Western Chimpanzee mum and daughter

Young chimpanzees in a West African forest form either trusting or independent ties with their mothers, but they do not display the confused, “disorganized” attachment style seen in many human children. 



That pattern, common among orphaned chimps raised by people, seems to be absent when animals grow up under natural survival pressures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-attachment-styles"><a></a>A tale of two attachment styles</h2>



Field observers followed mother-infant pairs in Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, for four years. They noted the parenting style of the chimpanzees. In particular, the experts studied how youngsters reacted when separated from or reunited with their mothers, and how boldly they explored.



Most fell into one of two familiar human categories. Some were secure: they checked in with their mothers during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stress</a>, then ranged out with confidence.



Others showed insecure-avoidant attachment: they coped alone and rarely sought comfort. No infant behaved in the erratic, approach-and-retreat fashion that defines disorganized <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-way-you-send-emojis-shows-your-attachment-style/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">attachment</a>.



According to attachment theory, secure bonds foster resilience, while insecure or disorganized ties can predict later anxiety or social trouble. In people, about one child in four shows the disorganized style.



Among captive, human-reared chimp orphans the rate soars to three out of five. The absence of that pattern in nature raises a striking possibility: the style may be maladaptive outside of sheltered environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parenting-style-of-wild-chimpanzees">Parenting style of wild chimpanzees </h2>



Disorganized attachment often follows trauma, fear, or unpredictable care. In forest life, any infant who hesitates at danger may expose itself to leopards, rival males, or territorial disputes. 



“In the wild, we found no evidence of disorganized attachment patterns among chimpanzees, which supports the hypothesis that this type of attachment may not be an adaptive survival strategy in the face of environmental constraints,” said first author Eléonore Rolland, a scientist at the <a href="http://www.isc.cnrs.fr/index.rvt" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Cognitive Sciences Marc Jeannerod</a>.



If the response ever arises, its bearers probably fail to thrive or reproduce, erasing the trait from the visible population.



Captive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-share-alcoholic-fruit-to-increase-social-bonding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chimpanzees</a>, by contrast, may live inside small enclosures, face no predators and rely on rotating human keepers. That unstable social mix can trigger the conflicted behaviors catalogued in laboratory tests. 



A parallel may exist for modern children who experience institutional care, high caregiver turnover, or chronic stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-lessons-for-parenting">Chimpanzee lessons for parenting</h2>



A deeper look at the findings nudges parents and policymakers to ask hard questions. “Our results deepen our understanding of chimpanzees' social development and show that humans and chimpanzees are not so different after all,” Rolland said.



“But they also make us think: have some modern human institutions or caregiving practices moved away from what is best for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infant development</a>?”



Secure attachment in the forest emerged through steady proximity, gentle reassurance, and the freedom to explore within sight of the mother. Avoidant youngsters still stayed near but preferred self-soothing. Both strategies, the authors argue, work under natural constraints.



The third style appears only when normal mammalian care breaks down. If children in wealthy societies show that style at notable rates, the disruption may lie not in genetics but in caregiving routines: overstretched parents, frequent moves, rushed schedules, devices replacing touch.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-and-human-attachment">Chimpanzee and human attachment</h2>



“By identifying attachment patterns in wild chimpanzees, we provide important insights into the roots of human social behavior,” said senior author Roman Wittig from the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>.



The work links psychology with field primatology and anthropology, tracing how early bonds shape adult society across species.



“Our findings suggest that shared attachment strategies in primates may reflect a common evolutionary heritage,” said co-author Catherine Crockford, a scientist at the same institute.



“The high prevalence of disorganized attachment in humans and captive orphan chimpanzees, in contrast to wild chimpanzees, also supports the idea that the rearing environment plays an important role in shaping attachment types.”



That insight underlines a long-standing debate. Are certain emotional disorders products of modern life rather than ancient biology? If wild primates, who share 98 percent of human DNA, avoid a pattern linked to later mood and relationship problems, then context - not species - may tip the scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-and-child-welfare">Conservation and child welfare</h2>



Protecting chimpanzee habitats does more than save a charismatic animal; it preserves the social conditions that allow normal attachment to flourish. 



Orphan rescue centers might adjust caregiving protocols to reduce inconsistency and replicate maternal security rather than relying on multiple human feeders.



In the human realm, the research supports policies that stabilize early care: parental leave, low child-to-caregiver ratios, trauma-informed schooling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzee-parenting-next-steps">Chimpanzee parenting: Next steps</h2>



The Taï study followed infants until weaning, around age four to five. Future projects could test whether early attachment style predicts later rank, alliance skills, or parenting success.



Researchers also plan to compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bonobos</a>, whose matriarchal societies differ from chimpanzees, and to track hormone levels that might signal stress during separations. 



At the same time, developmental psychologists may revisit human data from cultures with extended family caregiving or from hunter-gatherer groups that mirror ancestral conditions.



If disorganized attachment drops in those settings, it would strengthen the case that modern disruptions - not innate tendencies - fuel the pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trust-risk-and-survival">Trust, risk, and survival</h2>



In the forest canopy, a mother chimp pauses, her infant scrambling over branches before returning to her side. The scene looks simple, yet it echoes deep principles about trust, risk and survival.



By watching our closest relatives, scientists remind us that the first ties we form still guide us decades later - and that nurturing those ties may be one of the most ancient, and vital, tasks any society undertakes.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02176-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behavior</a>.



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What wild chimpanzees can teach us about parenting

Young chimpanzees in a West African forest form either trusting or independent ties with their mothers, but they do not display the confused, “disorganized” attachment style seen in many human children. That pattern, common among orphaned chimps raised by people, seems to be absent when animals grow up under natural survival pressures. A tale of two attachment styles Field observers followed mother-infant pairs in Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire, for four years. They noted the parenting style of the chimpanzees. In particular, the experts studied how youngsters...

Since light limits the productivity of algae, few nutrients reach the depths of the permanently ice-covered Arctic Ocean. However, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.mpi-bremen.de/en/Home.html">Max Plank Institute for Marine Microbiology</a> has recently discovered surprisingly rich and densely populated ecosystems on the peaks of extinct underwater volcanoes in the Arctic, consisting of giant sponge gardens.



“Thriving on top of extinct volcanic seamounts of the Langseth Ridge we found massive sponge gardens, but did not know what they were feeding on,” said the chief scientist of the expedition Antje Boetius, an expert in Deep-Sea Ecology and Technology at the Max Planck Institute.



By analyzing samples collected during the expedition, the scientists discovered that the sponge gardens adapted to their nutrient-poor environment by accommodating complex communities of microorganisms in symbiotic relationships, and forming so-called “sponge holobionts.” These microbial symbionts contribute to the health and nutrition of the sponges by producing antibiotics, transferring nutrients, and disposing of excretions.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, thousands of years ago, substances seeping from the interior of the seabed were supporting a rich ecosystem, home to a large diversity of animals. When they died, their remnants remained, forming the food base of the current sponge population.



“Our analysis revealed that the sponges have microbial symbionts that are able to use old organic matter. This allows them to feed on the remnants of former, now extinct inhabitants of the seamounts, such as the tubes of worms composed of protein and chitin and other trapped detritus,” explained study first author Teresa Morganti, a marine scientist at the Max Planck Institute.&nbsp;



In addition, the sponges seem to act as ecosystem engineers, producing spicules that form a mat on which they crawl, and which traps particles and biogenic materials. The symbiotic microbes can digest refractory particulate and dissolved organic matter and use it as a carbon and nitrogen source. Thus, with the help of their symbionts, the sponges can tap into this detrital matter, utilizing it as a food source.



Since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ecosystems-are-endangered-by-global-warming/">Arctic</a> is one of the most affected regions by climate change, these sponge communities are in need of immediate protection. 



“With sea-ice cover rapidly declining and the ocean environment changing, a better knowledge of hotspot ecosystems is essential for protecting and managing the unique diversity of these Arctic seas under pressure,” concluded Professor Boetius.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-28129-7">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Giant sponge gardens found deep in the Arctic Ocean

Since light limits the productivity of algae, few nutrients reach...

Often when the ideas of species survival and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-finds-two-distinct-ways-that-people-cope-with-climate-change/">climate change</a> come to mind, the image of a polar bear on a melting iceberg is conjured. A new study looks not at warmer weather, but at changing rainfall patterns associated with climate change, to predict the fate of the Miami blue butterfly (Cyclargus thomasi bethunebakeri). 



The Miami blue butterfly is a federally endangered species that can be found exclusively in a small habitat in southern Florida. Like many tropical or subtropical insect species, the Miami blue butterfly goes through a period of diapause in which larvae pause in their development during a dry season. 



The beginning of the rainy season causes the end of diapause. Longer dry seasons mean that less butterflies will reach maturity and reproduce compared to the outcome of a short dry season.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“We found that shifting rainfall patterns can determine whether the Miami blue butterfly populations grow or shrink, even without any other environmental variables changing,” said study lead author Erica Henry, a postdoc in Applied Ecology at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">NC State</a>.



“This is not only concerning for this rare butterfly, but for all insects in precipitation-driven systems. Both the tropics and rainfall patterns have been largely overlooked in the conversation about climate change and animal lifecycles.”



Many insects have life stages triggered by precipitation, and it is uncertain how a changing climate will impact each of them. Some parts of the planet are predicted to become drier, while other regions will become wetter.&nbsp;



In places like southern Florida, it’s been difficult to predict how rainfall will change. Due to this uncertainty, the scientists have modeled 20 different climate scenarios to see how each would impact the Miami blue butterfly. In most scenarios with longer diapause periods, these butterfly populations dropped.&nbsp;



“The tropics, and more specifically that fuzzy area we call the sub-tropics, covers an extremely diverse set of ecosystems that are much more sensitive to projected shifts in precipitation than temperature,” said study co-author Adam Terando, a U.S. Geological Survey Research Ecologist and adjunct professor in the Department of Applied Ecology at NC State.&nbsp;



“The problem is, there’s also a lot more uncertainty about those precipitation changes as the planet warms. We wanted to bring attention to these rainy-season ecosystems and demonstrate how linking climate science with ecology can give us new insights into what to expect in the future.”



This research is important in being one of the first studies to focus on how changing rainfall patterns impact tropical insects. It’s a critical step in protecting these and other beautiful creatures.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/climate-change-ecology">Climate Change Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rainfall patterns will decide if Miami blue butterflies can survive

Often when the ideas of species survival and climate change...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a>, experts have investigated a deadly fungal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-are-highly-resistant-to-sars-cov-2-infection/">infection</a> called chytridiomycosis that has been killing amphibians all over the world for decades. The research represents the most comprehensive study to date of the devastating amphibian disease in the Mediterranean region of Baja California.&nbsp;



Amphibians are already severely threatened by invasive species, habitat loss, climate change and pollution. In an effort to safeguard these endangered animals, the scientists have analyzed many aspects of chytridiomycosis, including its origin, genetics, and impact. The findings indicate that the disease is more prevalent on the Baja peninsula than in similar areas of Southern California.



“Contrary to what we had expected, what’s going on in Baja California is very different than what’s going on with chytrid fungus in Southern California, where the species are pretty much the same, and the environment is very similar," said study lead author Andrea Adams.



Chytrids are a large group of soil-dwelling fungi that are typically harmless. Two species of chytrids, however, have evolved to infect the skin of amphibians. In animals with severe infections, the skin responds by thickening. This can be very detrimental because frogs not only "drink through their skin,” but also exchange salts and minerals this way. For many amphibians, thicker skin can be deadly.&nbsp;



The researchers set out to investigate the environmental and biological factors that influence chytrid infection in Baja California, particularly at different elevations.&nbsp;



“We knew chytrid was here, but we didn’t know how it was affecting different species or which variables mattered most,” said study co-author Anny Peralta-García, director of Conservación de Fauna del Noroeste, a nonprofit organization dedicated to research and conservation in Baja California.



“We found that when it comes to chytrid infection, the most important things are where you live and who you are,” said Adams. The team found that chytrid infections were more common and more intense at higher elevations. This is because the environment is cooler and holds more moisture - conditions that are just right for the fungus to thrive.



According to the experts, some species are also more susceptible to the infection than others. For example, the California red-legged frog was among the most infected.



While the researchers found that 68 percent of animals they surveyed in Baja California had the fungus, only 15 percent of amphibians were infected in Southern California. “In Baja California, we found that 99 percent of the California red-legged frogs at the highest-elevation site were infected,” said Adams.



The disease was not only was not only more prevalent in Baja - the infected animals also carried a higher pathogen load. The chytrid fungus has evolved over time, and more virulent or infectious strains could emerge in different locations.



“Right now, our main focus is trying to increase populations of California red-legged frogs in Baja California and Southern California,” said Peralta-García.



“Anny and I are actually doing very similar things,” said Adams. “We are both working to find the best ways to bring these frogs back to places they’ve disappeared from, and we learn a lot from each other.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/global-ecology-and-conservation">Global Ecology and Conservation</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fungal disease is wiping out amphibians in Baja California

In a new study from UC Santa Barbara, experts have...

Biologist and ethologists have long noticed that some nonhuman animals, such as bears, elephants, or bees have the capacity to self-medicate. However, until recently, no evidence has emerged that animals are also able and willing to assist other suffering members of their species.&nbsp;



In November 2019 though,&nbsp;Alessandra Mascaro, a volunteer at the&nbsp;<a href="https://en.ozouga.org/">Ozouga Chimpanzee Project</a> - a research organization investigating chimpanzee behavior in Gabon, Central Africa - observed a female chimpanzee inspecting a wound on the foot of her adolescent son. Next, the mother was seen catching an insect out of the air, putting it in her mouth, and then applying it onto her son’s wound.



After this extraordinary event, which Mascaro managed to capture on video, the Ozouga team started to monitor the chimpanzees for such wound-tending behavior. Over the next 15 months, they documented 76 more cases.



According to the researchers, these acts of applying insects to others’ wounds are clear examples of prosocial behavior, in which the chimpanzees act in the best interest of others rather than just themselves. 



“This is, for me, especially breathtaking because so many people doubt prosocial abilities in other animals,” said study co-author Simone Pika, a cognitive biologist at the <a href="https://www.uni-osnabrueck.de/en/home/">Osnabrück University</a> in Germany. “Suddenly we have a species where we really see individuals caring for others.”



Further research is needed to clarify which types of insects the chimpanzees use in order to tend one another’s wounds, and what therapeutic properties these insects have. 



“Humans use many species of insect as remedies against sickness - there have been studies showing that insects can have antibiotic, antiviral, and anthelmintic functions,” said Dr. Pika. One theory, which still needs to be tested, is that some of the insects used by chimpanzees may also provide pain relief.



“Studying great apes in their natural environments is crucial to shed light on our own cognitive evolution,” said study senior author Tobias Deschner, a primatologist at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology</a>. “We need to still put much more effort into studying and protecting them and also protecting their natural habitats.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2021.12.045">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Chimpanzees use insects to tend to each other’s wounds

Biologist and ethologists have long noticed that some nonhuman animals,...

Known locally as kuluva, the Fijian Dillenia biflora trees have long been a mystery to scientists aiming to understand their position in the evolutionary tree of flowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-that-breathe-underwater-could-improve-crop-resilience/">plants</a> and the way in which they were pollinated. Until recently, the Dilleniaceae&nbsp;plant family was believed to offer no nectar rewards and be pollinated mainly by bees. However, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a> (UniSA) has found that blossom bats (Notopteris macdonaldi) play a fundamental role in the pollination of these plants.



“We discovered that the kuluva flowers never opened on their own, and instead were being pulled off by blossom bats that were after the sugar-rich nectar inside,” said study lead author Sophie Petit, an expert in Pollination Ecology at UniSA.&nbsp;



“The bat lands on a whorl of leaves, removes the corolla, and licks the nectar, covering its nose with pollen in the process. The pollen on the bat is then transported to other flowers of the same species, which are pollinated and produce fruits containing seeds.”



Since kuluva flowers are mature and receptive for one night only during their life cycle, they just have one chance of being pollinated. By removing their corollas - which would otherwise remain forever closed&nbsp;– blossom bats are fundamental for their reproduction.&nbsp;



These findings highlight the need to understand the co-dependence of different species. In this particular case, without blossom bats, some Dillenia trees may not survive - while without these trees, some endangered bat species may become extinct.



“Our discovery has the potential to facilitate the conservation of several threatened tree and bat species across countries,” said Professor Petit. 



“In Fiji, blossom bats are a threatened species. Given that 70 percent of the bats’ dietary samples contained kuluva, it’s obvious that the bats rely heavily on this tree for food. Considering the threatened status of several Dillenia species in different countries, their potential association with bats needs urgent attention, particularly since so many bat species are also threatened.”



“We are currently establishing collaborations in other parts of the Dillenia range. Urgent conservation action is needed, and many nocturnal discoveries await. It’s time for botanists and ecologists to stay up late!” 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0262985">PLoS One</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bats play an active role in plant pollination

Known locally as kuluva, the Fijian Dillenia biflora trees have...

New research led by <a href="https://www.ugent.be/en">Ghent University</a> has found that when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-have-provided-support-during-the-pandemic/">dogs</a> are walked in nature, they contribute a substantial amount of nutrients to the environment through their feces and urine. This has a negative impact on local biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.



The researchers examined four nature reserves around the city of Ghent, Belgium. They estimate that each year, dog feces and urine add an average of 11kg of nitrogen and 5kg of phosphorous per hectare. By comparison, the total levels of nitrogen added across most of Europe through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-fuels-must-be-reduced-immediately-and-drastically/">fossil fuel</a> emissions and agriculture ranges from 5 to 25kg per hectare.&nbsp;



While the addition of nutrients to natural reserves may sound beneficial since it might lead to increased plant growth, this mostly occurs for a very limited number of nutrient-demanding plant species which could then outcompete a large variety of other plants, thus reducing biodiversity.



“In many nature reserves, the management is specifically directed towards lowering soil nutrient levels to enhance plant and animal biodiversity. This can be done through methods like mowing and hay removal. Our findings suggest that the currently neglected inputs of dogs in nature reserves could delay restoration goals,” said study lead author Pieter de Frenne, an expert in Global Change Ecology at Ghent University.



“We were surprised by how high nutrient inputs from dogs could be. Atmospheric nitrogen inputs from agriculture, industry and traffic rightfully receive a lot of policy attention, but dogs are entirely neglected in this respect."



According to Professor De Frenne and his colleagues, keeping dogs on leashes could reduce the fertilization rates in the largest part of the reserves but would in fact increase them in the small areas around paths, leading to inputs as high as 175kg of nitrogen and 73kg of phosphorous per hectare.&nbsp;



However, if the owners picked their dogs’ feces, fertilization levels could be reduced by 56 percent in the case of nitrogen and 97 percent for phosphorous.&nbsp;



These results highlight the need for managers and policy makers to take into consideration currently neglected nutrient inputs by dogs in their management plans and restoration goals, and convince dog owners to collect their animals’ feces on a regular basis in order to mitigate their negative impact on biodiversity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.12128">Ecological Solutions and Evidence</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dog feces can harm the environment and disrupt ecosystems

New research led by Ghent University has found that when...

In any ecosystem, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predators-help-prevent-biodiversity-loss/">predators</a> have the effect of reducing the numbers of prey by killing them for food. On the other hand, prey are fine-tuned to detect, avoid and escape predators, but this comes with costs; it takes time, effort and energy to avoid being a predator’s next meal. As a result, there is a delicate and complex balance between the populations of predator and prey species in an ecosystem.&nbsp;



Ecologists are familiar with counting the numbers of prey caught and killed by predators as a way of determining the impact of the predators on the prey population. However, a new study by scientists from the University of Western Ontario shows that the fear of predators on its own can also cause populations of prey to decrease, and this negative impact has never before been measured.



Professor&nbsp;<a href="https://publish.uwo.ca/~lzanette/">Liana Zanette</a>, her PhD student Marek Allen, and Michael Clinchy, all from Western University’s Department of Biology,&nbsp;monitored the population of free-living, wild song sparrows over three seasons and found that the fear of being attacked by a predator can halve the population of sparrows in five years or less. Avoidance of predation includes being cautious and vigilant, which can so impair parental ability to feed and care for offspring that fewer than half as many young reach adulthood.



“These results have critically important implications for conservation, wildlife management and public policy” explains Zanette, a renowned wildlife ecologist. “The total ecosystem benefits gained from conserving or rewilding native predators, and the full devastation wrought by introduced predators, must all now be re-evaluated.”



Zanette and her colleagues tested the impact of fear itself on the population growth rate of song sparrows by playing recordings of predator and non-predator vocalizations during three annual breeding seasons. They monitored the effects of these manipulations on song sparrow births and survival throughout each year, as well as collecting evidence indicating impacts on population growth beyond the parental generation.&nbsp;



Their findings, published today in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a> (PNAS), showed the significant impact that fear can have on population growth. In the presence of predator vocalizations, sparrows spent time watching out for predators, which prevented them from finding sufficient food for themselves and their young. This resulted in fewer young being born and fewer surviving each developmental stage on the way to adulthood, when compared with the data collected from parent sparrows that heard non-predator vocalizations.



The impact of fear even extended to subsequent generations, the study found. Some offspring that did reach adulthood showed evidence of impaired brain development that would be likely to decrease their chances of survival as adults. This represents a transgenerational impact of predation that could result in reduced population growth over several generations.&nbsp;



The study conclusively demonstrates that ecologists should not only focus on the number of prey killed by predators when assessing the impact of predators on prey populations. Although this is the conventional approach to studying predator-prey relationships, failing to consider the effects of fear itself could lead to significant underestimations of the total impact that predators have on prey population sizes. This could have disastrous consequences when reintroducing predators into wild areas from which they have been absent.



“Fear effects on prey population growth rates are likely the norm in birds and mammals because parental care is a fundamental characteristic of most birds and all mammals, and fear-induced reductions in parental investment and care are commonplace,” contends Zanette.&nbsp; “Having now demonstrated that fear itself can contribute significantly to the total impact predators have on prey populations, we expect this will be found to be true in most ecosystems.”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fear of predators can damage prey as much as predation itself

In any ecosystem, predators have the effect of reducing the...

A surprising new study from <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside</a> has revealed that we still don't know what the body of Megalodon actually looked like. Despite its notoriety as one of the largest and most fearsome <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/leopard-seals-feed-on-sharks-in-new-zealand/">sharks</a> that ever lived, it turns out that much about Megalodon's appearance remains a mystery.



“The study may appear to be a step backward in science, but the continued mystery makes paleontology, the study of prehistoric life, a fascinating and exciting scientific field,” said Professor Kenshu Shimada of DePaul University.&nbsp;



Otodus megalodon is one of the most infamous ocean predators in history, mainly because of its enormous size. Based on fossilized teeth and vertebrae, scientists believe that the ancient sharks reached lengths of up to 65 feet. They existed on Earth roughly 23 to 3.6 million years ago.



“The cartilage in shark bodies doesn’t preserve well, so there are currently no scientific means to support or refute previous studies on O. megalodon body forms,” said study lead author Phillip Sternes.



With a lack of evidence available, scientists have traditionally modeled Megalodon bodies based on those of modern great white sharks. Great whites are partially warm blooded, and it is believed that Megalodons were as well.&nbsp;



Previously, it was assumed that having some warm blood is an advantage because it could expand sharks’ swimming range, since this would make them less dependent on water temperature. However, it is now believed that partial warm-bloodedness is an advantage because it can increase swimming speed.



“Great whites are among the fastest swimming sharks, so Megalodons were likely also big, fast sharks you would not want to run into in the open ocean,” said Sternes.&nbsp;



The researchers set out to investigate whether a two-dimensional geometric shape analysis could actually distinguish between the body forms of modern warm-blooded species and cold-blooded species within the shark order called Lamniformes, which also includes Otodus megalodon. The results of the study suggest that, when using a two-dimensional analysis, there is no relationship between thermophysiology and body form in Lamniformes.. 



“Although it is still possible that O. megalodon could have resembled the modern great white shark or lamnids, our results suggest that the two-dimensional approach does not necessarily decisively allow the body form reconstruction for O. megalodon,” said study co-author Jake Wood.



“Warm bloodedness does not make you a differently shaped shark,” said Sternes. “I encourage others to explore ideas about its body shape, and to search for the ultimate treasure of a preserved Megalodon fossil. Meanwhile, this result clears up some confusion about previous findings and opens the door to other ideas once again.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This new study shows that there are currently no scientific means to support or refute the accuracy of any of the previously published body forms of O. megalodon."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/toc/ghbi20/current">Historical Biology</a>.



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Megalodon's true appearance remains a mystery

A surprising new study from UC Riverside has revealed that...

Ocean life can suffer from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-banana-disease-has-arrived-in-southeast-asia/">epidemics</a> too. From 2013 to 2016, the "wasting syndrome epidemic" is believed to have been largest marine wildlife disease event in history. This event largely affected sea stars, specifically 20 species ranging from Baja California to the Gulf of Alaska. 



A species that is generally known as the purple sea star or purple ochre, Pisaster ochraceus, is of particular interest to scientists. Purple ochre is considered a keystone species, which means that other species in an ecosystem heavily depend on the group for survival. During the epidemic, populations of the purple sea star were hit extremely hard, with estimated declines of 50 to 94 percent.



To understand the long term effects of such an impactful epidemic, researchers at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/">Oregon State University</a> assessed genomic differences between healthy and infected ochre. The experts found that healthy-looking ochre sea stars have minimal genetic difference from those with symptoms of sea star wasting syndrome. 



"Our reasoning was that a sick sea star and healthy sea star nearby were likely exposed to similar conditions, so maybe the ones that looked healthy had some type of genetic predisposition toward resistance or tolerance to sea star wasting syndrome," said Andrea Burton, who led the study. "It was a unique chance to compare apparently normal and wasting individuals from the same time and place during the sea star wasting syndrome epidemic."



The researchers looked at visual symptoms of wasting syndrome, such as twisting or missing arms, loss of grip on rocks, and even "melting." For the purposes of the study, animals with none of those symptoms were considered healthy.



Despite these observable symptoms, the experts found that genomic variation between normal-looking and wasting sea stars was very low. This is a concerning outcome when trying to understand what makes some sea stars immune, and others susceptible to disease. 



Without these clear identifiable distinctions, the researchers said they have even more concerns regarding how this species of sea star will fare in future outbreaks.



Sadly, we can expect more frequent ocean epidemics. "A changing climate is causing the ocean to warm and those rising sea water temperatures are putting more and more stress on marine ecosystems," said Burton. "As a result of that stress, marine diseases have become more prevalent over the last few decades.”



On the bright side, the experts successfully identified a list of genomic regions with signs of disease resistance. This could be key in determining how a sea star will respond to a future wasting syndrome outbreak, and may present promising opportunities to enhance species resilience.



"Assessing the potential for natural population resilience is a huge piece of predicting the long-term prospects for affected species and all of the species and communities they influence," said Burton.&nbsp;



"Some marine species are suitable for selective breeding but many others are not, so examining genomic variation in natural populations can help answer the question of whether a species has the genetic makeup to withstand diseases on its own."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/1365294x">Molecular Ecology</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why are some sea stars more susceptible to disease?

Ocean life can suffer from epidemics too. From 2013 to...

Chromosomes are the physical carriers of genetic information in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/corn-plants-use-jumping-genes-to-adapt-to-their-environment/">genes</a>, which are found lined up along each chromosome. Although chromosomes are crucial in the functioning of complex life, the way in which they initially formed in the earliest cells and the details of their changes over evolutionary time have not been studied.



More than 20 years after the start of the Human Genome Project, however, scientists now have access to technologies that can reveal the complete genetic sequence of entire chromosomes and this enables them to conduct analyses of how chromosomes have changed.



A recent study led by&nbsp;<a href="http://mcb.berkeley.edu/faculty/all/rokhsard">Daniel Rokhsar</a>, a professor of biological sciences at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>, has tracked changes in chromosomes in order to make sense of the ways in which genes are arranged on the chromosomes of different groups of animals.&nbsp;



Although it has long been known that certain genes stick together – they always occur next to each other on a chromosome – these clumps of genes appear on different chromosomes and in various chromosomal locations in different types of animals. The question is: how did they get there?



In order to follow the evolution of chromosomes in early groups of animals, Rokhsar and colleagues from the University of Vienna and UC Berkeley identified 29 groups of linked genes that they termed ancestral linkage groups, or elements, that were present in most animal lineages. These elements have been remarkably conserved in all animal groups over the past 600 million years of evolutionary history, indicating a strong selective pressure to keep them from changing.&nbsp;



Using the groups of linked genes as markers, the researchers worked out how the chromosomes changed in early animals, including bilaterians (animals with bilateral symmetry), cnidarians (such as jellyfish and hydras), and sponges. They found that, while the chromosomal elements remained constant in terms of which genes they contained, they got shuffled around between chromosomes. Each element consisted of the same linked genes, but their location on the chromosomes could change. This means that geneticists can describe the chromosomes of a species by designating which elements are in which chromosomes.



"So now, for example, we can break down each human chromosome into its elements using algebraic notation. Then we deduce what happened to these primordial elements in different species and genera such as corals, mollusks, birds and many others, and what new chromosomes these elements had assembled into," explains molecular biologist Oleg Simakov from the University of Vienna.



Elements move to a new chromosome by means of genetic mistakes during cell division, such as chromosome breakages, translocations, insertions and fusions. The researchers also found that, once an element had changed location to a different chromosome, this new arrangement was passed on to all subsequent descendants in that animal lineage. Every descendent species would inherit the new arrangement. This implies that the arrangement of chromosomal elements can be used as a map of the evolutionary relationships between species.&nbsp;



"Such events are irreversible in evolution and every group of animals - from corals to humans - has such unique combinations that will forever distinguish the descendants of these groups and set these groups apart from others," Simakov said.&nbsp;



Another consequence of the findings of this study is that researchers can now predict the arrangement of elements on the chromosomes of species for which genome sequencing has yet to be conducted.&nbsp;



“One of my favorite aspects of our study is that we make predictions about what to expect in genomes that are yet to be sequenced,” Rokhsar wrote in an email to&nbsp;Quanta. For example, his team discovered that diverse invertebrates classified as spiralians all share four specific element patterns that imply the fusion of chromosomes has occurred in their common ancestor. “It follows that ALL spiralians should show these [same] patterns,” Rokhsar wrote.&nbsp;



He added, “You don’t get to make those kinds of grand pronouncements about evolutionary history very often.”



The findings of the study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>, also show that certain single-celled animals contain some of the 29 highly conserved elements in their genomes. These organisms are the closest relatives of multicellular animals and this discovery sheds light on how chromosomes were formed in the very earliest ancestors of current animal lineages. “These ancient linkage units provide a framework for understanding gene and genome evolution in animals,” the scientists noted in their paper.



The reasons why ancestral linked genes have been so highly conserved over time, and the evolutionary significance of moving elements to new chromosomal positions have yet to be investigated.&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animal chromosomes have conserved specific elements for 600 million years

Chromosomes are the physical carriers of genetic information in the...

Mushrooms in the Amanita genus such as A. muscaria and A. pantherina have long been consumed by humans for their interesting psychedelic effects. Hallucinogenic symptoms from these mushrooms’ poison can distort the size of objects, as described in Lewis Carol’s Alice in Wonderland as well as cause other hallucinations, deliria, seizures and rarely death. There’s also a history of people consuming them as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-can-work-as-well-as-medication-to-lower-cholesterol/">food</a> but after a careful process of detoxifying them first.&nbsp;&nbsp;



A common hypothesis is that poisons contained in the mushrooms have evolved to dissuade consumption by animals. An observation of Japanese squirrels (Sciurus lis) calls into question this idea, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/index.html">Kobe University</a>.



Professor SUETSUGU Kenji and independent photographer GOMI Koichi watched an individual squirrel feeding on Amanita mushrooms several times over a few days in Nagano prefecture, Japan. The team concluded that the squirrel almost certainly evolved a way to safely eat the mushrooms.&nbsp;



From these observations, a new theory emerged - it’s not always detrimental to a mushroom to be eaten. Much like eating the fruits of plants, sometimes an animal can actually benefit a mushroom.&nbsp;



If the mushroom’s spores can survive the digestive tract, it is feasible that a squirrel could be dispersing the mushroom’s spores. In this regard, perhaps the “poison” could be acting to deter some animals, for instance those whose digestive tract would destroy the spores. Other animals that may have co-evolved with the mushroom would be rewarded for their dispersal with a tasty dinner.



Now professor Suetsugo wishes to carry the research further and investigate whether the squirrels are truly dispersing the Amanita spores or not. To do this, the scientists will check squirrel excrement for living spores.&nbsp;



Understanding the relationship between these mushrooms and squirrels could unlock more information on forest ecology in general. Amanita mushrooms form important mutualistic relationships with different trees, helping to maintain forest ecosystems.&nbsp;



"Perhaps Amanita mushrooms facilitate mutualisms with toxin-resistant squirrels, which can disperse viable spores, while deterring toxin-susceptible enemies, which could negatively impact spore survival. If so, potential dispersal of fungal spores by squirrels is analogous to a seed dispersal mutualism, in which a plant offers a reward to an animal as a seed disperser," wrote the study authors.



"How do squirrels safely eat Amanita mushrooms? What role do squirrels play in Amanita spore dispersal? How would squirrel-assisted spore dispersal contribute to the establishment of ectomycorrhizal relationships within these ecosystems? These questions warrant further investigation."



The research is published the journal <a href="https://www.esa.org/frontiers-in-ecology-and-the-environment/">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;



Image Credit: Koichi Gomi



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Japanese squirrels can eat “poisonous” mushrooms

Mushrooms in the Amanita genus such as A. muscaria and...

New research predicts that 70 percent of the world’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-is-the-new-normal-for-the-ocean/">oceans</a> could be choking from a lack of oxygen caused by climate change. The new model that the research is based on found that mid-level oceans, which support many global fisheries, are already losing oxygen at an unusual rate. The study also shows that a critical threshold of oxygen loss was passed in 2021.&nbsp;



The researchers found that midwater ocean areas, with depths between 200 to 1,000 meters, are especially vulnerable to deoxygenation. This is because these depths are not replenished by oxygen from the atmosphere or photosynthesis, and decomposition of algae happens here.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This zone is actually very important to us because a lot of commercial fish live in this zone,” said study lead author Yuntao Zhou, an oceanographer at Shanghai Jiao Tong University. “Deoxygenation affects other marine resources as well, but fisheries (are) maybe most related to our daily life.”



The research just further highlights the vulnerability of our world’s oceans and the continuing threat of climate change. Not only are the oceans important as a source of fish consumed as food, but they also play a role in Earth’s atmosphere and water supply as well.&nbsp;



“Humanity is currently changing the metabolic state of the largest ecosystem on the planet, with really unknown consequences for marine ecosystems. That may manifest in significant impacts on the ocean’s ability to sustain important fisheries," said Matthew Long, an oceanographer at NCAR who was not involved in the study.&nbsp;



The researchers also discovered that waters closer to the poles are more vulnerable to deoxygenation but are uncertain as to why.&nbsp;



“The oxygen minimum zones actually are spreading into high latitude areas, both to the north and the south. That’s something we need to pay more attention to," said Zhou.&nbsp;"Even if global warming were to reverse, allowing concentrations of dissolved oxygen to increase, whether dissolved oxygen would return to pre-industrial levels remains unknown.”



The study is published by the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a> in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.



---By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The ocean is being suffocated by a lack of oxygen

New research predicts that 70 percent of the world’s oceans...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes a new map of Mars that is providing insight into the planet’s watery past. The map also reveals where future missions could safely land on Mars.&nbsp;



The map has been created over the last decade using observations of water-rich rocks and mineral deposits. The images were captured by ESA’s Mars Express and NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.



"A big surprise is the prevalence of these minerals, with the map revealing hundreds of thousands of water-affected locations in the oldest parts of the planet," says ESA. "The new data will help answer exciting questions about Mars’ climate history, whether water was globally persistent or confined to short, intense episodes, and whether the conditions were ever suitable for life."



"Specifically, the map shows the locations and abundances of aqueous minerals. These are from rocks that have been chemically altered by the action of water in the past, and have typically been transformed into clays and salts."



According to John Carter of the Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), our collective understanding of Mars has been oversimplified. He explained that planetary scientists have tended to think that only a few types of clay minerals on Mars were created during its wet period, then as the water gradually dried up, salts were produced across the planet.



The new map shows that the composition of Mars is much more complicated than what we thought. For example, while many salts formed after Martian clays, there are some salts that are presumed to be older than some of the clays.&nbsp;



“The evolution from lots of water to no water is not as clear cut as we thought, the water didn’t just stop overnight. We see a huge diversity of geological contexts, so that no one process or simple timeline can explain the evolution of the mineralogy of Mars. That’s the first result of our study. The second is that if you exclude life processes on Earth, Mars exhibits a diversity of mineralogy in geological settings just as Earth does,” said Carter.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The history of Mars is much more complex than we thought

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.stowers.org/">Stowers Institute for Medical Research</a> describes how cavefish adapted to a sedentary lifestyle over tens of thousands of years. 



The experts found that the muscle metabolism of cavefish has been genetically reprogrammed over time. As a result, the animals have experienced major changes in their morphology and behavior. Despite these changes, however, the cavefish remain healthy and fit.



The research may provide new clues about the evolutionary consequences of prolonged physical inactivity in humans.&nbsp;



“It’s no surprise that people are moving less and less as technology has advanced,” said Rohner. “With cavefish, we have a unique system where we can study what might happen if people remained couch potatoes over very, very long periods of time.”



Video Credit: Stowers Institute for Medical Research



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Cavefish are healthy despite their sedentary lifestyle

[sendtonews key="vpljfR2VBX-2560867-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> some of the most incredible waves in the world, as seen by Landsat satellites.



"With more than 370,000 miles of coastline on Earth, there are plenty of places where epic waves build up, curl over, and hurtle toward the shore.- much to the thrill of surfers," says NASA. "There are some places where these waves are so magnificent that they can be seen from space."



"With the broad perspective of satellites, we can see how these iconic waves develop into the world’s tallest, longest, fastest, and heaviest."



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites capture the world's biggest and fastest waves

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