Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. 



In new work, researchers at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Carolina State University</a> identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals.



The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form.



Researchers have debated and re-examined soft, stretchy tissues from these same specimens for nearly two decades. 



Teams have used high-resolution imaging, antibodies, and protein sequencing to argue that the materials are genuine remnants of dinosaur biology rather than modern contaminants. The latest study adds another tool - and another confirmation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-unlocks-dinosaur-chemistry">Light unlocks dinosaur chemistry</h2>



The team turned to <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/resonance-raman-spectroscopy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy</a>. In this method, laser light is tuned to a molecule’s electronic transitions. This causes only that molecule to “sing” back with a strong signal.



“Raman spectroscopy essentially uses light waves to identify a molecule’s energetic ‘fingerprint,’” said physicist Hans Hallen, the study’s corresponding author. 



“Resonance Raman, which we use here, takes that process one step further by using light already tuned to the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seeking-the-origins-of-the-molecule-that-made-the-universe/">molecule</a> of interest - so only that type of molecule will resonate.”



That resonance dramatically boosts the signal from specific bonds - crucial when your targets are rare, damaged molecules embedded in a complex fossil matrix.



“This strong signal allows us to find the needle (hemoglobin remnants) in the haystack (messy fossil) to see how this molecule has changed from the functional living state, revealing the chemical changes molecules undergo in deep time,” Hallen added.



RR spectra from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus extracts showed signatures consistent with heme still bound to globin proteins. In addition, they indicated heme bound to goethite, an iron oxide mineral linked to oxidized iron.



The researchers cross-checked those signals against demineralized modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-of-a-cretaceous-ostrich-mexidracon-longimanus-with-extremely-long-arms/">ostrich</a> bone and human blood to anchor their interpretations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-molecules-traced-to-dinosaurs">Blood molecules traced to dinosaurs</h2>



Because Raman detects bonds rather than whole molecules, skeptics often point out that generic signals could arise from modern microbes or other contaminants. 



That’s where the extra selectivity of RR - and the structural information in the spectra - matters.



“RR identifies both bonds and structure," said paleobiologist Mary Schweitzer, a co-author on the work. 



"We know that heme is there and that it is still bound to hemoglobin protein - contaminants like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reusable-water-bottles-are-breeding-ground-for-strep-and-fecal-bacteria/">bacteria</a> don’t have those specific bonds, so we can say that the molecules are from the animal, or in this case, the dinosaur,”



The team also mapped how those spectral fingerprints shift as hemoglobin decays. After death, the protein breaks down, damaging the heme ring and oxidizing the iron inside it. 



RR data show that goethite forms on that iron, and the heme can bind to the mineral surface.



Tellingly, the researchers observed the early stages of the same degradation pathway in modern samples, suggesting that key steps happen relatively quickly and then stabilize.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaur-blood-survived-fossilization">Dinosaur blood survived fossilization</h2>



Beyond confirming what the molecules are, the spectral changes reveal a plausible route for how they survived. 



Goethite is a bio-related mineral - it often forms in association with biological activity - and the new data hint that it doesn’t just grow near proteins; it can latch onto and stabilize fragments. "We didn’t know that it could bind to and stabilize <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">protein</a> fragments,” Hallen said.



That matters because it shows a mechanism that locks delicate organics in place and protects them during fossilization. 



Researchers already know that heme persists in sediments far older than the age of dinosaurs, but the path from fresh blood to ancient rock has remained murky.



Pinning down the chemistry helps explain why hemoglobin, in particular, shows up as a survivor - and why some fossils preserve molecular vestiges while others do not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-view-of-fossil-preservation">A new view of fossil preservation</h2>



The study reinforces a shift in paleontology: under the right conditions, original biochemistry can endure deep time, and modern tools can detect and interpret it. 



Instead of a binary “preserved or not,” researchers are piecing together degradation pathways, mineral partnerships, and microenvironments that favor survival.



For dinosaur biology, that means more than just curiosity. Hemoglobin and heme in blood play key roles in metabolism, oxygen transport, and overall physiology. 



Their presence, and the way they degrade, defines how tissues fossilize and what information we can still extract.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/dinosaur-bone_hemoglobin_preserved_NCSU_1s.webp" alt="Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Credit: NC State University" class="wp-image-1985867"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Vessels isolated from Tyrannosaurus cortical bone by demineralization in EDTA. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NC State University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-chemistry-spans-eons">Blood chemistry spans eons</h2>



For dinosaur fossil science, mineral–organic interactions like heme–goethite may help preserve blood proteins and molecular fragments throughout Earth’s history.



“Heme has been identified in sediments that are much, much older than dinosaurs, so we know that it persists,” Schweitzer noted. 



“Understanding why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-human-genetics-could-optimize-medical-care/">hemoglobin</a> preserves, and the role that heme plays in the process, is really important if we want to know how these ancient molecules survive through time.”



The upshot is both practical and provocative. Resonance Raman pinpoints specific ancient molecules within messy fossils, and the chemistry it reveals also serves as a preservation roadmap. 



That’s a powerful combination for anyone trying to read life’s oldest diaries written in stone.



The study is published in the <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2025.0175" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences</a>.



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Hemoglobin and other blood molecules found preserved in dinosaur fossils

Two iconic dinosaurs - Tyrannosaurus rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis - have yielded a fresh line of evidence that traces of their original biology can survive for tens of millions of years. In new work, researchers at North Carolina State University identified hemoglobin - the oxygen-carrying protein in blood - and its iron-bearing heme group in bone extracts from both animals. The finding strengthens a growing body of data showing that certain biomolecules can persist in exceptional fossils. It also clarifies how they change as fossils form. Researchers...

Could the ownership of a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-can-learn-the-names-of-their-companions/">cat</a> increase the risk of schizophrenia? The answer is yes, according to a recent review of 17 studies conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.uq.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Queensland</a> in Australia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



In their comprehensive analysis, the team performed a meta-analysis of existing research, published over the last 44 years and spanning 11 countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom.&nbsp;



What they discovered was that individuals exposed to cats before the age of 25 had approximately double the odds of developing schizophrenia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-toxoplasma-gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</h2>



The scientific rationale behind this correlation lies in a parasite called Toxoplasma gondii, or T. gondii for short, which is commonly found in pet cats. This parasite has the potential to enter the human body through a cat’s bite.&nbsp;



Once inside, it can infiltrate the central nervous system and influence neurotransmitters in the brain. This, in turn, can lead to alterations in personality, the emergence of psychotic symptoms, and the development of psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-schizotypy-scale">Schizotypy scale</h2>



One of the studies included in the review, which focused on 354 students in the United States, did not find a direct link between cat ownership and scores on a schizotypy scale.&nbsp;



However, when comparing individuals who had been bitten by a cat to those who had not, the bitten group displayed higher scores on the schizotypy scale. 



This scale is essentially a questionnaire designed to gauge traits associated with unconventional and disorganized patterns of thinking, often employed in the diagnosis of schizophrenia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-severe-mental-disorder-nbsp">Severe mental disorder&nbsp;</h2>



Schizophrenia is a severe and chronic mental disorder affecting an estimated one percent of the global population, with around two million individuals in the United States alone.&nbsp;



This condition profoundly impacts how a person thinks, feels, and behaves, often resulting in the affected individual seeming disconnected from reality.



The precise cause of schizophrenia remains elusive, with experts speculating that it may be a combination of genetic factors, abnormalities in brain chemistry, viral infections, and immune disorders.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symptoms-of-schizophrenia-nbsp">Symptoms of schizophrenia&nbsp;</h2>



Symptoms typically manifest between the ages of 16 and 30, although there are rare instances of children being affected as well.



The symptoms of schizophrenia can be categorized into three groups: positive, negative, and cognitive.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-symptoms">Positive symptoms</h3>



Positive symptoms entail disturbances that are “added” to an individual’s personality, encompassing hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorders characterized by unusual or dysfunctional thinking patterns.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-symptoms">Negative symptoms</h3>



Negative symptoms involve the loss of certain capabilities from an individual’s personality, such as “flat affect” (reduced emotional expression through facial expressions or voice tone), decreased pleasure in everyday life, and difficulties initiating and sustaining activities.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cognitive-symptoms">Cognitive symptoms</h3>



Cognitive symptoms include alterations in memory and other cognitive functions, including problems with focus, attention, working memory, and the ability to comprehend and use information for decision-making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-limitations">Study limitations</h2>



Nevertheless, the UQ review has faced criticism on Twitter from other researchers who argue that it did not adequately account for other potential contributing factors, such as social and economic backgrounds and family histories.&nbsp;



For instance, a British study found an association between childhood cat exposure (between ages four and ten) and increased psychotic-like experiences at age 13, but these findings did not persist after adjusting for potential confounding variables.&nbsp;



Dr. Sanil Rege, a psychiatrist based in Melbourne, pointed out that 15 out of the 17 included studies were case-control studies known for their susceptibility to spurious associations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbad168" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Schizophrenia Bulletin</a>.



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Owning a cat before age 25 may double the risk of schizophrenia

Could the ownership of a cat increase the risk of...

Front,Head,Of,Bottlenose,Dolphin,(tursiops,Truncatus),With,An,Open

Recent research by Tim Hüttner and Guido Dehnhardt from the <a href="https://www.uni-rostock.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Rostock</a>, Germany, has revealed a remarkable discovery about bottlenose dolphins. Known for their intelligence and agility, these marine mammals are now suspected to have an additional sensory ability – the detection of weak electric fields. This finding could revolutionize our understanding of dolphin behavior and sensory capabilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-bottlenose-dolphins">Studying bottlenose dolphins</h2>



The study began with an observation of bottlenose dolphin calves, which are born with two rows of whiskers on their beaks that eventually fall out, leaving behind vibrissal pits. 



Hüttner and Dehnhardt noted that these pits closely resemble the structures in sharks that enable them to detect electric fields. Intrigued by this similarity, they decided to investigate further.



In collaboration with Lorenzo von Fersen at <a href="https://tiergarten.nuernberg.de/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nuremberg Zoo</a> and Lars Miersch at the University of Rostock, Dehnhardt and Hüttner designed experiments to test the dolphins' sensitivity to electric fields. 



The team first examined how sensitive two bottlenose dolphins, Donna and Dolly, were to varying electric fields to determine their ability to detect a fish buried in the sandy sea floor. Hüttner, Armin Fritz from Nuremberg Zoo, and a team of colleagues trained the dolphins to rest their jaws on a submerged metal bar. 



They then taught them to swim away within 5 seconds upon detecting an electric field from electrodes placed just above their snouts. As the researchers progressively reduced the electric field strength from 500 to 2μV/cm, they meticulously recorded the frequency of the dolphins' correctly timed departures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-research-team-learned">What the research team learned</h2>



The experiments yielded fascinating results. Donna demonstrated slightly higher sensitivity than Dolly as the electric fields weakened, detecting fields as low as 2.4μV/cm compared to Dolly's threshold of 5.5μV/cm. 



The team recognized that living animals produce fluctuating electric fields, not just static ones, due to the pulsing movements of fish gills. To test this, they varied the electric field pulses at 1, 5, and 25 times per second while lowering the field strength. 



Both Donna and Dolly detected these pulsing fields. However, their sensitivity to these alternating fields was not as high as it was to steady fields. Dolly detected only the slowest pulsed field at 28.9μV/cm, while Donna sensed all three, with the slowest at 11.7μV/cm.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-of-this-super-sense">Implications of this "super sense"</h2>



Dehnhardt explains the practical significance of this finding, stating that the ability to detect weak electric fields aids dolphins in locating fish hidden in sediment. This skill differs from sharks, who can sense electric fields from a greater distance.



Hüttner and Dehnhardt propose that dolphins' ability to perceive electricity might aid them on a larger scale. Dehnhardt explains, "Dolphins could use this sensory ability to orient themselves to the Earth's magnetic field." 



He suggests that dolphins swimming at a normal speed of 10m/s through weak areas of the Earth's magnetic field could produce a detectable electric field of 2.5μV/cm across their bodies. Moreover, swimming faster increases their likelihood of sensing the planet's magnetic field, enabling them to navigate globally using an electric sense-based magnetic map.



In summary, this surprising discovery by Hüttner and Dehnhardt opens new avenues for understanding the sensory world of dolphins. It highlights their remarkable adaptability, and also poses exciting questions about the evolutionary purpose and ecological implications of this newfound electrosensitivity "super sense" in dolphins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-bottlenose-dolphins">More about bottlenose dolphins</h2>



Bottlenose dolphins, scientific name Tursiops truncatus, captivate people worldwide with their intelligence, agility, and playful behavior. These marine mammals, known for their curved mouths giving the appearance of a friendly "smile," belong to the family Delphinidae. They inhabit warm and temperate seas worldwide and have become one of the most studied and recognized dolphin species.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics-of-bottlenose-dolphins">Physical characteristics of bottlenose dolphins</h3>



This dolphin species typically measures between 2 to 4 meters in length and weighs around 150 to 650 kilograms. Their sleek, streamlined bodies, adapted for swimming, display a grayish-blue color with a lighter underside. They possess a distinctive dorsal fin, which provides stability while swimming. These dolphins have a well-developed sense of hearing and eyesight, both above and below the water.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-hunting-techniques">Diet and hunting techniques</h3>



Bottlenose dolphins are carnivorous, primarily feeding on a diet of fish and squid. They employ sophisticated hunting techniques, including the use of echolocation. By emitting sound waves that bounce off objects, they can locate and identify their prey with remarkable precision. In some regions, they have developed unique hunting strategies, like mud-ring feeding, where they trap fish in muddy circles before feasting on them.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-behavior-and-communication">Social behavior and communication</h3>



Bottlenose dolphins are highly social animals, living in groups called pods. These pods can contain anywhere from a few individuals to over a dozen. They communicate using a complex array of whistles, clicks, and body language. Each dolphin has a unique signature whistle, functioning like a name, allowing them to call out to specific individuals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intelligence-and-training">Intelligence and training</h3>



Renowned for their intelligence, bottlenose dolphins can learn and perform complex tasks, making them stars in many aquarium shows. They have the ability to understand symbolic language, use tools, and exhibit problem-solving skills. Researchers continually discover new aspects of their cognitive abilities, deepening our understanding of these fascinating creatures.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifespan">Reproduction and lifespan</h3>



Female bottlenose dolphins reach sexual maturity around 5-12 years of age, while males mature a bit later, around 10-12 years. They mate throughout the year, with a gestation period of about 12 months. A calf is born tail-first and quickly rises to the surface for its first breath. Calves typically stay with their mothers for 3-6 years. In the wild, bottlenose dolphins can live up to 40 years or more.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



While bottlenose dolphins are not currently endangered, they face threats from habitat loss, pollution, and fishing nets. Various conservation efforts focus on protecting their natural habitats and reducing human-induced threats. Public awareness and responsible ecotourism play significant roles in the conservation of these magnificent creatures.



In summary, bottlenose dolphins, with their remarkable abilities and charismatic nature, continue to intrigue and delight humans. Their presence in the oceans reminds us of the complexity and beauty of marine life and the importance of preserving such incredible species for future generations.



Understanding and respecting these intelligent creatures is crucial for their continued survival in the ever-changing marine environment.



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Bottlenose dolphins have a 'super sense' previously unknown to science

Recent research by Tim Hüttner and Guido Dehnhardt from the...

A,Moray,Eel,In,An,Aquarium

Electric eels, known for their remarkable ability to generate electricity, also play a potentially significant role in natural genetic modification. 



In a shocking study by a research team from <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a> in Japan, it has been revealed that electric eels can emit electricity potent enough to alter the genetic makeup of small fish larvae. This finding sheds new light on the phenomenon of electroporation and its occurrence in the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-electroporation">Understanding electroporation</h2>



Led by Professor Eiichi Hondo and Assistant Professor Atsuo Iida, the research group at Nagoya University embarked on this study with a hypothesis centered on the natural occurrence of electroporation. 



Electroporation is a technique traditionally confined to the laboratory. It involves the application of an electric field to create temporary pores in a cell membrane. This process allows molecules, such as DNA or proteins, to enter the cell. This method is commonly used for gene delivery in various research applications.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-electric-eels">Studying electric eels</h2>



The research team speculated that the electric discharges in rivers, specifically from electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-hunting-behavior-observed-among-electric-eels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eels</a>, could influence the cellular structures of nearby organisms. In their experiment, they exposed zebrafish larvae to a DNA solution marked with a glow-in-the-dark tag. Subsequently, an electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-secret-feeding-strategies-of-garden-eels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eel</a> was introduced to discharge electricity in the environment.



Assistant Professor Iida, challenging the traditional view of electroporation as a lab-only process, stated, "I thought electroporation might happen in nature." 



He elaborated on his theory, suggesting that electric <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/electric-eel-most-potent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eels</a> in natural habitats like the Amazon River could facilitate genetic recombination in surrounding organisms through their electric discharges. The electricity would interact with environmental DNA fragments in the water.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



The study's results were astonishing. Approximately 5% of the zebrafish larvae exhibited markers indicative of successful gene transfer. 



This outcome implies that the electric eel's discharge was effective in promoting gene transfer, despite the differences in pulse shape and voltage stability compared to conventional electroporation machinery. 



"Electric eels and other electrically generating organisms could affect genetic modification in nature," Iida observed, highlighting a new dimension to our understanding of natural genetic processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-challenging-conventional-wisdom">Challenging conventional wisdom</h2>



This discovery aligns with other studies that have observed similar phenomena in nature. This includes the effects of lightning on nematodes and soil bacteria. Iida expressed great enthusiasm for the future of research in electric field effects on living organisms. 



He believes that these findings challenge conventional wisdom and open doors to unprecedented biological phenomena and potential breakthroughs. "I believe that attempts to discover new biological phenomena based on such 'unexpected' and 'outside-the-box' ideas will enlighten the world about the complexities of living organisms," Iida commented.



In summary, the research by Nagoya University's team adds a significant chapter to our understanding of electroporation and underscores the intricate interplay between natural phenomena and biological processes. 



The electric eel, once merely a curiosity due to its electric generating capability, now stands at the forefront of a fascinating scientific discovery. These amazing creatures could potentially transform our perception of genetic modification in the natural world.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-electric-eels">More about electric eels</h2>



As discussed above, electric eels are a species native to South American freshwater habitats. They are among the most electrifying creatures in the animal kingdom. 



Known scientifically as Electrophorus electricus, they possess the unique ability to generate powerful electric shocks. These shocks serve multiple purposes, from hunting prey to self-defense and navigation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomy-and-electric-generation">Anatomy and electric generation</h3>



Electric eels have elongated, snake-like bodies, typically growing up to 2 meters in length. They lack the typical scales seen in most fish and have a slimy, absorbing skin which aids in breathing as they extract oxygen directly from the air.



The key to their electric ability lies in three pairs of abdominal organs: the Main, Hunter's, and Sachs' organs. These organs contain electrocytes, specialized cells functioning much like batteries. When the eel decides to generate a shock, these cells align to send a burst of electricity through the water.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-electric-eels-behavior-and-habitat">Electric eels' behavior and habitat</h3>



Electric eels inhabit the murky waters of the Amazon and Orinoco River basins. They prefer slow-moving, oxygen-poor waters where they can easily rise to the surface to breathe air.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hunting-and-feeding">Hunting and feeding</h3>



Electric eels use low-voltage electric discharges to navigate and locate prey in their dark environment. Once they find a target, they emit high-voltage shocks to stun or kill the prey, which typically includes fish, amphibians, and even small birds or mammals.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifecycle">Reproduction and lifecycle</h3>



Electric eels are solitary creatures, coming together only to mate. During the dry season, males build nests from saliva and guard the eggs. The young eels hatch with a developed electric organ, ready to start generating shocks.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-electric-eels-discharge">Power of electric eels' discharge</h3>



An electric eel can generate shocks of up to 600 volts, making it one of the most powerful bioelectricity generators. This voltage is enough to stun a human and is far higher than the 120 volts typically found in household electrical outlets in the United States. As we learned above, the charge is strong enough to transfer genetic material to other organisms



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-research-and-applications">Research and applications</h3>



Scientists study electric eels for insights into bioelectricity. Their unique physiology has inspired research in medical technologies, such as designing better pacemakers and understanding electrical impulses in the human body.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status-of-electric-eels">Conservation status of electric eels</h3>



Despite their formidable defense mechanism, electric eels face threats from habitat loss and pollution. Conservation efforts focus on preserving their natural habitats and maintaining the ecological balance of South American river systems.



In summary, electric eels are not only a marvel of nature but also a window into the vast potential of bioelectricity. Their unique characteristics continue to fascinate scientists and nature enthusiasts alike, making them a significant subject in the study of aquatic life and bioelectrical phenomena.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/16596/">PeerJ</a>.



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Electric eels can genetically modify other creatures by shocking them

Electric eels, known for their remarkable ability to generate electricity,...

In a recent study led by <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Davis</a>, researchers found that in North America's hottest regions, mammals prefer forests over areas dominated by human activity. 



The research revealed that mammals, including pumas, wolves, bears, rabbits, deer, and opossums, are 50% more likely to inhabit forests than open <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-koala-habitats-face-an-escalating-threat-of-bushfires/">habitats</a> in hotter regions, while the opposite is true in colder areas.&nbsp;



“Different populations of the same species respond differently to habitat based on where they are,” said study lead author Mahdieh Tourani. “Climate is mediating that difference.”



An example of this is the eastern cottontail rabbit, which prefers forests in hotter areas but tends to occupy human-dominated habitats in colder regions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biodiversity-crisis">Biodiversity crisis</h2>



"Addressing the ongoing biodiversity crisis requires identifying the winners and losers of global change," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Species are often categorized based on how they respond to habitat loss; for example, species restricted to natural environments, those that most often occur in anthropogenic habitats, and generalists that do well in both."



"However, species might switch habitat affiliations across time and space: an organism may venture into human-modified areas in benign regions but retreat into thermally buffered forested habitats in areas with high temperatures."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



For the investigation, the researchers used data from Snapshot USA's extensive camera trap network.



“We analyzed 150,000 records of 29 mammal species using community occupancy models,” said Tourani.&nbsp;



“These models allowed us to study how mammals respond to habitat types across their ranges while accounting for the fact that species may be in an area, but we did not record their presence because the species is rare or elusive.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-flexibility-nbsp">Ecological flexibility&nbsp;</h2>



This research challenges the traditional conservation biology practice of categorizing species into simple groups based on their compatibility with human environments.&nbsp;



The researchers say there is growing recognition of ecological flexibility, and that species are more complicated than those two categories suggest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-conservation-nbsp">Habitat conservation&nbsp;</h2>



“We can’t take a one-size-fits all approach to habitat conservation,” said study senior author Daniel Karp. “It turns out climate has a large role in how species respond to habitat loss.”



For example, if elk are managed under the assumption that they can only live in protected areas, there may be missed opportunities to conserve them in human-dominated landscapes.



“On the other hand, if we assume a species will always be able to live alongside us, then we might be wasting our effort trying to improve the conservation value of human-dominated landscapes in areas where it is simply too hot for the species,” said Karp.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The study highlights the growing importance of preserving forest cover for wildlife conservation in the context of a warming climate.



“If we’re trying to conserve species in working landscapes, it might behoove us to provide more shade for species,” said Karp. “We can maintain patches of native vegetation, scattered trees, and hedgerows that provide local refugia for wildlife, especially in places that are going to get warmer with climate change.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2304411120" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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North America's mammals are seeking refuge from the heat in forest habitats

In a recent study led by UC Davis, researchers found...

Researchers at the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a> have made a breakthrough discovery in the field of evolutionary biology by mapping the family tree of crocodiles, including their extinct relatives known as Pseudosuchia.&nbsp;



The comprehensive study offers new insights into the evolutionary history of crocodiles, particularly focusing on the question of why today's world has such a limited variety of croc species compared to their avian relatives, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-birds-dream-of-flying-scientists-say-they-now-know-the-answer/">birds</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-the-crocodile-family-tree">Building the crocodile family tree</h2>



The team, led by Dr. Katie Davis from the Department of Biology, meticulously combined data from the fossil record with their detailed mapping of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-evolution-was-influenced-by-environmental-factors/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> lineage. 



This approach revealed significant insights into the factors influencing the survival and extinction of these species over millions of years. 



A key finding of the research is the crucial role that ecology played in the survival of different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cultures-crocodiles-worshipped/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> species. The team discovered that changes in global temperatures affected sea-dwelling and land-based <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/loss-of-crocodilians-may-have-devastating-consequences/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodilians</a> differently than freshwater species. 



Interestingly, while the diversity of sea-dwelling and land-based crocodiles increased with rising temperatures, they were more susceptible to extinction due to increased competition for resources, possibly with marine predators like sharks or dinosaurs.&nbsp;



Bt contrast, freshwater species were less impacted by temperature changes but faced greater extinction risks due to rising sea levels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-valuable-fossil-record">Valuable fossil record</h2>



This study is not just a deep dive into the past, but holds significant implications for contemporary conservation efforts.&nbsp;



With several <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-crocodile-plant-eaters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> species today classified as critically endangered or vulnerable, understanding the historical factors that influenced their survival becomes crucial in a world grappling with climate change. 



“The fossil record is a rich source of valuable information allowing us to look back through time at how and why species originate, and crucially, what drives their extinction," said Dr. Davis.&nbsp;



"By examining this record and mapping it against the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-birds-archosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodile</a> family tree, our research reveals how important it is to think about ecology when we're trying to predict how species might respond to today's climate change."



“With a million plant and animal species perilously close to extinction, understanding the key factors behind why species disappear has never been more important."&nbsp;&nbsp;



"In the case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodile-distribution-past-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodiles</a>, many species reside in low-lying areas, meaning that rising sea levels associated with global warming may irreversibly alter the habitats on which they depend.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-family-tree-significance">Crocodile family tree significance</h2>



The research highlights the interconnectedness of abiotic factors like climate and biotic interactions such as competition in shaping the evolutionary journey of species.&nbsp;



By constructing a large phylogeny for all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-have-had-great-success-through-rapid-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crocodiles</a> and their extinct relatives, the researchers could analyze speciation and extinction patterns in relation to historical climate changes. 



The team employed a type of mathematics called the Information Theory to estimate the impact of these environmental and interactive factors on species emergence and extinction rates.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crocodiles-have-not-changed-much-in-200-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Crocodiles</a> and their extinct relatives offer unique insights into climate change and its impact on biodiversity in the past, present and future," said Dr. Davis. "Our findings advance our understanding of what factors have shaped, and continue to shape, life on Earth.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-crocodiles">More about crocodiles</h2>



As discussed above, crocodiles, formidable and ancient reptiles, have roamed the Earth for millions of years, showcasing an evolutionary success that demands respect and fascination. These predators, primarily found in tropical regions, display a variety of species, each adapted to its unique environment, yet all sharing certain key characteristics that define their family.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-features">Crocodile features</h3>



The most striking feature of a crocodile is its robust, elongated body, covered with tough, scaly skin, which provides defense against predators and harsh environments. Their eyes and nostrils, positioned on top of their heads, enable them to see and breathe while mostly submerged, a trait essential for their ambush hunting style. This positioning, coupled with their excellent night vision, makes crocodiles formidable nocturnal hunters.



Crocodiles boast an impressive set of sharp teeth, designed for gripping and tearing flesh, and their powerful jaws can exert tremendous pressure, ensuring that prey captured rarely escapes. They primarily feed on fish, birds, and mammals, showing a remarkable ability to adapt their diet based on the available prey.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-reproduction">Crocodile reproduction</h3>



One of the most fascinating aspects of crocodiles is their nurturing behavior. Despite their fierce reputation, they exhibit a gentle side when caring for their young. Females vigilantly guard their nests and assist hatchlings to water, displaying a level of parental care not commonly associated with reptiles.



Their role in their ecosystems is crucial. As apex predators, crocodiles help maintain the balance by controlling the population of other species, thereby ensuring a healthy ecosystem. Moreover, their nesting behavior contributes to shaping their habitat, influencing the geography of their environment.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



Unfortunately, crocodiles face threats from habitat loss and human conflict. Their skins are highly valued in the fashion industry, leading to illegal hunting, which, along with habitat destruction, poses a significant risk to their survival.



In summary, crocodiles, with their ancient lineage and remarkable adaptations, are not just survivors of a bygone era but active, vital participants in their ecosystems. Their continued existence hinges on our ability to understand and protect these magnificent creatures, ensuring they continue to thrive in the wild.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02244-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Crocodile family tree reveals 250 million years of crocodile evolution

Researchers at the University of York have made a breakthrough...

Rustic,Style,Birds,Feeder

Ashley Dayer, an associate professor in the Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation at <a href="https://fishwild.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Virginia Tech</a>, is challenging the traditional view of bird feeding as an activity solely beneficial for birds. 



In a recent study, Dayer emphasizes the significance of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/do-birds-dream-of-flying-scientists-say-they-now-know-the-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> feeding not only for avian populations but also for human wellbeing. This perspective invites a broader discussion on integrating bird feeding into public policy and guidance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-aspect-of-bird-feeding">Human aspect of bird feeding</h2>



Dayer's approach brings a novel dimension to wildlife management by considering the human aspect alongside avian wellbeing. 



"Wildlife agencies and others making decisions on managing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/body-sizes-and-shapes-of-birds-are-shrinking-as-the-earth-warms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> feeding need to be considering not only what the science is behind what’s going on with birds, but also the science behind what’s going on with people,” explains Dayer. 



This perspective seeks to balance ecological concerns with the psychological and emotional impacts on people who engage in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-traits-help-birds-thrive-in-urban-areas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> feeding.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-research">Focus of the research</h2>



The importance of understanding human interactions with wildlife is further highlighted by Dayer's and her team's ongoing research. This unique study, perhaps the first of its kind, is not only observing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rebellious-birds-use-anti-bird-spikes-to-build-their-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> but also the emotional responses of the people involved. 



“People are not only reporting what they see at their bird feeders, but also their emotional responses to it,” Dayer said. “It’s pretty fun because most citizen science projects focus just on the natural or physical science, but we’re now able to look at the human piece of it.”



This approach, funded by a substantial grant from the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>, delves into the psychological aspects of bird feeding, a factor often overlooked in traditional wildlife studies.



Dayer's interest in this topic was sparked by the response of various state agencies to avian disease outbreaks, often advising the public to stop feeding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-can-switch-their-perception-of-earths-magnetic-field-on-and-off/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">birds</a> without concrete evidence of its effectiveness in disease control. This observation led to the realization that current policies lack a comprehensive understanding of the human impact of such recommendations. 



The ongoing research by Dayer and her team seeks to fill this gap, aiming to inform future guidelines that consider both avian health and human wellbeing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collaboration-with-project-feederwatch">Collaboration with Project FeederWatch</h2>



To further their research, the team is collaborating with <a href="https://feederwatch.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Project FeederWatch</a>, a program by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology and Birds Canada. 



This partnership leverages FeederWatch's extensive network and long-standing practice of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unique-molting-patterns-may-have-saved-birds-during-dinosaur-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bird</a> observation, enriching the study with valuable data on bird counts and human interactions over the years.



Dayer's personal connection to birds, stemming from her family's practice, adds a heartfelt dimension to her scientific pursuit. Her mother always had bird feeders outside their family’s home, and the birds became almost like children for her.



“She’ll go on vacation and cut the vacation short because she needs to go home and feed her birds,” Dayer said. “So I’ve lived with someone who was really into bird feeding and have seen how important it can be to them.”



She reflects on how bird feeding can be a meaningful and accessible way for people from various backgrounds and abilities to connect with nature. “People in urban areas can feed birds. People with just a deck can feed birds. People with a wide range of physical abilities can feed birds. So it’s just a great way to keep that human connection to wildlife,” Dayer said.



This personal insight strengthens her advocacy for policies that recognize bird feeding as a valuable bridge between humans and wildlife.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-policies-for-both-sides-of-bird-feeding">Policies for both sides of bird feeding</h2>



Both Dayer and her colleague Dana Hawley, a professor of biological sciences, envision their work as a stepping stone towards developing guidelines that benefit both wild birds and the people who feed them. 



“In all my years of studying how bird feeding impacts wild birds, I didn’t give much thought to how it can also impact the people that spend their time and money feeding and watching birds,” Hawley said. “I get calls every year from people who see a sick bird at their feeder and want to know how they can help prevent disease spread. All in all, this made me wonder about how policy decisions that aim to minimize disease spread can inadvertently impact the people who feed the birds.”



Their goal is to establish policies that ensure the health of bird populations while fostering a healthy relationship between humans and their feathered neighbors, especially in urban and suburban settings.



In summary, through this research and advocacy, Virginia Tech's team is reshaping the narrative around bird feeding, highlighting its role as a mutually beneficial activity that deserves recognition and support in wildlife management and policy-making.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-and-climate-change">Birds and climate change</h2>



Climate change is significantly impacting bird populations worldwide. Rising temperatures are shifting habitats, compelling many species to migrate earlier or move to higher altitudes. For instance, in North America, birds traditionally seen in southern regions are now appearing further north. This shift disrupts ecosystems, as native birds compete with newcomers for food and nesting sites.



Moreover, altered weather patterns, like increased frequency and intensity of storms, are directly threatening birds. Severe weather events can destroy habitats, reduce food availability, and hinder breeding success. Coastal birds are particularly vulnerable, as rising sea levels and storm surges erode nesting sites.



Changes in seasonal cycles are also affecting birds. Earlier springs and later autumns disrupt the timing of food availability, particularly insects, which many bird species rely on for feeding their young. This mismatch between breeding times and food peak can lead to lower survival rates for fledglings.



Finally, climate change exacerbates other threats to birds, such as habitat loss and pollution. As natural habitats are altered or destroyed by climate-related factors, birds lose their homes and food sources. Pollution, intensified by climate change effects like warmer waters, further contaminates their habitats.



Overall, climate change poses a multi-faceted threat to bird populations, challenging their survival in rapidly changing environments. At the current rate, they're going to need a lot more help from bird feeders very soon just to survive.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.10566">People and Nature</a>.



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Bird feeding benefits people as much as birds

Ashley Dayer, an associate professor in the Department of Fish...

A staggering event on October 4-5 in Chicago led to the demise of nearly 1,000 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/window-collisions-are-a-leading-cause-of-bird-mortality/">birds</a>, as they crashed into a brightly lit glass structure. While such extensive bird fatalities are uncommon, artificial light remains a significant and escalating hazard to migratory birds.



In a comprehensive study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-43046-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>, researchers employed weather radar data to chart bird stopover densities across the U.S. The study revealed that artificial light is a prime factor influencing where birds land during migration.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-birds-face-multiple-challenges-nbsp">Birds face multiple challenges&nbsp;</h2>



Kyle Horton, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Colorado State University</a>’s Department of Fish, Wildlife and Conservation Biology and the study’s lead author, explained that city lights can entice birds into hazardous urban environments.



The challenges for migrating birds in urban areas are manifold, including dangerous building collisions, habitat loss, limited food availability, and threats from humans and predators like cats. Urban parks offer some respite, but they come with their own set of challenges, such as competition for scarce resources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-stopover-hotspots">Migration stopover hotspots</h2>



Migration is fraught with peril for birds, involving extensive travel that can deplete up to half of their body mass. “These stopover locations are the fueling stations,” Horton said. “If they don’t have a good spot to rebuild energy supplies, migration can’t happen."



This study marks the first time migration stopover hotspots across the contiguous United States have been mapped on such a large scale. Understanding these patterns can aid in developing conservation strategies.



“Cities pose multiple risks to migrating birds,” explained co-author and <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> Professor Geoff Henebry. “They also offer resources for the tired birds to rest and refuel."&nbsp;



"Our study is notable in that it combines big data – and a lot of processing – from the weather surveillance radar network with big data from multiple spaceborne sensors to address key questions regarding the influence of urban areas on bird migration.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-birds-survive-artificial-light">Helping birds survive artificial light</h2>



However, the attraction of birds to cities raises a conservation dilemma: should urban areas be preserved as vital stopover sites, or should efforts be concentrated on reducing urban lighting? Horton is collaborating with various organizations to tackle both issues, but the multifaceted nature of urban lighting presents complexities.



Light pollution not only affects birds but also disrupts human circadian rhythms, contributing to several health issues. “We don’t often think about light as a pollutant, but it checks all the boxes of what pollution is,” Horton said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-forecasts-nbsp">Migration forecasts&nbsp;</h2>



Initiatives like <a href="https://birdcast.info/">BirdCast</a> offer migration forecasts and real-time maps, enabling individuals and cities to minimize artificial light on critical migration nights. Simple measures, such as retrofitting windows with decals and adjusting light brightness and color, can significantly reduce bird collisions.



The tragic incident at Chicago’s McCormick Place Convention Center is a stark reminder of the dangers of light pollution. Public awareness and simple actions, like turning off unnecessary lights, can have an immediate and beneficial impact on bird safety.&nbsp;



“If we turned off all lights tonight, there would be no birds colliding because of lights tonight,” Horton concluded.



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Artificial light is luring birds to their deaths around the world by the millions

A staggering event on October 4-5 in Chicago led to...

The results of a study led by <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University College London</a> (UCL) are challenging long-standing beliefs about the development of human brains in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/babies-are-born-with-the-ability-to-recognize-the-beat-in-music/">newborns</a> compared to other primates.&nbsp;



According to the research, the idea that human newborns have underdeveloped brains is a misconception. The experts found that the brains of newborns are at a development level typical for primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-false-impression">False impression</h2>



Human brains grow so much larger and more complex than other species after birth. This creates a false impression that newborns are underdeveloped, or “altricial.”



“This new work changes the overall understanding around the evolution of human brain development," said study lead author Dr. Aida Gomez-Robles.



"Humans seem so much more helpless when they’re young compared to other primates not because their brains are comparatively underdeveloped but because they still have much further to go.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-development-nbsp">Human brain development&nbsp;</h2>



The research modifies the conventional view that human brains are less developed at birth due to evolutionary compromises, such as the need for babies’ heads to fit through the birth canal.



Traditionally, scientists have assessed brain development across species by comparing brain sizes at birth with adult brain sizes. This suggested that humans are born with a smaller percentage of their adult brain size compared to other primates, leading to the belief in their relative underdevelopment.&nbsp;



However, the UCL study indicates that other measures of human brain development align closely with other primates like chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications-nbsp">Study implications&nbsp;</h2>



The study also addresses the implications of these findings for the concept of brain plasticity in human evolution. It has been suggested that the perceived underdevelopment at birth results in greater brain malleability and sensitivity to environmental stimuli during early life, contributing to human intelligence.&nbsp;



The researchers clarify that while human brains do take longer to reach full capacity, this does not stem from significant underdevelopment at birth. Thus, while brain plasticity remains critical in human evolution, it is unlikely to be a result of being less developed at birth than other primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



To conduct this analysis, the team examined the brain development of 140 different mammal species, including modern primates, rodents, carnivores, and the fossils of early humans and ancestral hominins.&nbsp;



The researchers compared fetal gestation lengths, the relative size of newborn brains and bodies to adult sizes, and overall brain size at birth and adulthood across these species.&nbsp;



The findings revealed that while there are considerable variations in brain development at birth among different mammal species, primates, including humans, show a consistent pattern of development.



This research, supported by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a> and the National Institutes of Health in the US, marks a significant shift in the understanding of human brain development and its evolutionary trajectory, challenging long-held assumptions in the field of anthropology and neurology.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02253-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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Human brain development aligns closely with other primates

The results of a study led by University College London...

Polar,Bear,On,The,Ice,Sniffing,In,The,Air

Polar bears, the majestic icons of the Arctic, are elusive and vulnerable, making their conservation a challenging task. However, a breakthrough in DNA analysis using skin cells shed in their footprints offers new hope for monitoring these endangered species.



This innovative method, developed by a team of international scientists, promises a less invasive and more efficient way to gather essential data on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-direct-link-between-polar-bear-survival-and-harmful-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear populations</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-polar-bears-with-footprint-dna">Monitoring polar bears with footprint DNA</h2>



Dr. Melanie Lancaster of the World Wide Fund for Nature <a href="https://www.arcticwwf.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Arctic Programme</a> is the senior author of the study. “It is particularly challenging, expensive, and time-consuming to find polar bears in the Arctic, let alone count them and understand how they are coping with climate change,” said Lancaster.



The difficulties in locating and counting these bears, combined with the need to understand their response to climate change, has left a gap in critical data regarding their population size and connectivity.



Inspired by forensic techniques suited for tiny, degraded DNA samples, the scientists developed a method that avoids the physical capture of bears. This method avoids an often stressful and dangerous situation for both the animals and humans. Elisabeth Kruger of the <a href="https://www.worldwildlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Wildlife Fund</a>, another author of the article, highlights the significance of this method. 



“Many Inuit express concern about invasive research methods,” said Kruger. “People are concerned about the welfare of the individual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-unravel-the-secrets-of-polar-bear-fur/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear</a> and the health and safety of people who may harvest the bear later. This is one of the reasons we are so excited about new methods like this - the person collecting the sample never needs to even see or be seen by the polar bear.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edna-from-animal-tracks">eDNA from animal tracks</h2>



A unique aspect of this research involves the use of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-help-monitor-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> (eDNA) found in the snow track footprints of polar bears. Dr. Micaela Hellström of <a href="https://www.mixresearch.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MIX Research Sweden AB</a>, the lead author of the study, explains that the tracks contain fresh cells with intact DNA.



“The tracks usually contain fresh cells, and the DNA is intact because of the cold ‘storage’ temperature. DNA that has passed the gut is much more degraded and therefore more challenging to work on,” said Hellström.



The team collected snow from individual tracks of Alaskan <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radar-imaging-will-help-protect-polar-bears-from-human-disturbances/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bears</a> and Swedish Eurasian lynxes, both in the wild and captivity, as well as from a captive snow leopard. Confirming the accuracy of the genotypes derived from this snow track DNA, additional materials like hair, saliva, and mucus were also sampled. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footprint-dna-analysis-results">Footprint DNA analysis results</h2>



The researchers sampled 24 wild polar bear tracks and 44 wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lynx-habitat-selection-is-heavily-influenced-by-human-disturbance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lynx</a> tracks. They melted and filtered the snow from these tracks to collect environmental DNA, which they then analyzed using microsatellite analysis. 



Despite the low concentrations of DNA in the tracks collected from the wild, they successfully retrieved nuclear DNA from 87.5% of the wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-polar-bears-get-traction-on-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear</a> tracks and 59.1% of the wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lynx-population-in-france-is-on-the-brink-of-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lynx</a> tracks. They managed to genotype 13 of the wild polar bear samples, identifying 12 different individuals.



When focusing on the lynx tracks sampled by trained personnel, the genotyping success rate improved significantly. The scientists retrieved nuclear DNA from 76% of the samples collected by these trained individuals, and they successfully genotyped 24% of these samples.



This non-invasive sampling technique, despite a lower success rate compared to traditional methods, offers considerable advantages. It not only reduces the stress and danger associated with physical capture but also allows for larger sample sizes due to its ease of collection. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



The potential of this technique to inform conservation strategies, understand animal populations and behaviors, and manage human-animal conflicts is immense.



Dr. Lancaster expresses hope that this method will be adopted widely by the polar bear research community, involving hunters, volunteers, and Indigenous communities. She says, “We hope this method will be taken up by the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-bears-threatened-by-toxic-chemicals-in-melting-sea-ice/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">polar bear</a> research community, with the involvement of hunters, volunteers, and Indigenous communities, as a new way to collect information on polar bears.”



The team also anticipates the expansion of this technique to other animals living in snowy environments, having already demonstrated its effectiveness with lynx and snow leopards.



In summary, this groundbreaking research in DNA analysis using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-vacuumed-animal-dna-from-a-forest-and-the-results-are-amazing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> from snow tracks and footprints opens a new chapter in wildlife conservation. It promises a more humane, efficient, and inclusive approach to studying and protecting one of the Arctic's most iconic inhabitants, the polar bear, and potentially other species in similar environments.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fcosc.2023.1250996/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Conservation Science</a>.



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Footprint DNA helps scientists monitor elusive animals like polar bears

Polar bears, the majestic icons of the Arctic, are elusive...

Chinstrap,Penguin,,Antarctica,,January,2019

In a new study, researchers have discovered that nesting chinstrap penguins in the wild manage to accumulate over 11 hours of sleep daily, not through extended rest periods, but via thousands of brief microsleeps. 



This fascinating sleep behavior underscores the adaptability and resilience of these birds in maintaining continuous vigilance over their nests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-sleep-to-animals">Importance of sleep to animals</h2>



Sleep, a state typically marked by immobility and a decreased sensory response to the environment, is a common trait across various species. Sleeping, while restorative, can make animals vulnerable to predators. 



In humans, lack of adequate sleep often leads to microsleeps -- brief, seconds-long lapses in wakefulness characterized by eye closure and sleep-like brain activity. These involuntary pauses can be hazardous, especially in activities like driving. 



However, the true restorative value of such microsleeps in comparison to longer sleep periods remains a subject of scientific inquiry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-how-chinstrap-penguins-sleep">Studying how chinstrap penguins sleep</h2>



Paul-Antoine Libourel and his team spearheaded a comprehensive study on a colony of chinstrap penguins (Pygoscelis antarcticus) in Antarctica. 



These penguins, while nesting, face the constant need to protect their nests from predators and other intruding penguins, especially when their partners are away. This situation demands that one parent remains vigilant, making extended sleep periods impractical and potentially dangerous.



The team employed remote electroencephalogram (EEG) monitoring, along with other noninvasive sensors, to record the sleep patterns of these freely roaming and nesting birds. Continuous video surveillance and direct observations complemented this study.



Contrary to typical sleep patterns observed in many animals, chinstrap penguins did not engage in long sleep sessions. Instead, they were found to frequently fall into microsleeps, each lasting about 4 seconds on average. Remarkably, they accumulated over 11 hours of sleep per day through more than 10,000 of these microsleep episodes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-perspectives">Implications and perspectives</h2>



The study's findings suggest that these brief sleep bouts, or microsleeps, can collectively fulfill some of the restorative functions traditionally associated with longer sleep periods. This adaptation appears to be a successful strategy for species like chinstrap penguins that require constant vigilance.



Christian Harding and Vladyslav Vyazovskiy, in a related perspective, highlighted the significance of these findings. They noted that the chinstrap penguins' microsleeps might represent one of the most extreme examples of how the benefits of sleep can accumulate incrementally. This observation opens new avenues for understanding sleep patterns and their variations across different species.



The research conducted by Libourel and colleagues sheds light on the remarkable adaptability of chinstrap penguins in fulfilling their sleep needs through microsleeps. This study adds to our understanding of sleep in wild animals. It also raises intriguing questions about the flexibility and functionality of sleep across different species. 



The chinstrap penguins' unique sleep pattern is a testament to the diverse strategies employed by animals to balance the demands of survival and rest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-chinstrap-penguins">More about chinstrap penguins</h2>



As touched on above, chinstrap penguins are easily recognizable by their distinctive facial markings. They are a fascinating species of penguins that reside primarily in the islands and shores of the Southern Pacific and the Antarctic Ocean. Let's dive deeper into their life, habitat, behavior, and the challenges they face.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h3>



Chinstrap penguins stand out with their thin black band under the head, resembling a helmet strap, which gives them their name. They are medium-sized penguins, typically weighing between 3 to 6 kilograms. Their bodies are adapted to the aquatic environment. Chinstraps have streamlined shapes, flippers for swimming, and a layer of insulating feathers to protect against the cold.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chinstrap-penguins-habitat">Chinstrap penguins habitat</h3>



Primarily found on the Antarctic Peninsula and surrounding islands, chinstrap penguins thrive in large colonies on ice-free coastal areas. Their choice of habitat is largely influenced by the availability of their primary food source, the krill, which is abundant in these cold waters.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diet-and-feeding-habits">Diet and feeding habits</h3>



Krill constitutes the major part of a chinstrap penguin's diet, although they also consume fish and squid. They are excellent swimmers and can dive to depths of up to 70 meters in pursuit of prey. Their feeding expeditions can last several hours, during which they skillfully navigate through the water.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breeding-and-lifecycle">Breeding and lifecycle</h3>



Chinstrap penguins are monogamous and often return to the same mate each breeding season. The breeding season starts in November when they gather in vast colonies to nest. Females typically lay two eggs, and both parents share the responsibility of incubating the eggs and feeding the chicks. The chicks fledge after about two months and are ready to go to sea.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chinstrap-penguins-social-behavior">Chinstrap penguins social behavior</h3>



These penguins are highly social birds. Their colonies, sometimes consisting of hundreds of thousands of individuals, are a hub of activity. The colonies help provide protection against predators and are also crucial for the birds' social interactions. This includes finding mates and caring for their young.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-threats-and-conservation">Threats and conservation</h3>



Chinstrap penguins face several threats. Most notably, climate change, which affects their food supply, and human activities such as fishing and pollution. While they are not currently endangered, their populations are under observation for potential decline due to these environmental pressures.



In summary, chinstrap penguins are a remarkable species, adept at surviving and thriving in some of the harshest conditions on Earth. Their unique physical features, social behaviors, and breeding habits make them an important subject of study for understanding the dynamics of marine life in the Antarctic ecosystem. 



As they navigate the challenges posed by a changing environment, the continued study and conservation of chinstrap penguins remain crucial for ensuring their survival.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adh0771" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Chinstrap penguins take over 10,000 micro-sleeps per day

In a new study, researchers have discovered that nesting chinstrap...

A recent study from Japan has revealed that owning a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mischievous-dogs-experts-reveal-the-top-ten-naughtiest-breeds/">dog</a> can significantly reduce the risk of developing dementia in old age. The experts found that dog owners over the age of 65 were 40 percent less likely to develop dementia.



The study marks the first scientific establishment of a clear link between dog ownership and a lowered risk of dementia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-dog-owners">Studying dog owners</h2>



The research wad focused on nearly 12,000 residents in Tokyo aged 65 and older. It was conducted over four years by the <a href="https://www.tmig.or.jp/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Geriatrics and Gerontology</a>.&nbsp;



The experts compared the mental health of older adults who were current dog owners, previous owners, and those who never owned a dog.



The researchers meticulously accounted for various factors including gender, marital status, education, income, health history, and exercise habits, regardless of pet ownership. The average age of the participants was 74.2 years, with 51.5% being female.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regular-exercise-and-social-interaction-nbsp">Regular exercise and social interaction&nbsp;</h2>



Dr Yu Taniguchi, the lead author of the study, noted that individuals who owned a dog had therefore exercised, making new connections with people as they walked their pets.



“Having a dog enabled owners to habitually take exercise and avoid social isolation and these were the two key factors in people having a much lower risk of developing dementia,” explained Dr. Taniguchi.



Interestingly, the researchers found that the protective effects against dementia were still present in dog owners who did not regularly exercise or engage socially, though to a lesser extent than those who did.&nbsp;



“Having a dog effectively requires people to get into the habit of physical activity and that makes it much more likely that they will then have interactions and socialize with other people,” said Dr. Taniguchi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cats-and-dementia-nbsp">Cats and dementia&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers also investigated the relationship between owning cats and dementia. They determined that cat ownership was not effective for preventing dementia



This is due to the fact that owners do not walk their cats and they do not bring people together socially in the way that dogs do, said Dr. Taniguchi, who has a Jack Russell terrier.



He added that he was not surprised by the group’s findings, as earlier research had identified the potential health benefits of pets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-frailty-and-disability-nbsp">Frailty and disability&nbsp;</h2>



Prior research has already hinted at the health benefits of dog ownership, including reduced frailty in old age and delayed onset of disabilities and death



"Although some previous study reported no-significant association of pet ownership with mortality, systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that dog ownership is associated with lower risk of death over the long term," wrote Dr. Taniguchi and his co-authors.



"Our previous study revealed that older adults who had owned a dog and/or cat had lower risk of incident frailty, with dog owners at baseline showing 0.81 times the likelihood of developing incident frailty than never dog owners during 2-year follow-up period."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-improved-well-being-of-dog-owners">Improved well-being of dog owners</h2>



During the coronavirus pandemic, dog owners also reported better well-being than those without pets, likely due to increased exercise and social opportunities.



"Dog care might contribute to the maintenance of physical activity, including having an exercise habit, and social participation even in the face of restrictions to interactions such as those experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic," wrote the researchers.&nbsp;



The study is published in the December edition of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221133552300356X" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Preventive Medicine Reports</a>.



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Dog owners are much less likely to develop dementia

A recent study from Japan has revealed that owning a...

Brittle,Stars,Or,Ophiuroids,Are,Echinoderms,In,The,Class,Ophiuroidea

In the quest to understand intelligence and learning, humans have often focused on brain size as a key factor. However, a fascinating study on brainless brittle stars challenges this notion, revealing that these creatures are capable of learning through experience, despite lacking a centralized brain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enigmatic-brittle-stars">Enigmatic brittle stars</h2>



Brittle stars, related to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crown-of-thorns-starfish-are-natures-ultimate-coral-predators-and-they-are-winning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">starfish</a>, are fascinating marine creatures known for their secretive nature. They spend most of their time hidden under rocks or buried in sand, with their bodies consisting of five wiggly arms connected to a nerve ring near their mouth, instead of a traditional brain.



<a href="https://jnotar.github.io/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Julia Notar</a>, the lead author of the study conducted at Duke University under <a href="https://scholars.duke.edu/person/sjohnsen" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Sönke Johnsen</a>, emphasizes the uniqueness of the brittle star's nervous system. "There's no processing center," explains Notar. "Each of the nerve cords can act independently, functioning more like a committee than under a central boss."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-by-association">Learning by association</h2>



Notar's research posits that brittle stars can learn through classical conditioning, a learning process where an organism learns to associate different stimuli.



One example of classical conditioning is demonstrated by Pavlov's famous experiments with dogs. When repeatedly fed at the ringing of a bell, they eventually start drooling at just the sound of the bell, even without food present.



Similarly, humans experience this often. When you repeatedly hear the “ding” of a smartphone alert, the sound eventually takes on a special meaning. The mere ping or buzz of someone's phone, if it matches your phone's chime, can prompt you to reflexively reach for your phone, expecting the next text, email, or Instagram post.



Researchers have demonstrated classical conditioning in starfish in a few previous studies. However, most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-stars-may-actually-be-walking-heads-with-no-bodies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">echinoderms</a>, a diverse group encompassing around <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13420-021-00492-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">7,000 species</a> including brittle stars, brainless starfish, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchins-are-struggling-to-survive-because-they-cant-get-a-grip/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea urchins</a>, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-eating-sea-cucumbers-can-prevent-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea cucumbers</a>, remain untested in this area.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



To determine if brittle stars can learn, researchers placed 16 black brittle stars (Ophiocoma echinata) in individual water tanks and recorded their behavior with a video camera.



They trained half of the brittle stars by dimming the lights for 30 minutes at each feeding time. Whenever the lights went out, the researchers placed a morsel of shrimp -- a favorite of the brittle stars -- just out of reach in the tanks.



The researchers fed the other half the same amount of shrimp but did so under lit conditions, never coinciding with the 30-minute dark periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-brittle-stars-learn">Watching brittle stars learn</h2>



Regardless of light conditions, the animals mostly hid behind the filters in their tanks, emerging only for meals. However, only the brittle stars that received training learned to associate darkness with food.



In the early stages of the 10-month experiment, all the animals remained hidden when the lights dimmed. Over time, the trained brittle stars formed a connection between darkness and feeding time. They began to anticipate food and emerged from hiding whenever the lights went out, even before shrimp was introduced to the tanks.



These brittle stars had learned to associate the dimming lights with the likelihood of food. They responded without needing to smell or taste the shrimp. The mere dimming of the lights was sufficient to prompt them to emerge for dinner.



Even after a 13-day break without training, which involved repeatedly dimming the lights without feeding, the brittle stars still remembered this association.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-and-future-research">Implications and future research</h2>



Notar finds these <a href="https://rdcu.be/drHJO" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">results</a> exciting, as they demonstrate classical conditioning in a group of animals previously not known for such learning capabilities. 



“Knowing that brittle stars can learn means they’re not just robotic scavengers like little Roombas cleaning up the ocean floor,” Notar said. “They're potentially able to expect and avoid predators or anticipate food because they’re learning about their environment.”



The study opens doors to further explore how creatures with non-standard nervous systems learn and remember. Notar plans to delve deeper into the mechanisms behind the brittle stars' learning abilities, aiming to answer the intriguing question: "How do they do it?"



This research fundamentally challenges our understanding of learning and intelligence in the animal kingdom. It suggests that brain size or structure may not be the sole determinants of an organism's ability to learn and adapt to its environment, paving the way for a broader and more inclusive study of intelligence in nature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-brittle-stars">More about brittle stars</h2>



As discussed above, brittle stars, fascinating and unique echinoderms, exhibit remarkable features and behaviors in marine ecosystems. Belonging to the class Ophiuroidea, these creatures are close relatives of sea stars, but they stand out due to their distinct physical characteristics and ecological roles.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-physical-description-and-diversity">Physical description and diversity</h3>



Brittle stars typically possess a central disc and five slender, highly flexible arms. Unlike sea stars, their arms do not contain vital organs and are sharply demarcated from the central disc. This structure enables them to move swiftly through the water and across the seabed. They exhibit a wide array of colors and patterns, enhancing their appeal.



There are over 2,000 known species of brittle stars, varying greatly in size and form. Some species have smooth arms, while others have spiny or adorned ones. Their size can range from a few centimeters to nearly a meter in arm span, with the central disc usually being relatively small.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-habitat-and-distribution">Habitat and distribution</h3>



Brittle stars inhabit diverse marine environments, from shallow coral reefs to the deep sea. They often hide under rocks, in coral crevices, or within seagrass beds during the day. Some species even live in symbiotic relationships with other marine organisms, such as corals.



Their global distribution is impressive, with species found in every ocean and at various depths, some reaching as deep as 6,000 meters. This wide distribution highlights their adaptability to different environmental conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-and-nutrition">Feeding and nutrition</h3>



Brittle stars are mostly scavengers and detritivores, feeding on dead organic material and small organisms. They use their flexible arms to capture food particles, which they then transport to their mouths. Some species are also known to be suspension feeders, using their arms to catch plankton and other small particles from the water column.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reproduction-and-lifecycle">Reproduction and lifecycle</h3>



Brittle stars reproduce both sexually and asexually. In sexual reproduction, they release eggs and sperm into the water, where fertilization occurs. The larvae then go through several planktonic stages before settling on the seafloor and metamorphosing into juveniles.



Asexual reproduction occurs through fragmentation, where a part of an arm breaks off and regenerates into a new individual. This ability also aids in their survival, as they can readily regenerate lost limbs.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role-and-importance">Ecological role and importance</h3>



Brittle stars play a crucial role in marine ecosystems. As scavengers, they aid in the decomposition process and nutrient cycling. They also serve as prey for various marine animals, including fish and crabs.



Their presence in various habitats makes them good indicators of environmental health. Some species are particularly sensitive to changes in water quality, making them useful in monitoring the impact of pollution and climate change on marine ecosystems.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-status">Conservation status</h3>



While many brittle star species are abundant, some face threats from habitat destruction, pollution, and climate change. Their conservation is essential for maintaining the health and diversity of marine ecosystems.



In summary, brittle stars are not just captivating creatures but also vital components of the ocean's biodiversity. Their unique adaptations and ecological roles make them an important subject of study in marine biology and conservation efforts.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-023-03402-x">Behavioral </a><a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00265-023-03402-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Sociobiology</a>.



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Brittle stars have no brain but still manage to learn

In the quest to understand intelligence and learning, humans have...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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