertility,&nbsp;but their...

The Great Barrier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/restored-coral-reefs-can-bounce-back-in-just-four-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reef</a>, a breathtaking underwater world teeming with life, faces a formidable foe: the crown-of-thorns <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/killing-crown-of-thorns-starfish-cots-could-save-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starfish</a>. 



These coral-munching marauders have wreaked havoc on the reef, leaving behind a trail of bleached and lifeless coral skeletons. But a glimmer of hope has emerged from an unlikely source -- the starfish's own genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crown-of-thorns-starfish-and-coral-reefs">Crown-of-thorns starfish and coral reefs</h2>



Crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) present a significant ecological threat to coral reefs due to their voracious appetite for coral polyps, which are the living tissue that builds and sustains coral reefs. When COTS populations surge, they engage in extensive coral predation, leading to severe degradation of reef structures. 



This predation reduces coral cover drastically, which has a cascading effect on the entire marine ecosystem. Healthy coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots, providing habitat and food for a myriad of marine species. 



When COTS decimate coral populations, the loss of habitat and food sources results in a decline in marine biodiversity, affecting fish populations, invertebrates, and other marine life that rely on the reef.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starfish-and-slow-coral-reef-recovery-rate">Starfish and slow coral reef recovery rate</h2>



The impact of COTS is further exacerbated by the slow growth and recovery rates of coral reefs. Coral regeneration is a lengthy process, often taking decades to recover from damage. 



Frequent or severe COTS outbreaks can thus set back reef recovery for many years, hindering the ability of these ecosystems to bounce back. 



Additionally, reefs weakened by COTS predation are more susceptible to other environmental stresses such as climate change, pollution, and overfishing. These additional stressors can compound the damage, making it even more challenging for the reef to recover. 



As a result, controlling COTS populations is essential for preserving the health and resilience of coral reefs, which are vital for maintaining marine biodiversity, protecting coastal regions, and supporting local economies dependent on tourism and fishing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-starfish-behavior-and-gene-expression">Starfish behavior and gene expression</h2>



In a recent study, <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> researchers Marie Morin and Mathias Jönsson embarked on a genetic quest to understand the inner workings of these destructive creatures. Their mission? To decipher the genetic code behind the starfish's key behaviors, particularly their rampant reproduction.



"By understanding how crown-of-thorns starfish genes work, we can unlock the mechanisms behind their key behaviors and find ways to stop them breeding," explains Morin.



The researchers focused on "gene expression," the process by which genes are translated into action, producing proteins or RNA molecules. They discovered over 2,000 protein-coding genes that showed significant changes between summer and winter. 



This finding sheds light on the seasonal rhythms and behaviors of the crown-of-thorns starfish, providing crucial insights into their biology and potential vulnerabilities. By understanding these patterns, scientists can better target their efforts to control the starfish population and protect coral reefs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disrupting-starfish-reproduction-genes">Disrupting starfish reproduction genes</h2>



The research team's most significant finding was the identification of specific genes that play a crucial role in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crown-of-thorns-starfish-are-natures-ultimate-coral-predators-and-they-are-winning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crown-of-thorns starfish</a>'s reproductive processes,&nbsp;such as the timing of spawning or the development of reproductive organs.



This discovery is a major advancement,&nbsp;as it presents the possibility of developing targeted genetic interventions.&nbsp;These interventions could involve manipulating these identified genes to disrupt the starfish's reproductive cycle,&nbsp;potentially by preventing fertilization,&nbsp;inhibiting the development of reproductive cells,&nbsp;or altering the timing of spawning.&nbsp;



By disrupting the reproductive cycle,&nbsp;scientists could control the population growth of these starfish and mitigate their destructive impact on coral reefs,&nbsp;allowing the reefs to recover and thrive.



"This is a promising sign because if we can find ways to disrupt this communication genetically, it could stop the starfish reproducing," says Morin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-side-of-starfish-genes">Wild side of starfish genes</h2>



Unlike previous studies that relied on captive starfish, the research ventured into the heart of the Great Barrier Reef to analyze wild populations. This approach, says Professor Bernard Degnan, is crucial for understanding the true genetic makeup and behaviors of these creatures in their natural habitat.



"Analyzing marine animals in a lab can cause changes to the animal and its functional genetics," Degnan explains. "By capturing crown-of-thorns starfish in the deep heart of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR), we were able find out what's really happening in wild populations."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reef-conservation">Coral reef conservation</h2>



The implications of this research are far-reaching. Dr. Mary Bonin, GBR Foundation COTS Control Innovation Program Director, hails it as a game-changer in the fight to protect the reef.



"This exciting research paves the way for the development of new control tools to help address this threat to reef health," says Dr. Bonin.



While COTS are native to the Great Barrier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-coral-reefs-deeper-zones-currently-safe-warming-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Reef</a>, their population outbreaks pose a grave threat to the delicate coral ecosystem. By understanding and manipulating their genetics, scientists may be able to develop targeted, environmentally friendly solutions to control their numbers and safeguard the reef's future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-starfish-and-coral-reefs">Future of starfish and coral reefs</h2>



The next phase of this research will involve further genetic analysis and the exploration of natural pest control measures. The goal is to develop innovative strategies that can be deployed on the Great Barrier Reef to mitigate the damage caused by these starfish and restore the reef's vitality.



The battle to save coral reefs is a race against time. Climate change, pollution, and other human-induced stressors have already taken a toll on these fragile ecosystems. But with remarkable research like this, there is hope that we can turn the tide and protect these underwater wonders for generations to come.



The crown-of-thorns starfish may be a formidable adversary, but by unraveling the secrets hidden within its genes, scientists are forging a new path towards a brighter future for coral reefs and the countless marine species that call them home.



The research&nbsp;is published in&nbsp;<a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.3002620" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

"Crown-of-thorns" starfish genetics may help protect reefs

The Great Barrier Reef, a breathtaking underwater world teeming with...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—–



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.



—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way